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The purpose of this prospective study was to evaluate transthoracic echocardiograms from clinically healthy large felids for the presence of valvular regurgitations (VR). Physiologic VR commonly occur in normal dogs and cats, but the percentage of large felids with VR has not been previously reported. During a 5-yr study period (2008-2013), 28 healthy animals were evaluated under general anesthesia: 16 cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus soemmeringuii) with a mean age of 1.5±0.8 yr (range 0.7-3.5 yr), 5 Amur leopards (Panthera pardus orientalis), 1 snow leopard (Uncia uncia), and 6 clouded leopards (Neofelis nebulosa). For this study, all the leopards were gathered in one so-called "leopards group" with a mean age of 2.8±3.4 yr (range 0.3-10.7 yr). All valves observed in each view were examined for evidence of regurgitant jets and turbulent blood flow using the color-flow Doppler mode. Valves were also examined for structural changes. Mitral valve and aortic cusp abnormalities were considered to be of congenital origin. Mitral valve lesions led to mitral insufficiency in all the felids. Aortic cusp abnormalities led to aortic regurgitation in 94% of the cheetahs and 67% of the leopards. Leopards showed a predominance of early systolic mitral regurgitations, whereas all the mitral regurgitation jets in cheetahs were holosystolic. Tricuspid regurgitation was found in 81% of the cheetahs and in 50% of the leopards, whereas pulmonic regurgitation was detected in 44% of the cheetahs and 33% of the leopards. Interestingly, none of these tricuspid and pulmonic regurgitations were associated with two-dimensional structural valve abnormalities, thus suggesting their physiologic origin, as described in humans, cats, and dogs. In conclusion, subclinical valvular diseases are common in apparently healthy leopards and cheetahs. Longitudinal follow-up of affected animals is therefore required to assess their clinical outcome.

Blood pressure measurement reveals important insights into the health of conscious and anesthetized individuals. This is of particular interest in cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus), which in captivity are known to suffer from chronic diseases that may be associated with hypertension and which often require immobilization for transport or veterinary treatment. Invasive testing methods are considered the gold standard but are not practical in many settings. Consequently, it is important to evaluate the use of noninvasive methods in this species. Measurements for systolic, diastolic, and mean arterial pressure obtained using high-definition oscillometry (HDO) at the coccygeal artery were compared to simultaneous direct measurements obtained via catheterization of the femoral or dorsal pedal artery in eight anesthetized captive cheetahs during nine anesthetic events. Overall, HDO and direct measurements agreed most closely for mean arterial pressure, and the poorest agreement was observed for systolic pressure. There was a tendency for low diastolic pressures to be underestimated and for high diastolic pressures to be overestimated. Across all three parameters, HDO measurements from the tail overestimated directly measured pressures in the femoral artery and underestimated those in the dorsal pedal artery. HDO agreed most closely with directly measured dorsal pedal pressures. Mean arterial pressure showed the greatest precision (standard deviation of 10.2 mm Hg) and lowest bias (-1.2 mm Hg), with 75.9% of readings within 10 mm Hg of the direct dorsal pedal pressure. Agreement with systolic pressure was hindered by a high bias (-10.4 mm Hg), but if a correction factor of +10 mm Hg was applied to all systolic measurements, agreement was improved and 65.7% of readings were within 10 mm Hg of the direct pressure. When compared to criteria defined by the American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine for validation of blood pressure devices, results were favorable, but a limited sample size prevented formal validation.

Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were isolated from the whole blood of cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus ; n=3) and stimulated with lipopolysaccharides (LPS) to induce the production of proinflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 for establishment of cross-reactivity between these cheetah cytokines and feline-specific cytokine antibodies provided in commercially available Feline DuoSet® ELISA kits (RD Systems, Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota 55413, USA). This study found that feline-specific cytokine antibodies bind specifically to cheetah proinflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 from cell culture supernatants. The assays also revealed that cheetah PBMCs produce a measurable, cell concentration-dependent increase in proinflammatory cytokine production after LPS stimulation. To enable the use of these kits, which are designed for cell culture supernatants for analyzing cytokine concentrations in cheetah serum, percent recovery and parallelism of feline cytokine standards in cheetah serum were also evaluated. Cytokine concentrations in cheetah serum were approximated based on the use of domestic cat standards in the absence of cheetah standard material. In all cases (for cytokines TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6), percent recovery increased as the serum sample dilution increased, though percent recovery varied between cytokines at a given dilution factor. A 1:2 dilution of serum resulted in approximately 45, 82, and 7% recovery of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 standards, respectively. Adequate parallelism was observed across a large range of cytokine concentrations for TNF-α and IL-1β; however, a significant departure from parallelism was observed between the IL-6 standard and the serum samples (P=0.004). Therefore, based on our results, the Feline DuoSet ELISA (RD Systems, Inc.) kits are valid assays for the measurement of TNF-α and IL-1β in cheetah serum but should not be used for accurate measurement of IL-6.

A 13-yr-old male cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) presented for an acute history of lateral recumbency and anorexia. Upon physical examination under general anesthesia, severe icterus was noted. A serum biochemical profile confirmed markedly elevated total bilirubin and alanine transaminase. Based on ultrasound-guided liver aspirates and cytology, a presumptive diagnosis of large granular lymphocyte hepatic lymphoma was reached. Abdominal and thoracic radiographs did not assist in reaching an antemortem diagnosis. Postmortem examination and histopathology provided a definitive diagnosis of hepatic lymphoma with acute massive hepatocelluar necrosis and hemorrhage, as well as concurrent lesions of gastric ulcers, ulcerative and sclerosing enteritis, myocardial hypertrophy, and splenic myelolipomas. Immunohistochemistry of the liver yielded CD-3 positive and CD-20 negative results, confirming lymphocytes of a T-cell lineage. Due to concern for possible retrovirus-associated disease, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for feline leukemia virus and feline immunodeficiency virus were performed retrospectively on a banked serum sample and yielded negative results, thus diminishing concern for the male conspecific housed in the same exhibit.

Summary Descriptions of several oral, maxillofacial and dental conditions/diseases exist for a variety of captive large felids, but little is reported on the pathology of free roaming large felids. Apart from focal palatine erosions (FPEs) as initially described by Fitch and Fagan (1982) and some reference to absent incisor teeth, few data exist on diseases affecting the oral, maxillofacial and dental structures of cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus), regardless of their captivity status. This study reports 18 different conditions affecting the teeth, bone and oral cavity soft tissue of cheetahs, based on initial assessment of 256 animals over 11 years (2002–2012) in South Africa and Namibia. This report excludes oral tumours or FPEs, but includes several acquired and developmental conditions never described before.

