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The article explores the geographies of knowledge production about urban Africa in the Norwegian context. Norwegian development debates have responded slowly and reluctantly to urban transformations in Africa. However, there seems to be an emerging focus on African cities both in research and in policy circles. This agenda has much to gain from a growing international literature that challenges existing approaches to African cities. These scholars argue that research and development policy debate continues to represent African cities as dysfunctional exceptionalisms from Western urban experiences or as places where complex urban dynamics of inclusion and exclusion can be solved by policy interventions. Thus, the urban agenda must move beyond what has been labelled the ‘shackles of developmentalism’. The article identifies similar divides in knowledge production in the Norwegian context and critically assesses the state of urban agendas in Norwegian development policies. I argue that policies and debates tend to reproduce similar representations about urbanism, or the lack thereof, to the ones identified in the critical international literature on urban development issues. These representations must be challenged and reworked in order for us to grasp the complexities of African cities and to start developing appropriate political responses. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The rationale for local fiscal autonomy suggests that local expenditure and local revenue generation should remain in close proximity. This is achieved through fiscal decentralisation to local government, to ensure efficient provision of local services that align with local needs, and to improve accountability to residents. Fiscal decentralisation has found resonance in developing countries through local government reforms, but in Africa fiscal decentralisation has been focussed mainly on revenue sharing, except in a few cases where some local fiscal autonomy has been achieved. Urbanisation in Africa is likely to continue (UN-Habitat, 2008), necessitating an increase in municipal service delivery which African cities must finance - hence the need for local fiscal autonomy. Local fiscal autonomy is arguably contentious for African cities, partly because provision of municipal services must be tempered with considerations of equity and redistribution to the poorer urban populations, and because inadequate welfare nets from national government do not subsidise the gap in municipal revenue. In the recent past, Kenya and South Africa adopted local government reforms in different forms that has yielded different forms of local fiscal autonomy. The paper conducts a comparative of local fiscal autonomy in municipal services provision in Nairobi and Johannesburg. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Municipal solid waste management continues to be an environmental health burden in many African cities. Overwhelmed with the magnitude of the problem, city authorities tend to seek out ‘environmentally friendly’ but costly "win–win" technologies via public-private partnerships with firms often from the North, yet these technologies may be inappropriate for the local conditions. While the authorities'' intentions may be laudable, the approach may be born out from an empirical vacuum. Using case studies from Accra, we illustrate how investments in new solid waste management technologies may well be ill-fated if the requisite waste stream composition data does not exist to justify such investments. We also highlight the importance of recognizing the innovations of "informal" waste pickers and legitimizing them with the formal system. Until the evidence – along with appropriate institutional and financial instruments – show favorable conditions for investing in advanced waste management technologies, authorities in African cities would do well to consider integrating proven innovations taking place in their own "backyard." [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The stock of public infrastructure inherited from the colonial era constitutes a strong predictor of the development profiles of African countries. The question that remains to be adequately addressed relates to factors that determine the presence or absence of such infrastructure in the first place. The study reported here employed a logistic analysis in an attempt to answer this question. Colonialism, operationalized in terms of duration of colonial experience, government share of real GDP per capita, and colonizer identity, is posited as a valid predictor of the availability of sanitation infrastructure. The hypothesis is supported by empirical evidence. It is shown that, the availability of central sewerage systems in cities within any African country depends on how long the country was colonized. Colonizer identity, operationalized in terms of the nationality of a colonial power, however, proved to have no predictive ability. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

