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Premise of the study Nuclear microsatellite markers were developed in the fen specialist moss, Scorpidium cossonii, to study genetic diversity and genetic structure of this species in relation to land-use types, habitat fragmentation, and habitat conservation measures. Methods and results The polymorphisms of 14 microsatellite markers were characterized. All primers were tested on 140 gametophytes collected from four populations in Switzerland. The primers amplified di- and trinucleotide repeats with three to 26 alleles per locus. The primers worked also in the two other species of the genus: 14 and 12 primers successfully amplified in S. revolvens and S. scorpioides, respectively. Conclusions In future studies, our primers have the potential to provide valuable information on genetic diversity, genetic structure, and on historical and recent gene flow in S. cossonii; they should also enable related research in other Scorpidium species.

We present a multiplex real-time PCR assay for the simultaneous identification of three morphologically similar species of lichen-forming fungi, Lobaria pulmonaria, Lobaria immixta and Lobaria macaronesica. Based on TaqMan MGB (minor groove binding) probes targeting the fungal internal transcribed spacer (ITS nrDNA) region, our assay unambiguously identifies known samples from all the three species, thus providing a powerful alternative to the more expensive DNA-sequencing techniques.

In lichen symbiosis, fungal and algal partners form close associations, often codispersed by vegetative propagules. Due to the particular interdependence, processes such as colonization, dispersal or genetic drift are expected to result in congruent patterns of genetic structure in the symbionts. To study the population structure of an obligate symbiotic system in Europe, we genotyped the fungal and algal symbionts of the epiphytic lichen Lobaria pulmonaria at eight and seven microsatellite loci, respectively, and analysed about 4300 L. pulmonaria thalli from 142 populations from the species’ European distribution range. Based on a centroid approach, which localizes centres of genetic differentiation with a high frequency of geographically restricted alleles, we identified the South Italy–Balkan region as the primary glacial refugial area of the lichen symbiosis. Procrustean rotation analysis and a distance congruence test between the fungal and algal population graphs indicated general concordance between the phylogeographies of the symbionts. The incongruent patterns found in areas of postglacial recolonization may show the presence of an additional refugial area for the fungal symbiont, and the impact that horizontal photobiont transmission and different mutation rates of the symbionts have on their genotypic associations at a continental scale.

Climate change research is increasingly focusing on the dynamics among species, ecosystems and climates. Better data about the historical behaviours of these dynamics are urgently needed. Such data are already available from ecology, archaeology, palaeontology and geology, but their integration into climate change research is hampered by differences in their temporal and geographical scales. One productive way to unite data across scales is the study of functional morphological traits, which can form a common denominator for studying interactions between species and climate across taxa, across ecosystems, across space and through time—an approach we call ‘ecometrics’. The sampling methods that have become established in palaeontology to standardize over different scales can be synthesized with tools from community ecology and climate change biology to improve our understanding of the dynamics among species, ecosystems, climates and earth systems over time. Developing these approaches into an integrative climate change biology will help enrich our understanding of the changes our modern world is undergoing.

The sequence of events leading to infection by Discula umbrinella of leaves taken from axenically grown beech seedlings was studied at the ultrastructural level. On the host surface, even under optimal conditions and when contact with the host is established, only approximately 70% germination can be observed. In hanging drops containing malt extract, germination is only approximately 10%, suggesting that abundant nutrient supply alone is not enough to promote germination. Incubation of conidia in leaf extracts, on the other hand, results in the induction of germination even if no contact with an appropriate support is established. Between 16 and 24 h after infection four stages of germination can be observed on beech leaves: (i) ungerminated conidia; (ii) germinating conidia producing long superficial hyphae; (iii) conidia with distinct, appressorium-like swelling at the end of the germ tube; and (iv) germinated conidia with a halo around the tip of the germ tube. Transmission electron microscopy shows that subcuticular penetration into the host occurs at places where halos are seen. Apparently only germination with formation of appressorium-like structures and halos leads to successful penetration. Application of conidia to the abaxial side of the host leaf results in the formation of structures similar to those observed on the adaxial surface. Conidial germ tubes penetrate the cuticular layers of the outer edges of the guard cells, but direct penetration through the stomata was rarely observed. Appressorium or halo formation, observed only on the host surface and never on other substrates, suggests host-specific induction of penetrating structures. The mode of penetration observed for D. umbrinella bears some similarities with that described for some biotrophs and pathogens, suggesting affinities between endophytes and pathogens. Key words: beech anthracnose, electron microscopy, endophytes, latent pathogens, ultrastructure.