The sanitary control of threatened wild animals is of pivotal interest for their conservation. This task, however, is highly complex in wildlife/livestock systems. In this paper we report findings from a 2-year cross-sectional study of the epidemiology and attempted control of a Sarcoptes mite infestation in the threatened cheetah population in Masai Mara (Kenya), and discuss its interaction with sympatric wild (lion, wildebeest and Thomson's gazelle) and domestic (dog, cattle and sheep) animals. Sarcoptes scabiei was isolated from cheetahs, Thomson's gazelles, wildebeests, lions, cattle, goats and dogs; Psoroptes ovis, on the other hand, was only isolated from sheep. The prevalence study revealed 12·77% infection rates in cheetahs, 4·7% in dogs, 0·8% in Thomson's gazelles, 0·8% in sheep, 0·09% in cattle, and 0·09% in goats, while it opportunistically affected lions and wildebeest. Our study revealed that prevalence of Sarcoptes mite in cheetah population was not associated with the studied geographical blocks, animal sex or the presence of affected domestic animals. Cheetah infection with S. scabiei was associated with the climatic conditions (dry more than wet season) and the balancing between the total number of Thomson's gazelles and the prevalence of infected individuals. Apparently the high prevalence of mangy gazelles has a negative effect on cheetah; this negative effect was reduced when the number of healthy gazelles was increased. Treatment with injectable ivermectin of the clinically affected wild and domestic animals during the first year of this study was associated with much lower incidence of sarcoptic mange during the second year. © Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2012.

The Cooper’s Cave System has produced a diverse fossil assemblage including the remains of Paranthropus robustus Broom, 1938, and early Homo. The majority of the faunal remains come from Cooper’s D, which dates to ~1.5 – 1.4 Ma. Here we describe 158 craniodental and postcranial felid fossils from Cooper’s D, including Dinofelis cf. aronoki. These fossils indicate the presence of four large felid genera at Cooper’s D: Dinofelis, Megantereon, Panthera (two species) and Acinonyx, plus two smaller taxa: Caracal and Felis. This assemblage may mark the first appearance of the modern cheetah Acinonyx jubatus (Schreber, 1775) in Africa, as well the first occurrence of the East African species Dinofelis cf. aronoki in southern Africa. This taxon appears intermediate in features between Dinofelis barlowi (Broom, 1937) and Dinofelis piveteaui (Ewer, 1955). We compare the Cooper’s D felid assemblage with those from other sites in the Cradle of Humankind, Gauteng, and discuss several scenarios for the evolution of the genus Dinofelis in eastern and southern Africa.

Acinonyx jubatus (Schreber, 1775) MATERIAL EXAMINED. — Craniodental. CD 3871, left P4 (Fig. 5H, I; Table 1); CD 9614 left I3. DIAGNOSIS AND DISCUSSION CD 3871 is an almost complete P4, just lacking the mesial border of the protocone.Despite this it can be seen that the protocone was much reduced in comparison with the pantherines. The ectoparastyle is very large, in contrast to Megantereon where there is no ectoparastyle (Christiansen & Adolfssen 2007; KA 64 pers. obs.). Other than the protocone being slightly more anteriorly placed in CD 3871 it is a very good match for the modern cheetah. The isolated lower incisor CD 9614 has a clear accessory cusp on the buccal surface and is a robust tooth with a relatively short crown. Other than the slight difference in the protocone position on the P4, the Cooper’s D specimens match those of the modern cheetah, and are referred to this species., Published as part of O'Regan, Hannah J. & Steininger, Christine, 2017, Felidae from Cooper's Cave, South Africa (Mammalia: Carnivora), pp. 315-332 in Geodiversitas 39 (2) on page 326, DOI: 10.5252/g2017n2a8, http://zenodo.org/record/5206125, {"references":["SCHREBER J. C. D. 1775. - Die Saugethiere in Abbildungen nach der Natur, mit Beschreibungen. Vol. 2. Walther, Erlangen.","CHRISTIANSEN P. & ADOLFSSEN J. S. 2007. - Osteology and ecology of Megantereon cultridens SE 311 (Mammalia; Felidae; Machairodontinae), a sabrecat from the Late Pliocene - Early Pleistocene of Seneze, France. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 151: 833 - 884. https: // doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1096 - 3642.2007.00333. x"]}

The fastest and most manoeuvrable terrestrial animals are found in savannah habitats, where predators chase and capture running prey. Hunt outcome and success rate are critical to survival, so both predator and prey should evolve to be faster and/or more manoeuvrable. Here we compare locomotor characteristics in two pursuit predator-prey pairs, lion-zebra and cheetah-impala, in their natural savannah habitat in Botswana. We show that although cheetahs and impalas were universally more athletic than lions and zebras in terms of speed, acceleration and turning, within each predator-prey pair, the predators had 20% higher muscle fibre power than prey, 37% greater acceleration and 72% greater deceleration capacity than their prey. We simulated hunt dynamics with these data and showed that hunts at lower speeds enable prey to use their maximum manoeuvring capacity and favour prey survival, and that the predator needs to be more athletic than its prey to sustain a viable success rate.

As a textbook case for the importance of genetics in conservation, absence of genetic variability at the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is thought to endanger species viability, since it is considered crucial for pathogen resistance. An alternative view of the immune system inspired by life history theory posits that a strong response should evolve in other components of the immune system if there is little variation in the MHC. In contrast to the leopard (Panthera pardus), the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) has a relatively low genetic variability at the MHC, yet free-ranging cheetahs are healthy. By comparing the functional competence of the humoral immune system of both species in sympatric populations in Namibia, we demonstrate that cheetahs have a higher constitutive innate but lower induced innate and adaptive immunity than leopards. We conclude (1) immunocompetence of cheetahs is higher than previously thought; (2) studying both innate and adaptive components of immune systems will enrich conservation science.

Cowpox virus infections in captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) with high morbidity and mortality have already been reported in the UK and Russia in the 1970s. However, most of the reported cases have been singular events. Here, we report a total of five cowpox virus outbreaks in cheetahs in the same safari park in Denmark between 2010 and 2014. Nine cheetahs showed varying severity of clinical disease; two of them died (22%). All episodes occurred between August and October of the respective year. No other carnivores kept at the same institution nor the keepers taking care of the animals were clinically affected. The clinical picture of cowpox was confirmed by extensive laboratory investigations including histopathological and molecular analyses as well as cell culture isolation of a cowpox virus. High anti-orthopoxvirus antibody titers were detected in all 9 diseased cheetahs compared to seven contact cheetahs without clinical signs and 13 cheetahs not in direct contact. Additionally, whole genome sequencing from one sample of each cluster with subsequent phylogenetic analysis showed that the viruses from different outbreaks have individual sequences but clearly form a clade distinct from other cowpox viruses. However, the intra-clade distances are still larger than those usually observed within clades of one event. These findings indicate multiple and separate introductions of cowpox virus, probably from wild rodent populations, where the virus keeps circulating naturally and is only sporadically introduced into the cheetahs. Sero-positivity of voles (Arvicola amphibious) caught in zoo grounds strengthens this hypothesis. As a consequence, recommendations are given for medical and physical management of diseased cheetahs, for hygienic measures as well as for pre-shipment isolation before cheetah export from zoo grounds.

Background In partnership with the University of Pretoria, the Endangered Wildlife Trust’s Carnivore Conservation Programme collared six male and three female free-roaming Cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) in the Thabazimbi area in Limpopo Province, South Africa. This study was undertaken to determine the spatial ecology of free-roaming Cheetahs that occur outside of formal protected areas on private ranchland, where they frequently come into conflict with, and are sometimes killed by, private landowners. The data were collected between September 2003 and November 2008, resulting in a total of 3165 location points (65 points from VHF collars and 3100 from GPS collars) for nine individual Cheetahs. New information This dataset provides distribution information about this Vulnerable species occurring outside of protected areas within South Africa. The dataset has been published to the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (www.GBIF.org) and provides the largest dataset on Cheetahs thus far, and, although it is spatially limited to a relatively small region on the African continent, it is the first study of its kind within South Africa. Also of significance is that the fate of 6 of the 9 collared Cheetahs is known, all except one of which died of anthropogenic causes.