After two decades of stagnation and decline, there has been a turnaround in the fortunes of many African economies. The implications of this for the burgeoning urban population remain unclear because the connections between economic development and urbanisation appear to be weaker in Africa than elsewhere. It is possible that the benefits of the recovery could by-pass more than benefit the cities because growth is being driven mainly by the extraction of natural resources and not by broad-based industrialisation. The article argues therefore that economic policy in Africa needs a stronger spatial dimension, and that urban policy needs a stronger economic dimension. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Juba, the capital of South Sudan, is the fastest growing city in Africa, exhibiting the most rapid urban expansion and growth ever to take place in the region. Despite its explosive demographic and infrastructural expansion, the urban explosion has received virtually no attention from urban scholars. A grey literature on the city and its context is emerging but no assessment of this knowledge base has been undertaken. This article synthesizes reports from international governmental and non-governmental organizations, aerial and satellite images, and firsthand experiences in the city to develop an understanding of the interaction between the internationally-driven Development Complex (international organizations, foreign investment) in South Sudan as a whole, local development opportunities and the spatial organization of Juba. Our contribution takes stock of the interactions between international and local political forces in the boomtown, and discusses ways forward for urban planning, the international development and local business communities. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

There is much speculation today about how rapid economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa is transforming development prospects in the region. However, in terms of a broad, multi-dimensional, understanding of the term ‘development’, into which social justice must be factored, there are real concerns about whether the undoubted improvements in GDP growth in many countries are strongly connected to urban-located investment and job growth. Many African countries remain poorly placed, in terms of global comparative advantage, to attract significant foreign investment except in primary sectors. The extreme inequality in the ways in which the benefits of current growth are being shared in many countries is another huge problem for the creation of urban employment growth. This article relates these issues to evidence about levels of economic (in)security in many African cities, and to how these have been reflected in a slowing in the rate of urbanization in many countries. It also reviews the evidence about the distribution of incomes in sub-Saharan Africa, and argues that the development of middle classes with their associated higher consumption patterns is minimal as yet. Finally it reflects on the links between internal economic stimuli from, for example, natural-resource based activities including mining and agriculture, and African urban economic development and growth. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Green economic investment has become a tool for technological innovation, energy efficiency, employment generation and environmental improvement that simultaneously mitigates and/or promotes some forms of adaptation to climate change. There is no single recipe for greening urban economies and increasing their environmental change resilience, but effective and flexible governance appears important. Many green economic measures can potentially promote prosperity and environmental resilience in different urban contexts. The links are complex and sometimes problematic. Conflicts of vision, interest and strategy may be deep-seated, leading to delays, sub-optimal outcomes or failure. Sometimes, too, unintended consequences adversely affect accessibility or equity. This article surveys the state of the art in relation to African towns and cities, illustrated with pertinent examples. Although urban greening is less advanced than in other regions, partly because of limited industrialisation, such investment in Africa has the potential to address longstanding development-environment problems, quality of life and livelihood sustainability and well as mitigating and adapting to climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Abstract: Planning in Sub-Saharan Africa owes much to the colonial legacies that inform the shape and composition of African urban spaces and places. This applies to legislation, institutional systems and planning education. In 2008, the Association of African Planning Schools AAPSs embarked on a 3-year initiative on the revitalisation of planning education in Africa, funded by the Rockefeller Foundation. The aim of the project was to propose ways through which the training of urban planners can be more responsive to the special circumstances of African urbanisation. This paper reflects on this initiative. An initial outline is presented on the main challenges facing planners in urban Africa and is positioned within debates regarding the role of planning and planners more generally. A special case is made for the importance of planning in addressing these issues. It does, however, require a departure from the traditional approaches to planners’ training. There are constraints to this. The circumstances that inform planning education in AAPS member schools and the challenges that underpin this endeavour are outlined, based upon information gathered on visits to, and input from member schools and associated publications on planning education in Africa. Findings inform a number of recommendations made on the shifts required if urban planning is to be relevant and effective in the face of current and future urbanisation challenges on the continent. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In recent years, the quest for renewable and sustainable energy has been extensive while solar energy has been on the vanguard of sustainable alternative and renewable energy sources due to its clean nature and cost effectiveness for most human activities such as water pumping and electric power generation, amongst others. The off beam installation of Photovoltaic (PV) modules has posed a severe challenge to the optimal functioning of these PV cells despite the abundance of solar irradiation receivable in most African cities. This paper presents the Optimal Inclination Angles (OIA) for mounting PV modules in the absences of a mechanized or automated solar tracking device, for optimum yield in solar electricity generation for some selected African cities using the Photovoltaic Geographic Information Systems (PVGIS) dataset. The OIA of the selected African cities has been identified for optimal solar irradiation exploitation and if the modules are mounted on a horizontal plane, it is expected that considerable amount of solar irradiation would not be harnessed as it has been estimated using the difference from the Irradiation on OIA (Hopt) and the Irradiation on horizontal plane (Hh), whose difference shows that the northern African cities, Algiers, Rabat and Tripoli, are seen to have high levels in unutilized solar irradiation of 780 Wh/m2, 760 Wh/m2 and 680 Wh/m2 respectively while Harare, Lusaka, Maiduguri, Khartoum, Maputo and Luanda would have considerably high levels in untapped solar irradiation of 360Wh/m2, 330 Wh/m2, 180 Wh/m2, 260 Wh/m2, 570 Wh/m2 and 80 Wh/m2 respectively if PV modules are mounted on horizontal plane. However cities such as Bangui, Abidjan and Mogadishu have quite low levels in unexploited solar irradiation of 40 Wh/m2, 70 Wh/m2 and 10 Wh/m2 respectively when PV modules are mounted on horizontal plane. These differences show the amount of solar irradiation which if adequately harnessed, adds to the solar energy potentials of the region. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Much work on the influence of colonialism on development in Africa has focused on macro-level indicators of development such as the GNP, GDP and GNI/cap. The study reported here focuses on micro-level indicators, namely access to improved water and sanitation facilities. The impact of colonial tenure on access to improved water and sanitation facilities in African cities is explored. It is revealed that such access is a function of the duration of the colonial era. Thus, on average, access to improved water and sanitation facilities is greater in cities within countries that experienced longer periods of colonization than those in which the colonial era was brief. Therefore, despite its reprehensibility, colonialism holds important lessons for ongoing efforts to improve access to water and sanitation in African cities. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

William Cunningham Bissell argues that proposed new urban master plans in Tanzania are unlikely to resolve growing concerns about long-term sustainability. Policies and plans are formulated in a top-down manner, marginalizing the poor and pathologizing the strategies they must pursue to survive. Nor is further growth the answer to the problems that free market policies have already unleashed. Sustainability cannot be achieved without transforming political culture, engaging everyday citizens and treating urban access to services and spaces as basic human rights. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: A city’s transnational airline connections are one measure of its globalization since such links are integral to globalization. In this paper, we use airline networks to (i) map the position of African cities in the global transnational urban network, (ii) explore the inter-urban relationships of major African cities and, (iii) to contribute to the literature on the globalization of African cities. We find that whereas many African cities have poor airline interconnectivity among themselves as well as internationally, and are thus ranked low on global transnational urban networks, some cities such as Johannesburg, Cairo, Cape Town, Nairobi, Durban, and Casablanca have developed relatively good international air connectivity and are thus relatively well integrated into the global transnational urban network. In particular, South African cities, especially Johannesburg, have substantially increased their air connectivity and place in the global transnational urban network since the advent of majority rule in South Africa in 1994. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Durban, a city situated on the east coast of South Africa in the province of KwaZulu-Natal, has always been marked by layered, imbricative and intricate meanings. Through narrative slices, this paper considers the interwoven relationships between identity and urbanity and presents Durban as a palimpsest space. The paper illustrates the co-constituting nature of pre-colonial Durban's form and society, highlighting the manner in which the context of contact left an impression on identity, urbanity and cultural memory. It thereafter suggests that contemporary attempts, through arts and culture, to contour the city in a more inclusive manner, have a long embedded precedent and history. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Emerging studies of African urbanity are reappraising city-making practices and theories in 'the global South'. Grounding alternative claims to 'cityness', the dynamics of informality hold a key to local cultures of transformation. In our age of global change this insight is crucial to grasping future urban demands. What debate about such cities calls for is an interpretive model able to orient circumstantial judgments in often discordant situations. Emphasising the anchoring role of place, the research argues for a research analytic more faithful to everyday events than 'Northern' paradigms of urban order. Concepts of order underpin profound questions of orientation: how do African city dwellers make sense of their expectations? What role does the city play in decision-making? Being true to how life is experienced on the ground implies comprehending its challenges, but interpretation must go beyond simply identifying with the disadvantaged. The plurality of claims to the city creates conflicts that typically obscure deeper issues. Understanding rooted in the mundane order would disclose a concrete metabolism able to mediate rivalry between urban discourses. Instead of a consensus version of what makes a city civic, the proposed analytic follows ideas in planning theory and social processes to address everyday diversity head on. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cities—especially those with substantial poor populations—will face increasingly severe challenges in tackling the impacts of global environmental change (GEC). As economic dynamos and increasingly important population concentrations, cities both contribute substantially, and often are very vulnerable, to the impacts of GEC. This applies strongly in Africa, one of the world’s poorest regions. The inability of even a relatively wealthy and well-protected city such as New Orleans in the USA to withstand Hurricane Katrina has helped focus attention on the vulnerability of cities that are less protected. Coastal cities and towns from Dakar (which is used as a case study) via Lagos, Cape Town, Maputo and Mombasa to Djibouti contain many low-lying areas, often accommodating concentrations of poor residents, strategic infrastructure and economic production. However, different combinations of challenges will affect many inland urban centres. Tackling GEC successfully will require more than enhanced disaster preparedness. Action to address unsustainable aspects of everyday life and current corporate and institutional activity will be necessary. There can be no simple or universal strategy to reduce urban footprints. Local conditions (biophysical, structural, socio-economic and cultural) produce specific constraints and opportunities in each context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accepting that successful “development” is premised on a population's participation in a collective undertaking, we must understand urban residents' interactions and ambitions. In African cities being transformed by geographic and social mobility, it is unclear what forms of inclusion, solidarity, or mutual recognition are desired or possible among those who live there. This paper argues that the pursuit of three objectives—profit, protection, and passage—is shaping these cities' social formations in ways that limit the ability of official and non-official institutions to interweave popular aspirations—however temporarily—to promote a common and mutually beneficial future. The paper starts from the premise that the novelty of the emerging social forms within Africa's cities requires a willingness to induce: to build a conceptual vocabulary of belonging reflecting practices of those living in and moving through Africa's cities. Only after doing this will we have the building blocks for further debate. With this in mind, the paper works towards a pair of interrelated tasks. The first is to challenge three premises often informing discussions of mobility and urban politics: (1) the presence of a dominant host community or political order; (2) that cities are destinations and not points of transit; and (3) that state institutions are the primary source of exclusion and the most potent tool for fostering inclusion in a collective endeavor. Second, it considers one form of membership and inclusion that can emerge where the presumptions outlined above do not hold. In doing so, it points to a kind of “tactical cosmopolitanism”, a set of discourses and practices that can subvert ethnic or national chauvinism and restrictive migration or anti-urbanization policies and practices. Drawing primarily on examples from Johannesburg, it shows how migrants negotiate partial inclusion in transforming societies without becoming bounded by them. The paper ends by reflecting briefly on the challenges such tactics pose for generating a collective urban project. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Africa's urban population growth has been especially rapid, averaging about 5% per year over the past two decades. As a result, many urban areas have experienced dramatic growth that is seriously outstripping the capacity of most cities to provide adequate services for their residents. Although population growth and urbanization rates in Africa have slowed recently due to a number of factors including HIV/AIDS, urban growth is still expected to double by 2030, leading to dramatic sprawl with serious environmental and social consequences. Using Nairobi as an example of a rapidly urbanizing African city, we studied the dynamics of land use and land cover change using satellite data and addressed the need for models and urban management tools that can guide sustainable urban planning policies. Cellular Automata, which integrate biophysical factors with dynamic spatial modeling, are used in this study. The model was calibrated and tested using time series of urbanized areas derived from land use/cover maps, produced from remotely sensed imagery, with future urban growth projected to 2030. Model assessment results showed high levels of accuracy, indicating that simulation findings were realistic, thereby confirming the effectiveness of the model. Results further showed that the model is a useful and effective tool to foresee the spatial consequences of planning policies in the context of many African cities. The forecast for Nairobi showed unsustainable sprawl. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This essay considers the awkward 'life of the corpse' outside of the official spaces of the designated cemetery or burial ground in post-apartheid South Africa. We reflect on a new memorial building in Cape Town, an Ossuary named the New Prestwich Memorial. The memorial was built following a city-wide dispute over the 'accidental discovery' of the bones of thousands of people who were buried in Prestwich Street, close to Cape Town's harbour, but whose presence had been forgotten and concealed by colonial urban development. This essay considers the New Prestwich Memorial Building as an object of public culture. It emerges out of our own deliberate attempt to engage with the Ossuary as an object in history - incomplete, troubling and under construction. Mindful of the debates and texts written about the dispute circulating in Cape Town, we visited both the site of the 'discovery' of the bones in Prestwich Street and the Ossuary. We noted the elements in the visual landscape that alerted us to the work being done by this combination of material substances and design. Our essay is organised around six key terms or phrases that occur in the exhibition text, which guide the visitor's interpretation of the space. These words and phrases appeared to us to mark moments of intense symbolisation, signifiers in which the ideological work of the architect and the authors of the exhibition became most visible. The terms are: Gateway; Engraved Palimpsest; Mirrors; Visitors' Book; Concrete, Brick, Stone; and Closed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study reviews the smart growth concept- and identity-specific principles that could be adopted by rapidly growing African cities. Given the macroeconomic reform changes over the last two decades and given the persistently high natural population growth and continuous influx of rural residents to urban areas, the application of these principles may ensure sustainable urban development. The main assertion of this paper is that due to the rapid spatial expansion of major African cities in recent years, a more informed and thoughtful approach to urban development is needed to achieve efficiency and long-term sustainability. The current urban development pattern, which is dominated by unlimited outward extension, low-density residential developments, and haphazard patterns, is unacceptable. This pattern is destroying prime agricultural and environmentally sensitive lands, while increasing air pollution and traffic congestion. This paper suggests that these problems can be addressed by the adoption of smart growth principles. Smart growth principles promote compact urban development by concentrating growth in existing urban areas. The principles also encourage creating a strong municipal government with the authority to implement land-use legislation and regulations, developing a comprehensive physical plan to guide the location and timing of development, committing strongly to manage urban areas, and providing a wide range of housing choices that are affordable to residents of various incomes, ages, and lifestyles. The central idea of smart growth is that structured and strategic planning supports economic growth, addresses community needs, and protects the environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are few inter-African country urban analyses because of the continent's enormous size and socioeconomic diversity, language barriers, and wide variations in national and regional urban research capacity. Nevertheless, comparative urban studies are critical in understanding contemporary African urbanization. In this comparative spatial and temporal analysis of Ghana and Kenya's urbanization, we find that both countries are urbanizing rapidly and are faced with many common urban problems. Moreover, Ghana is more urbanized than Kenya and has a larger indigenous urban imprint and a more widely dispersed urban pattern. Besides their physiographic and population conditions, we trace these countries' convergent and divergent urban trends to their shared but unique experiences of colonialism, nationalism and globalization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the discussion about policies and strategies for rabies prevention in developing countries, intervention costs arise as a major issue. In a pilot mass vaccination campaign against rabies in N'Djaména, Chad, 3000 dogs were vaccinated. We assessed vaccination coverage and cost, showing the cost per dog vaccinated for the public sector and for society. An extrapolation to city level calculated the approximate cost of vaccinating all 23 600 dogs in N'Djaména. In the pilot mass campaign with 3000 dogs the average cost per dog was 1.69 €. to the public and the full societal cost was 2.45 €. If all 23 600 dogs in N'Djaména were vaccinated, the average cost would fall to 1.16 € to the public and 1.93 € to society. Private sector costs account for 31% of the cost to vaccinate 3000 dogs, and 40% of the cost to vaccinate 23 600 dogs. Mass dog vaccination could be a comparatively cheap and ethical way to both control the disease in animals and prevent human cases and exposure, especially in developing countries. The cost-effectiveness of dog vaccination compared with treating victims of dog bites for prevention of human rabies should be further assessed and documented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Land for housing in most African cities is delivered through informal or semiformal processes. However, until fairly recently, African urban research has tended to focus on compliance with formal state rules and the weaknesses of the public land management system in delivering sufficient land to meet demand. This type of analysis tends to elevate formal rules over other socially embedded rules that may facilitate access to land. It is argued in this paper that the analysis of land delivery processes has to transcend formal institutions established through state law, to the consideration of how actors that are external to the state interpret, use or challenge formal rules and the bases of their power to do