International audience; The small conoidean Hemilienardia ocellata is one of the easily recognizable Indo-Pacific “turrids”, primarily because of its remarkable eyespot colour pattern. Morphological and molecular phylogenetic analyses revealed four species that share this “characteristic” colour pattern but demonstrate consistent differences in size and shell proportions. Three new species – Hemilienardia acinonyx sp. nov. from the Philippines, H. lynx sp. nov. from Papua New Guinea and H. pardus sp. nov. from the Society and Loyalty Islands – are described based on the results of phylogenetic analyses. Although the H. ocellata species complex clade falls in a monophyletic Hemilienardia, H. ocellata and H. acinonyx sp. nov. possess a radula with semi-enrolled or notably flattened triangular marginal teeth, a condition that diverges substantially from the standard radular morphology of Hemilienardia and other raphitomids.

Establishing and maintaining protected areas (PAs) are key tools for biodiversity conservation. However, this approach is insufficient for many species, particularly those that are wide-ranging and sparse. The cheetah Acinonyx jubatus exemplifies such a species and faces extreme challenges to its survival. Here, we show that the global population is estimated at ∼7,100 individuals and confined to 9% of its historical distributional range. However, the majority of current range (77%) occurs outside of PAs, where the species faces multiple threats. Scenario modeling shows that, where growth rates are suppressed outside PAs, extinction rates increase rapidly as the proportion of population protected declines. Sensitivity analysis shows that growth rates within PAs have to be high if they are to compensate for declines outside. Susceptibility of cheetah to rapid decline is evidenced by recent rapid contraction in range, supporting an uplisting of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List threat assessment to endangered. Our results are applicable to other protection-reliant species, which may be subject to systematic underestimation of threat when there is insufficient information outside PAs. Ultimately, conserving many of these species necessitates a paradigm shift in conservation toward a holistic approach that incentivizes protection and promotes sustainable human-wildlife coexistence across large multiple-use landscapes.

Tail reduction/loss independently evolved in a number of mammalian lineages, including hominoid primates. One prerequisite to appropriately contextualizing its occurrence and understanding its significance is the ability to track evolutionary changes in tail length throughout the fossil record. However, to date, the bony correlates of tail length variation among living taxa have not been comprehensively examined. This study quantifies postsacral vertebral morphology among living primates and other mammals known to differ in relative tail length (RTL). Linear and angular measurements with known biomechanical significance were collected on the first, mid-, and transition proximal postsacral vertebrae, and their relationship with RTL was assessed using phylogenetic generalized leastsquares regression methods. Compared to shorter-tailed primates, longertailed primates possess a greater number of postsacral vertebral features associated with increased proximal tail flexibility (e.g., craniocaudally longer vertebral bodies), increased intervertebral body joint range of motion (e.g., more circularly shaped cranial articular surfaces), and increased leverage of tail musculature (e.g., longer spinous processes). These observations are corroborated by the comparative mammalian sample, which shows that distantly related short-tailed (e.g., Phascolarctos, Lynx )a nd long-tailed (e.g., Dendrolagus, Acinonyx) nonprimate mammals morphologically converge with short-tailed (e.g., Macaca tonkeana) and long-tailed (e.g., Macaca fascicularis) primates, respectively. Multivariate models demonstrate that the variables examined account for 70% (all mammals) to 94% (only primates) of the variance in RTL. Results of this study may be used to infer the tail lengths of extinct primates and other mammals, thereby improving our understanding about the evolution of tail reduction/ loss. Anat Rec, 00:000–000, 2014. V C 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Top predators can dramatically suppress populations of smaller predators, with cascading effects throughout communities, and this pressure is often unquestioningly accepted as a constraint on mesopredator populations. In this study, we reassess whether African lions suppress populations of cheetahs and African wild dogs and examine possible mechanisms for coexistence between these species. Using long-term records from Serengeti National Park, we tested 30 years of population data for evidence of mesopredator suppression, and we examined six years of concurrent radio-telemetry data for evidence of large-scale spatial displacement. The Serengeti lion population nearly tripled between 1966 and 1998; during this time, wild dogs declined but cheetah numbers remained largely unchanged. Prior to their local extinction, wild dogs primarily occupied low lion density areas and apparently abandoned the long-term study area as the lion population 'saturated' the region. In contrast, cheetahs mostly utilized areas of high lion density, and the stability of the cheetah population indicates that neither high levels of lion-inflicted mortality nor behavioural avoidance inflict sufficient demographic consequences to translate into population-level effects. Population data from fenced reserves in southern Africa revealed a similar contrast between wild dogs and cheetahs in their ability to coexist with lions. These findings demonstrate differential responses of subordinate species within the same guild and challenge a widespread perception that lions undermine cheetah conservation efforts. Paired with several recent studies that document fine-scale lion-avoidance by cheetahs, this study further highlights fine-scale spatial avoidance as a possible mechanism for mitigating mesopredator suppression.

Diversity within the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) reflects the immunological fitness of a population. MHC-linked microsatellite markers provide a simple and an inexpensive method for studying MHC diversity in large-scale studies. We have developed 6 MHC-linked microsatellite markers in the domestic cat and used these, in conjunction with 5 neutral microsatellites, to assess MHC diversity in domestic mixed breed (n = 129) and purebred Burmese (n = 61) cat populations in Australia. The MHC of outbred Australian cats is polymorphic (average allelic richness = 8.52), whereas the Burmese population has significantly lower MHC diversity (average allelic richness = 6.81; P < 0.01). The MHC-linked microsatellites along with MHC cloning and sequencing demonstrated moderate MHC diversity in cheetahs (n = 13) and extremely low diversity in Gir lions (n = 13). Our MHC-linked microsatellite markers have potential future use in diversity and disease studies in other populations and breeds of cats as well as in wild felid species.

The site of Pantalla (central Italy) yielded a rich late Villafranchian (Early Pleistocene) faunal assemblage, which includes some well-preserved large mammal skulls. We describe here two nearly complete crania and a left hemimandible of Acinonyx pardinensis from this locality, representing the most complete cranial material of this species in Europe. These finds allowed us to define more clearly the craniodental morphology of A. pardinensis . Similarly to the forms from North Africa and China, the giant cheetah from Pantalla has a more generalized skull than the living Acinonyx jubatus , showing some primitive, pantherine-like features such as the less domed dorsal outline of the cranium, the more developed sagittal and nuchal crests and the less bowed zygomatic arches. High-resolution CT scans of the specimens were used to obtain the first 3D model of a cranium with articulated mandible of A. pardinensis . Starting from the insertion areas on this model we reconstructed the jaw muscles of the Pantalla felid, confirming its affinities with pantherine felines. In the light of the musculoskeletal skull anatomy and the average body mass (about 80 kg), it is likely that A. pardinensis could kill large prey through a hunting strategy more similar to pantherine cats than to the living cheetah.

Amyloidoses are a group of protein-misfolding disorders that are characterized by the deposition of amyloid fibrils in organs and/or tissues. In reactive amyloid A (AA) amyloidosis, serum AA (SAA) protein forms deposits in mice, domestic and wild animals, and humans that experience chronic inflammation. AA amyloid fibrils are abnormal beta-sheet-rich forms of the serum precursor SAA, with conformational changes that promote fibril formation. Extracellular deposition of amyloid fibrils causes disease in affected animals. Recent findings suggest that AA amyloidosis could be transmissible. Similar to the pathogenesis of transmissible prion diseases, amyloid fibrils induce a seeding-nucleation process that may lead to development of AA amyloidosis. We review studies of possible transmission in bovine, avian, mouse, and cheetah AA amyloidosis., Article, VETERINARY PATHOLOGY. 51(2):363-371 (2014)

It is generally believed that the skull CCEC-161821 of Acinonyx pardinensis from Saint-Vallier, an Early Pleistocene French locality, is similar to that of the modern cheetah, in contrast to several other Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene Old World felids with cheetah-like teeth, assigned either to Acinonyx Brookes, 1828, or to Sivapanthera Kretzoi, 1929. Morphological comparisons and morphometric analysis of the fossil and recent material show that the Acinonyx pardinensis from Saint-Vallier, although dentally similar to the modern cheetah, is not cheetah-like in its skull shape. All those Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene forms can also be included in Acinonyx, implying that the characteristic skull shape of the modern form is probably a recent acquisition.

Objective To compare the cardiopulmonary effects of propofol total intravenous anaesthesia (TIVA) with isoflurane in cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) to evaluate feasibility for field use. Study design Prospective clinical study. Animals A group of 24 adult cheetahs, 12 per group. Methods Cheetahs were immobilized with zolazepam/tiletamine (1.2 mg kg−1) and medetomidine [40 μg kg−1, both intramuscular (IM)] by darting. A maintenance protocol of propofol TIVA (group P) or isoflurane inhalation (group I) was assigned randomly to each cheetah. Anaesthesia was maintained for at least 60 minutes. Cheetahs breathed spontaneously throughout; oxygen was supplemented at 3 L minute−1. Cardiopulmonary parameters were recorded at 5 minute intervals and three arterial blood gas samples were analysed. Following maintenance, atipamezole was administered IM (200 μg kg−1) and recovery was observed. Data are reported as mean ± standard deviation; variables over time were compared using a linear mixed model (fixed: time, treatment; random: cheetah). Results Lack of response to manipulations was maintained in all cases (end-tidal isoflurane percentage 1.1 ± 0.1%, propofol rate maintained at 0.1 mg kg−1 minute−1). The heart and respiratory rates were acceptable throughout maintenance. The end-tidal carbon dioxide tension increased slowly [44.0 ± 5.0 mmHg (5.87 ± 0.67 kPa)] with no differences between groups. All cheetahs were initially markedly hypertensive [mean arterial blood pressure (MAP): (163 ± 17 mmHg)]. The MAP normalized for group I (125 ± 30 mmHg) but remained high for group P (161 ± 17 mmHg) (p Conclusions and clinical relevance Both protocols provided acceptable cardiopulmonary values. Propofol may be an alternative to isoflurane for field use, but the prolonged recovery may make it less suitable for long-term anaesthesia.

Effective conservation management is underpinned by science. Yet, there are often barriers against the incorporation of up-to-date scientific research into decision-making and policy. Here, we draw on experience from a multi-nation approach to conserve cheetah and African wild dogs across Africa, using relationships between scientists and managers established over more than a decade, to better understand scientific information needs of managers. While our analysis focuses on Africa, many of our findings are likely to be relevant to other regions. Managers view science as critical to their decision-making processes and strongly support scientific research, particularly when research directly addresses their information needs. However, managers reported problems in accessing final results and highlighted the need to access raw ecological data from research undertaken within protected areas. Fundamental to improving the management relevance of scientific research is the need for scientists to engage with managers through all steps of the research process, from project design and implementation through to scientific publication and end-of-project agreements. Effective engagement requires open and clear communication; including agreed processes for access to biodiversity data and submission of final results. In order to foster future scientific endeavours and collaborations, systems should be established to better facilitate information exchange, while also safeguarding the rights of scientists to publish their data and protect their academic freedom. Our analysis also calls for a greater awareness of the geo-political context under which science is undertaken, and for increased scientific participation through an inclusive approach that recognizes, and gives credit to, a wider diversity of scientific contributions and expertise. This article is part of the theme issue ‘Linking behaviour to dynamics of populations and communities: application of novel approaches in behavioural ecology to conservation’.

The identification of feline herpesvirus (FHV) infected cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) and characterization of shedding episodes is difficult due to nonspecific clinical signs and limitations of diagnostic tests. The goals of this study were to develop a case definition for clinical FHV and describe the distribution of signs. Medical records from six different zoologic institutions were reviewed to identify cheetahs with diagnostic test results confirming FHV. Published literature, expert opinion, and results of a multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) were used to develop a clinical case definition based on 69 episodes in FHV laboratory confirmed (LC) cheetahs. Four groups of signs were identified in the MCA: general ocular signs, serious ocular lesions, respiratory disease, and cutaneous lesions. Ocular disease occurred with respiratory signs alone, with skin lesions alone, and with both respiratory signs and skin lesions. Groups that did not occur together were respiratory signs and skin lesions. The resulting case definition included 1) LC cheetahs; and 2) clinically compatible (CC) cheetahs that exhibited a minimum of 7 day's duration of the clinical sign groupings identified in the MCA or the presence of corneal ulcers or keratitis that occurred alone or in concert with other ocular signs and skin lesions. Exclusion criteria were applied. Application of the case definition to the study population identified an additional 78 clinical episodes, which represented 58 CC cheetahs. In total, 28.8% (93/322) of the population was identified as LC or CC. The distribution of identified clinical signs was similar across LC and CC cheetahs. Corneal ulcers and/or keratitis, and skin lesions were more frequently reported in severe episodes; in mild episodes, there were significantly more cheetahs with ocular-only or respiratory-only disease. Our results provide a better understanding of the clinical presentation of FHV, while presenting a standardized case definition that can both contribute to earlier diagnoses and be used for population-level studies.

Little nutritional or metabolic information has been collected from captive exotic cats fed raw diets. In particular, fiber types and concentrations for use in raw meat-based diets for captive exotic felids have not been well studied. Our objective was to evaluate the effects of fiber type and concentration on apparent total tract energy and macronutrient digestibility, fecal characteristics, and fecal fermentative end-products in captive exotic felids. Four animals of each captive exotic species (jaguar (Panthera onca), cheetah (Acinonyz jubatus), Malayan tiger (Panthera tigris corbetti), and Siberian tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) were randomized in four 4 × 4 Latin square designs (1 Latin square per species) to 1 of the 4 raw beef-based dietary treatments (94.7 to 96.7% beef trimmings): 2 or 4% cellulose or 2 or 4% beet pulp. Felid species, fiber type, and fiber concentration all impacted digestibility and fecal fermentative end-products. Inclusion of beet pulp increased (P ≤ 0.05) fecal short-chain fatty acids and fecal output in all cats. Inclusion of 2 and 4% cellulose, and 4% beet pulp increased (P ≤ 0.05) fecal bulk and diluted fecal branched-chain fatty acid concentrations compared with 2% beet pulp. Apparent total tract DM, OM, fat, and GE digestibility coefficients decreased (P ≤ 0.05) linearly with BW of cats. Additionally, fecal moisture, fecal score, and concentrations of fermentative end-products increased (P ≤ 0.05) with BW. Although the response of many outcomes was dependent on cat size, in general, beet pulp increased wet fecal weight, fecal scores, and fecal metabolites, and reduced fecal pH. Cellulose generally reduced DM and OM digestibility, but increased dry fecal weight and fecal percent DM. Although beet pulp and cellulose fibers were tested individually in this study, these data indicate that the optimum fiber type and concentration for inclusion in captive exotic felid diets is likely a combination of fermentable and nonfermentable fibers, with the optimal fiber blend being dependent on species. Smaller cats, such as cheetahs and jaguars, tolerated fermentable fibers, whereas larger cats, such as Malayan and Siberian tigers, appeared to require more insoluble fibers that limit fermentation and provide fecal bulk. Further research is required to test whether these trends hold true when fed in combination.