so. This implies a pluralist approach to state law and non-state legal norms. By invoking a conceptual framework derived from structuration theory, institutional analysis and societal non-compliance, the paper demonstrates that the social relations between state structures and non-state actors and the institutions that underpin informal land delivery processes in African cities are complex and capable of producing unpredictable outcomes. These outcomes might include, but are not limited to, tolerance or benign neglect, acquiescence and accommodation, false or non-compliance, interspersed with moments of open confrontation and repression, not least the relations of patronage and clientilism mediated through the political system. To illustrate and explain these complexities, the paper draws on examples from recently completed research on informal land delivery processes in five Anglophone African cities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper compares experiences in the application of different approaches to passenger travel data collection in francophone and anglophone cities of West, Central and Southern Africa. Its aim is to identify possible improvements through which common problems might be addressed. The paper draws from the available French and English literature on survey methods applied in Sub-Saharan Africa, as well as from the authors'' experiences in designing and administering surveys in this context. Problems are discussed in terms of survey design and administration. Recommendations to address these problems relate to survey preparation, comparative instrument and cognitive testing, hierarchical multi-modal methods, interviewer selection and training methods, and survey administration and monitoring. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Public spaces have the potential to produce equitable improvements in population health. This mixed-methods systematic review aims to understand the components of, determinants, risks, and outcomes associated with public space initiatives in African cities. This study will include quantitative and qualitative study designs that describe public space initiatives in African cities with implications for promoting health and wellbeing, particularly through the prevention of noncommunicable diseases. Only studies published after 1990 and that contain primary or secondary data will be included in the review. Literature search strategies will be developed with a medical librarian. We will search PubMed, using both text words and medical subject headings. We will adapt this search to Scopus, Global Health, and Web of Science. This systematic review will adopt a mixed methods analytical approach. Mixing will occur in extracting both qualitative and quantitative findings; in synthesizing findings; and in the analysis where we will integrate the qualitative and quantitative strands. The learnings from this study will contribute to advancing knowledge on noncommunicable disease prevention through public space initiatives in African cities.

Addis Ababa was founded in 1886 and since then it has been the capital of Ethiopia - the constant seat of the country’s rulers and the country’s political, administrative and cultural centre. However, Addis Ababa is neither the first town, nor the first capital in the history of the Ethiopian state. Towns and states are very old institutions in the history of mankind. The history of the Ethiopian statehood, almost two thousand years old, shows that there were capitals and big towns. In the historical scale, however, capitals - understood in Europe as constant seats of rulers and centres of state life - were rather rare in Ethiopia. They came into existence only if the state’s ruler, emperor, niguse negest “king above all kings”, succeeded in imposing his control over the rulers of various provinces. Through centuries Ethiopia has been a federation of provinces rather than a state centralized under one sceptre. Emperors - “kings above all kings” - had a limited control over nigus, the rulers, almost independent kings of the provinces. Cases when “king above all kings” managed to dominate over the kings of the provinces strongly enough to control the whole state from the constant seat, without the necessity of continuous travelling all around the country in order to personally protect the interest of his power over all the provinces - a state as a whole - were rather infrequent.

The current global development agendas provide relatively little guidance on how the incredible challenge of sustainable urban development in Africa can and should be financed. This paper makes the case for understanding this development challenge at the nexus of urban governance and city infrastructure. Tracing African urban development trends over the post-colonial period, the paper makes three arguments. First, African cities experience fractured fiscal authority. Decentralization reforms have resulted in contested and complex city governance arrangements. Second, large scale infrastructure investments have been the focus of donors and investors. This has resulted in fragmented networks and systems. Finally, these two processes together have created fertile ground for the emergence of hybrid systems of service delivery in cities. This has implications for both how urban services are governed and their material arrangements. This reality, and the underlying processes which contributed to its production, are under-accounted for within global development discourses. In conclusion, it is crucial that new models of infrastructure finance are developed to respond to the fractured fiscal authority, fragmented infrastructure networks, and hybrid service delivery patterns which characterise African cities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]