We identified the diet of brown hyaenas (Hyaena brunnea) on the farmlands of north-central Namibia based on scat analysis, den site orts, and evidence of scavenging at leopard (Panthera pardus) kills. In the absence of larger carnivores, which have been credited with providing larger food items for brown hyaenas elsewhere, we compared interspecific dietary overlap and activity patterns with the remaining large carnivores, leopards and cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus). Where hyaenas and leopards were sympatric, diets of both nocturnal species (n = 212 hyaena scats and 41 leopard scats) were quite similar (both >89% wild, with some domestic ungulates), and only somewhat different from cheetahs in a previous study. Additionally, evidence of brown hyaena scavenging was found at 76% of 29 leopard kills available to them. Brown hyaenas occurring on Namibian farmlands likely find medium-sized to large ungulate prey by scavenging from leopards and perhaps cheetahs.

The non-invasive measurement of adrenocortical function in cheetahs is an important tool to assess stress in captive and free-ranging individuals, because stress has been suggested to be one of the causes of poor reproductive performance of captive cheetahs. We tested four enzyme immunoassays (EIA) in two captive cheetahs in Germany using adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) challenges and identified the corticosterone-3-CMO EIA to be most sensitive to the increase in faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (fGCM) concentrations after the ACTH challenge. This EIA performed also well in five captive cheetahs in South Africa. The fGCM concentrations across all seven cheetahs increased within 24h by 681% compared to the baseline levels prior to ACTH. Storage of faecal samples at 0-4°C did not strongly affect fGCM concentrations within 24h, simplifying sample collection when immediate storage at -20°C is not feasible. The two cheetahs in Germany also received an injection of [(3)H]cortisol to characterise fGCMs in faecal extracts using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) immunograms. HPLC fractions were measured for their radioactivity and immunoreactive fGCM concentrations with the corticosterone-3-CMO EIA, respectively. The results revealed a polar peak of radiolabelled cortisol metabolites co-eluting with the major peak of immunoreactive fGCMs. Thus, our EIA measured substantial amounts of fGCMs corresponding to the radioactive peaks. The peaks were of higher polarity than native cortisol and corticosterone, suggesting that the metabolites were conjugated, which was confirmed by solvolysis of the HPLC fractions. Our results show that the corticosterone-3-CMO EIA is a reliable tool to assess fGCMs in cheetahs.

This study was designed to identify endoparasites in captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) living in a seminatural captive environment in north-central Namibia. Results were used to assess the need for anthelmintic treatment and for the selection of an appropriate drug. The study assessed fecal parasite excretion qualitatively and quantitatively using a fecal flotation method during the winter of 2009. Four different species of parasites (two nematodes and two coccidias) were identified. Parasite excretion rates were found to be significantly lower than that of wild cheetahs living in the same area. Samples of the wild cheetahs were obtained at the time of anesthesia or were attributed to the wild individuals using genetic profiling. Captive cheetahs were dewormed with fenbendazole, whereas wild cheetahs were treated using ivermectin. Efficacy of these treatments was demonstrated at the end of the study.

Although the significance of the gut microbiome for host health is well acknowledged, the impact of host traits and environmental factors on the interindividual variation of gut microbiomes of wildlife species is not well understood. Such information is essential; however, as changes in the composition of these microbial communities beyond the natural range might cause dysbiosis leading to increased susceptibility to infections. We examined the potential influence of sex, age, genetic relatedness, spatial tactics and the environment on the natural range of the gut microbiome diversity in free-ranging Namibian cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus). We further explored the impact of an altered diet and frequent contact with roaming dogs and cats on the occurrence of potential bacterial pathogens by comparing free-ranging and captive individuals living under the same climatic conditions. Abundance patterns of particular bacterial genera differed between the sexes, and bacterial diversity and richness were higher in older (>3.5 years) than in younger individuals. In contrast, male spatial tactics, which probably influence host exposure to environmental bacteria, had no discernible effect on the gut microbiome. The profound resemblance of the gut microbiome of kin in contrast to nonkin suggests a predominant role of genetics in shaping bacterial community characteristics and functional similarities. We also detected various Operational Taxonomic Units (OTUs) assigned to potential pathogenic bacteria known to cause diseases in humans and wildlife species, such as Helicobacter spp., and Clostridium perfringens. Captive individuals did not differ in their microbial alpha diversity but exhibited higher abundances of OTUs related to potential pathogenic bacteria and shifts in disease-associated functional pathways. Our study emphasizes the need to integrate ecological, genetic and pathogenic aspects to improve our comprehension of the main drivers of natural variation and shifts in gut microbial communities possibly affecting host health. This knowledge is essential for in situ and ex situ conservation management.

Faurby, Werdelin, and Svenning raise some interesting and valid points around the interpretation of the genomics and fossil data on the history of the African cheetah, a species that has fascinated humankind for millennia. They emphasize a controversy to which we alluded in our article [1] and they offer an alternative explanation to the scenario we had suggested for the time and place of demographic events that preceded modern African cheetah populations. We fully agree that there are important areas of uncertainty in this conundrum and welcome the opportunity to reconsider and to offer our view into the natural history of Acinonyx jubatus. We do believe that the integration of fossil and molecular data seems a good way to get toward the truth, so we shall try to emphasize two considerations in our comments: first, the most parsimonious interpretation of data; and second, the robustness of available and relevant fossil and molecular data. Some aspects to consider: The extreme genetic depletion of modern cheetahs seems true and validated by Dobrynin et al., as has been suggested with multiple metrics across several decades [1–3]. Two possible historic events that could account for the genetic reduction are extended continental migration events and/or population bottlenecks (a.k.a. founder effect). We offered possible (but not proven) explanations based upon dating the latest founder effect at 10,000–12,000 during the late Pleistocene by multiple molecular methods, coincident with abrupt mammal extinction events in North America and Eurasia at that time. The genome-wide Dadi result suggested an earlier more ancient demographic contraction ~100,000 years ago. Something caused the massive diversity loss in their history. We suggested two scenarios: the earliest—a migration of North American cheetahs out of North America >100,000 years BP, and a second—when cheetahs went extinct from North America 10,000–12,000 years ago. It may be relevant that North American pumas show a near identical quantity of genomic depletion as African cheetahs, suggesting they were also extirpated form North America during the quaternary mammal extinction and repopulated from South America subsequently [3–5]. Was this an irrelevant coincidence or was a single North American or global event responsible? The answer is uncertain. Please refer to [6, 7] which detail the latest relatively robust molecular phylogenies for the Felidae and a derivative study [8] that postulates parsimonious historic migration scenarios based upon phylogeny, the fossil record, present and past geographical occurrence, and geological sea levels. That phylogenetic study reported in [6] examined 18,853 bp of nuclear sequence (autosome, X and Y chromosome), which yielded 3440 parsimony informative sites, and mtDNA sequence, from all 37 Felidae species calibrated with 16 fossil dates [6]. That molecular phylogeny (combined with paleontological, geological and present range) posited the arrival of the ancestors of three Felidae lineages (Ocelot preceding Lynx, and then preceding Puma lineage) into North America, around 8–8.5 million years ago (MYA). All three lineages have roots in North America with ocelot ancestors appearing first 8.0 MYA, Lynx ancestors 7.2 MYA, and Puma ancestors 6.7 MYA. Cheetah-like genera (Acinonyx lineage) appear first ~4.9 MYA. Support for this scenario comes from molecular evolutionary analyses that were supported by 13 cladistic synapomorphies (large insertion/deletions) [6]. Sometime thereafter, the Acinonyx lineage ancestors, derived from the North American puma lineage precursors, would make their way back to Asia from North America. The fossil record puts the oldest cheetah fossils in Asia 3 million years before present (MYBP). Fossils of Acinonyx and cheetah-looking cats were in both in Asia and North America from 3 MYA to the late Pleistocene. So the comment in their title “There were never any true cheetahs in North America” depends on what we mean by “true cheetahs.” Faurby, Werdelin, and Svenning argue cogently that North American cheetah fossils are all from the genus Miracinonyx, which is not closely related to modern Acinonyx cheetahs, which occur in Africa today and in Eurasia throughout the Pliocene and Pleistocene fossil deposits. Thus, the trivial name of North American “cheetah” is misleading (they imply we fell into that trap, although these authors themselves use the trivial name “cheetah” ten times in their note). The data supporting the distinctions of North American species in Miracinonyx from Eurasian Acinonyx are the bases of the controversy. A seminal and elegant report by Van Valkenburgh et al. [9] concluded that North American cheetah fossils (there were six specimens, one complete and five fragmented) were cladistically similar based upon ten synapomorphic morphological features that were distinct from Eurasian Acinonyx fossils. This study proposed the distinction of North America (Miracinonyx) and Eurasian (Acinonyx) genera in 1990. Faurby, Werdelin, and Svenning affirm this conclusion by stating “… No fossils of Acinonyx are known from North America, despite the extensive fossil record from the continent, while no fossils of Miracinonyx are known outside North America.” This declarative statement discounts a longstanding controversy that Van Valkenburgh et al. [9] acknowledge. First, there are several important adaptive morphometric characters that are shared between North America and Eurasian cheetah species including long slender limbs, small aerodynamic skulls, and reduced canines which Van Valkenburgh et al. [9] attribute to homoplasy or parallelisms. But at least three respected authors groups have disagreed [10–12] and opined that the adaptive similarities are evidence for homology of North American and African cheetahs supporting the modern cheetah origins in North America. Adams’ study titled “The cheetah-native American” [10], classifies the North American cheetah specimens as Acinonyx (precursors of modern Acinonyx) and suggests that pronouncing these important cursorial characters as convergence or parallelism “pushes the concept of parallel evolution to an unprecedented extreme”. Van Valkenburgh et al. [9] actually place the Eurasian Acinonyx and the North American Miracinonyx genera as sister taxa, emphasizing the difficulty in sorting this controversy cleanly. Further they state “… The common ancestor (of Acinonyx and Miracinonyx) … could have been either Old or New World.” Mark Springer, a noted expert of interpreting molecular and paleontological evidence across vertebrate taxa [13], states that “… morphological studies of eutherian … relationships have failed to separate homology and homoplasy and have consistently been misled by the latter … one of the greatest challenges ahead for mammalian systematists is to tease apart homology and homoplasy in morphological characters.” Springer’s study described explicitly how morphological inference erred in over 50 % of ordinal assignments within the mammalian radiations due to this issue [13]. Faurby, Werdelin, and Svenning refer to Barnet et al. [14] who presented a molecular phylogeny that uses ancient DNA to place the North American Miracinonyx as a sister to Puma concolor (and not modern Acinonyx), but they acknowledge the limited power of a 1302 bp mtDNA dataset. There are other details of the Barnett study that may be relevant. First, the actual nucleotide alignment is not presented which limits our ability to evaluate their conclusions or assess the extent of homoplasy. Further, when Barnet et al. performed a jack-knife analyses, excluding H. jaguarundi from the phylogenic analysis (H. jaguarundi is a sister taxon to Puma concolor [6–8]), statistical support for the sister relationship of Puma-Miracinonyx actually increased, an indication that molecular homoplasy was operative in their results [14]. Their conclusion that American cheetah Miracinonyx is not within the African-Asian Acinonyx group is tentative at best and has not been confirmed convincingly. Faurby, Werdelin, and Svenning raise an important caveat concerning the confidence interval of the Dadi and PSMC and question the average generation of modern and ancient cheetahs. We do agree these aspects are not as firm as we would prefer. They hypothesize that “… the simplest explanation of the patterns may be a gradual decline in Acinonyx as inferred by the PSMC algorithm, potentially with sharper declines in some periods as suggested by the DaDi analysis.” Their points are true and we acknowledge the tentative aspects of our derived conclusions. In sum, we welcome the engagement of Faurby, Werdelin, and Svenning in the interpretation of the new and older data around the natural history for cheetah origins. They may be correct in their interpretation that Eurasian Cheetahs are the most recent ancestors of modern African cheetahs but their North American presence at one or several stages also seems plausible from the available data. We were not there at the time, so we cannot be sure of what the timing or influence of any possible North American cheetah migration to Asia might be, but both fossil and molecular evidence would be consistent with cheetah-like cats in both Asia and North America for some 3 MY. A correct explanation for African cheetah origins would seem to be one of three possibilities: (1) Eurasian origin exclusively; (2) North American origins exclusively and a migration across Asia to Africa; or (3) a combination of continental evolution on both continents, combined with periodic migration (and perhaps admixture) allowing both continental populations to contribute to modern African cheetah genetic disposition and locations. The resolution of these alternatives represents a fascinating challenge for the genome archeologists reading this exchange.

The cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) is Africa's most endangered large felid and listed as Vulnerable with a declining population trend by the IUCN(1). It ranges widely over sub-Saharan Africa and in parts of the Middle East. Cheetah conservationists face two major challenges, conflict with landowners over the killing of domestic livestock, and concern over range contraction. Understanding of the latter remains particularly poor(2). Namibia is believed to support the largest number of cheetahs of any range country, around 30%, but estimates range from 2,905(3) to 13,520(4). The disparity is likely a result of the different techniques used in monitoring. Current techniques, including invasive tagging with VHF or satellite/GPS collars, can be costly and unreliable. The footprint identification technique(5) is a new tool accessible to both field scientists and also citizens with smartphones, who could potentially augment data collection. The footprint identification technique analyzes digital images of footprints captured according to a standardized protocol. Images are optimized and measured in data visualization software. Measurements of distances, angles, and areas of the footprint images are analyzed using a robust cross-validated pairwise discriminant analysis based on a customized model. The final output is in the form of a Ward's cluster dendrogram. A user-friendly graphic user interface (GUI) allows the user immediate access and clear interpretation of classification results. The footprint identification technique algorithms are species specific because each species has a unique anatomy. The technique runs in a data visualization software, using its own scripting language (jsl) that can be customized for the footprint anatomy of any species. An initial classification algorithm is built from a training database of footprints from that species, collected from individuals of known identity. An algorithm derived from a cheetah of known identity is then able to classify free-ranging cheetahs of unknown identity. The footprint identification technique predicts individual cheetah identity with an accuracy of >90%.

African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) are reported to hunt with energetically costly long chase distances. We used high-resolution GPS and inertial technology to record 1,119 high-speed chases of all members of a pack of six adult African wild dogs in northern Botswana. Dogs performed multiple short, high-speed, mostly unsuccessful chases to capture prey, while cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) undertook even shorter, higher-speed hunts. We used an energy balance model to show that the energy return from group hunting and feeding substantially outweighs the cost of multiple short chases, which indicates that African wild dogs are more energetically robust than previously believed. Comparison with cheetah illustrates the trade-off between sheer athleticism and high individual kill rate characteristic of cheetahs, and the energetic robustness of frequent opportunistic group hunting and feeding by African wild dogs., The long-distance hunting behaviour of African wild dogs is thought to be energetically costly. Here, Hubel et al. show that multiple opportunistic short-distance hunts and group feeding make African wild dogs in mixed woodland savannah energetically robust.

The role of microbes and their antimicrobial susceptibilities in both acute and chronic infections of the dental pulp in humans has been well studied. Presently, no data are available on endodontic pathogens in cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus). The aim of this study was to isolate and identify the bacteria found in the canine teeth of cheetahs, where the pulp was necrotic and exposed due to a complicated crown fracture. Thirty-six microbiologic samples were taken from root canals (RCs) of the canine teeth of 19 cheetahs: one pulp sample was taken from 10 cheetahs, four samples from 2 cheetahs, two samples from 3 cheetahs, and three samples from 4 cheetahs. Exposed pulps were cultured for aerobic and anaerobic bacteria; an additional screening with a 16S rRNA-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used for the last six samples. Antimicrobial susceptibility of isolates was determined by use of the Kirby-Bauer diffusion test. In total, 59 cultivable isolates belonging to 19 microbial species and 13 genera were recovered from the 36 RCs sampled. Only two samples yielded no cultivable bacteria. Thirty-two (54.49%) of the cultivable isolates were Gram positive and 27 (45.71%) were Gram negative. The maximum number of isolates cultivated from an individual RC was six. Facultative anaerobes (62.72%) were the most common bacteria of the RCs that yielded cultivable bacteria. Of the isolates, 28.81% were aerobic and 8.47% were strict anaerobes. The antimicrobials that showed the greatest efficacy in vitro against the different bacteria isolates were amikacin and gentamicin. The more common bacterial species isolated by PCR were anaerobes (60.8%), facultative anaerobes (30.2%), and aerobes (8.6%).

Background A prospective randomized study was used to compare surgery times for laparoscopic ovariectomy and salpingectomy in female African lion (Panthera leo) (n = 14) and cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) (n = 20) and to compare the use of a multiple portal access system (MPAS) and single portal access system (SPAS) between groups. Two different portal techniques were used, namely MPAS (three separate ports) in lions and SPAS (SILS™ port) in cheetahs, using standard straight laparoscopic instruments. Portal access system and first ovary was not randomized. Five different surgery times were compared for the two different procedures as well as evaluating the use and application of MPAS and SPAS. Carbon dioxide volumes for lions were recorded. Results In adult lionesses operative time (OPT) (P = 0.016) and total surgical time (TST) (P = 0.032) were significantly shorter for salpingectomy compared to ovariectomy. Similarly in cheetahs OPT (P = 0.001) and TST (P = 0.005) were also shorter for salpingectomy compared to ovariectomy. In contrast, in lion cubs no difference was found in surgery times for ovariectomy and salpingectomy. Total unilateral procedure time was shorter than the respective bilateral time for both procedures (P = 0.019 and P = 0.001) respectively and unilateral salpingectomy was also faster than unilateral ovariectomy (P = 0.035) in cheetahs. Port placement time, suturing time and TST were significantly shorter for SPAS compared to MPAS (P = 0.008). There was, however, no difference in OPT between SPAS and MPAS. Instrument cluttering with SPAS was found to be negligible. There was no difference in mean volume CO2 required to complete ovariectomy in lions but the correlation between bodyweight and total volume of CO2 in lions was significant (rs = 0.867; P = 0.002). Conclusions Laparoscopic salpingectomy was faster than ovariectomy in both adult lions and cheetahs. Using SPAS, both unilateral procedures were faster than bilateral procedures in cheetahs. Placement and suturing of SPAS in cheetahs was easier and faster compared to three separate ports in lions and lion cubs. The use of standard straight instruments during SPAS did not prolong surgery. Surgery was faster in cubs and CO2 required for laparoscopic sterilization in lions could be determined. Predictable surgery times and CO2 volumes will facilitate the accurate planning and execution of surgery in lions and cheetahs.

© 2016 Faurby et al., Dobrynin et al. (Genome Biol 16:277, 2015) recently published the complete genome of the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) and provided an exhaustive set of analyses supporting the famously low genetic variation in the species, known for several decades. Their genetic analyses represent state-of-the-art and we do not criticize them. However, their interpretation of the results is inconsistent with current knowledge of cheetah evolution. Dobrynin et al. suggest that the causes of the two inferred bottlenecks at 100,000 and 10,000 years ago were immigration by cheetahs from North America and end-Pleistocene megafauna extinction, respectively, but the first explanation is impossible and the second implausible.

Cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) are highly specialised large felids, currently listed as vulnerable on the IUCN red data list. In captivity, they are known to suffer from a range of chronic non-infectious diseases. Although low heterozygosity and the stress of captivity have been suggested as possible causal factors, recent studies have started to focus on the contribution of potential dietary factors in the pathogenesis of these diseases. Fatty acids are an important component of the diet, not only providing a source of metabolisable energy, but serving other important functions in hormone production, cellular signalling as well as providing structural components in biological membranes. To develop a better understanding of lipid metabolism in cheetahs, we compared the total serum fatty acid profiles of 35 captive cheetahs to those of 43 free-ranging individuals in Namibia using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The unsaturated fatty acid concentrations differed most remarkably between the groups, with all of the polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fatty acids, except arachidonic acid and hypogeic acid, detected at significantly lower concentrations in the serum of the free-ranging animals. The influence of age and sex on the individual fatty acid concentrations was less notable. This study represents the first evaluation of the serum fatty acids of free-ranging cheetahs, providing critical information on the normal fatty acid profiles of free-living, healthy individuals of this species. The results raise several important questions about the potential impact of dietary fatty acid composition on the health of cheetahs in captivity.

Many ecological theories and species conservation programmes rely on accurate estimates of population density. Accurate density estimation, especially for species facing rapid declines, requires the application of rigorous field and analytical methods. However, obtaining accurate density estimates of carnivores can be challenging as carnivores naturally exist at relatively low densities and are often elusive and wide-ranging. In this study, we employ an unstructured spatial sampling field design along with a Bayesian sex-specific spatially explicit capture-recapture (SECR) analysis, to provide the first rigorous population density estimates of cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) in the Maasai Mara, Kenya. We estimate adult cheetah density to be between 1.28 ± 0.315 and 1.34 ± 0.337 individuals/100km2 across four candidate models specified in our analysis. Our spatially explicit approach revealed ‘hotspots’ of cheetah density, highlighting that cheetah are distributed heterogeneously across the landscape. The SECR models incorporated a movement range parameter which indicated that male cheetah moved four times as much as females, possibly because female movement was restricted by their reproductive status and/or the spatial distribution of prey. We show that SECR can be used for spatially unstructured data to successfully characterise the spatial distribution of a low density species and also estimate population density when sample size is small. Our sampling and modelling framework will help determine spatial and temporal variation in cheetah densities, providing a foundation for their conservation and management. Based on our results we encourage other researchers to adopt a similar approach in estimating densities of individually recognisable species.

The vocal repertoire of captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) and the specific role of meow vocalizations in communication of this species attract research interest about two dozen years. Here, we expand this research focus for the contextual use of call types, sex differences and individual differences at short and long terms. During 457 trials of acoustic recordings, we collected calls (n = 8120) and data on their contextual use for 13 adult cheetahs (6 males and 7 females) in four Russian zoos. The cheetah vocal repertoire comprised 7 call types produced in 8 behavioural contexts. Context-specific call types (chirr, growl, howl and hiss) were related to courting behaviour (chirr) or to aggressive behaviour (growl, howl and hiss). Other call types (chirp, purr and meow) were not context-specific. The values of acoustic variables differed between call types. The meow was the most often call type. Discriminant function analysis revealed a high potential of meows to encode individual identity and sex at short terms, however, the vocal individuality was unstable over years. We discuss the contextual use and acoustic variables of call types, the ratios of individual and sex differences in calls and the pathways of vocal ontogeny in the cheetah with relevant data on vocalization of other animals.

Animals navigate their environment using a variety of senses and strategies. This multiplicity enables them to respond to different navigational requirements resulting from habitat, scale and purpose. One of the challenges social animals face is how to reunite after periods of separation. We explore a variety of possible mechanisms used to reunite the members of a cheetah coalition dispersed within a large area after prolonged separation. Using GPS data from three cheetahs reuniting after weeks of separation, we determined that 1) the likelihood of purely coincidental reunion is miniscule 2) the reunion occurred in an area not normally frequented 3) with very little time spent in the region in advance of the reunion. We therefore propose that timely encounter of scent markings where paths cross is the most likely mechanism used to aid the reunion.

What Kitty Shares with Kings Although long-studied, the underlying basis of mammalian coat patterns remains unclear. By studying a large number of cat species and varieties, Kaelin et al. (p. 1536 ) identified two genes, Taqpep and Edn3 , as critical factors in the development of feline pigment patterns. Mutations in Taqpep are responsible for the blotched tabby pattern in domestic cats and the unusual coat of wild king cheetahs. Gene expression patterns in cat and cheetah skin suggest that Edn3 is a likely regulator of felid hair color. The findings support a common model for coat and pigment pattern formation in domestic and wild cats.

SUMMARY The cheetah and racing greyhound are of a similar size and gross morphology and yet the cheetah is able to achieve a far higher top speed. We compared the kinematics and kinetics of galloping in the cheetah and greyhound to investigate how the cheetah can attain such remarkable maximum speeds. This also presented an opportunity to investigate some of the potential limits to maximum running speed in quadrupeds, which remain poorly understood. By combining force plate and high speed video data of galloping cheetahs and greyhounds, we show how the cheetah uses a lower stride frequency/longer stride length than the greyhound at any given speed. In some trials, the cheetahs used swing times as low as those of the greyhounds (0.2 s) so the cheetah has scope to use higher stride frequencies (up to 4.0 Hz), which may contribute to it having a higher top speed that the greyhound. Weight distribution between the animal's limbs varied with increasing speed. At high speed, the hindlimbs support the majority of the animal's body weight, with the cheetah supporting 70% of its body weight on its hindlimbs at 18 m s–1; however, the greyhound hindlimbs support just 62% of its body weight. Supporting a greater proportion of body weight on a particular limb is likely to reduce the risk of slipping during propulsive efforts. Our results demonstrate several features of galloping and highlight differences between the cheetah and greyhound that may account for the cheetah's faster maximum speeds.

An understanding of the factors that affect the distribution of species is a cornerstone of ecology; yet, two-thirds of the world’s species remain undescribed (1) and estimated rates of extinction are high, but certainty around those rates is limited (2). The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List remains the “gold standard” for the analysis of extinction risk for individual species (3), but the Red Lists rely on assumptions of distribution measurement (4) and equilibrium/disequilibrium (5) that may make estimation of future extinction risk more complicated. However, these concerns do not negate the core issues central to the examination of the process of extinction for an individual species: loss of range, loss of populations, increased fragmentation, and eventual decline to a point where recovery is difficult or impossible. In PNAS, Durant et al. (6) take on these issues, bringing together a wide diversity of data across time and space on the status, distribution, and threats facing the cheetah ( Acinonyx jubatus ) to make a strong case for a change in the way that we think about the conservation of widely ranging species whose distributions occur predominantly outside of protected areas. Cheetah face multiple threats: loss and fragmentation of habitat, loss of prey, direct persecution, and illegal trade (6 … [↵][1]1Email: ginsbergj{at}caryinstitute.org. [1]: #xref-corresp-1-1

Seventy-two adult cheetahs were evaluated for the degree of gastritis by endoscopic biopsy and for renal disease by serum creatinine. Cheetahs free of Grade 3 gastritis and renal disease were placed on Trial A; remaining cheetahs were placed on Trial B, which ran concurrently. All cheetahs were monitored for 4 years. Cheetahs exited Trial A and entered Trial B if they developed Grade 3 gastritis or renal disease. Cheetahs exited Trial B if they developed clinical gastritis or renal disease that required a dietary change or aggressive medical therapy or died owing to either disease. Cheetahs on Trial A were fed either a supplemented meat diet (N = 26) or commercial cat food (N = 22). Cheetahs on Trial B were fed either the same meat diet (N = 28) or a commercial dry cat food formulated for renal disease (N = 16). Cheetahs fed meat on Trial A had a daily hazard of developing Grade 3 gastritis 2.21 times higher (95% CI 0.95-5.15) than cheetahs fed commercial cat food. This hazard was not statistically significant (P = 0.07). Mean gastritis scores were not significantly different between the two groups. Cheetahs fed commercial cat food in both Trials had lower serum urea levels and higher creatinine levels than those fed meat. Evidence for the effect of diet in cheetahs with gastritis and/or renal disease (Trial B) was inconclusive. The number of cheetahs dying of gastritis or renal disease at the facility has dropped markedly since the study began. These results indicate that diet may play an important role in the incidence of Grade 3 gastritis and that dietary and/or therapeutic management of gastritis may reduce mortality owing to gastritis and renal disease in captive cheetahs.