summary Ectomycorrhizas were synthesized between Picea abies (L.) Karst. and Hebeloma crustuliniforme (Bull. ex St Amans) Quel. in growth pouches containing activated charcoal filter paper. Immediately emanating hyphae from inoculated plugs contacted root hairs and root surfaces, hyphal morphology was altered. They became short-celled with few clamp connections, highly branched, and lacked cell wall ornamentation. Then, hyphae on root surfaces formed an inner synenchymatous mantle and loose hyphae formed an outer prosenchymatous mantle. Simultaneously, root cap cells became invaded by fungal hyphae and their remnants were incorporated into the inner mantle. Further root elongation took place but root hair production was suppressed. Thirdly, a Hartig net began to form in basal portions of developing ectomycorrhizas and the fungal mantle became denser and thicker. Fourthly, growth of the root was reduced and the hyphae of the Hartig net penetrated between cortical cells moving toward the apex. Fifthly, metacutis occasionally surrounded the meristem. At this stage the formation of the ectomycorrhiza can be considered to be complete and the rootlet itself is temporarily in a dormant state.

The availability of highly variable markers for the partners of a fungal symbiosis enables the integrated investigation of ecological and evolutionary processes at the symbiotic level. In this article we analyze the specificity of the first and to date only microsatellite markers that had been developed for an epiphytic lichen (Lobaria pulmonaria). We used DNA extracts from cultures of the fungal and of the green algal symbionts of L. pulmonaria as well as total DNA extracts from related Lobaria species associated with the same algal partner, and got evidence that five of the previously described microsatellite markers, proposed to be fungus-specific, are indeed alga-specific. Hence, highly variable microsatellite primer sets available for both, the algal and the fungal symbionts of L. pulmonaria are now at our hands, which allow us to investigate so far unexplored biological processes of lichen symbionts, such as codispersal and coevolution. In a broader sense, our work evaluates and discusses the challenges in developing biont-specific molecular markers for fungi forming close associations with other organisms.

The following paper assesses the impact of different policy options on the land use and associated biodiversity values of jointly organized low intensity grazing systems (‘Allmende’) in Southern Bavaria. We use an integrated economic and ecological modelling approach to compare the results of the scenarios with a reference situation that reflects the Common Agricultural Policy prior to the Fischler Reform. The economic sub model is based on single farms which alter their land use in response to economic stimuli. Within the economic part, key factors like the farm’s endowment with machinery, quota and buildings but also the farmer’s attitude are regarded. Within the rule based ecological sub model we analyze three main parameters: (a) protected habitats according to the EC Habitats Directive, (b) biodiversity for selected taxonomic groups (plants, lichens, ground beetles) and (c) habitat quality of selected target species (plants, butterflies). An overall evaluation of the scenarios leads to the conclusion that the impact of the Fischler reform will be fairly limited in the study area, since at the observed level of intensity the lower product prices will be compensated by higher direct payments. If all payments were strictly targeted to agri-environmental measures and set to a level which guarantees a low input management of the grass land, the overall public expenses could be reduced by approx. 100 to 200 € ha-1. In addition this setting will provide additional habitats for the target species. However, the number of agricultural employment opportunities and the agricultural value added decline severely. Regarding all indicators but the extent of protected habitats and the public costs, a scenario of complete market liberalization performs the worst.

SUMMARY Comparison of different harvesting and preparation pathways showed that low-temperature SEM is an adequate method to conserve the stomatal aperture for SEM. Both critical point drying and freeze drying cause considerable artefacts. Exposure to site-relevant concentrations of ozone led to reduced width of the stomatal aperture. Moreover, unetchable droplet-like exudates were found on the outer face of mesophyll cells of leaves where the trees had been exposed to ozone. These exudates were later followed by collapsed mesophyll cells and ended in necrotic zones before premature leaf loss.

Botanica Helvetica, 118 (2), ISSN:0253-1453, ISSN:1420-9063

The loss of biodiversity in Europe and elsewhere has been highlighted for several decades.1–5 The scale and potential consequences of this loss has led to action to combat it, notably the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Realising that current policies and action taken to conserve biodivers...

The Lecanoromycetes includes most of the lichen-forming fungal species (13500) and is therefore one of the most diverse class of all Fungi in terms of phenotypic complexity. We report phylogenetic relationships within the Lecanoromycetes resulting from Bayesian and maximum likelihood analyses with complementary posterior probabilities and bootstrap support values based on three combined multilocus datasets using a supermatrix approach. Nine of 10 orders and 43 of 64 families currently recognized in Eriksson's classification of the Lecanoromycetes (Outline of Ascomycota--2006 Myconet 12:1-82) were represented in this sampling. Our analyses strongly support the Acarosporomycetidae and Ostropomycetidae as monophyletic, whereas the delimitation of the largest subclass, the Lecanoromycetidae, remains uncertain. Independent of future delimitation of the Lecanoromycetidae, the Rhizocarpaceae and Umbilicariaceae should be elevated to the ordinal level. This study shows that recent classifications include several nonmonophyletic taxa at different ranks that need to be recircumscribed. Our phylogenies confirm that ascus morphology cannot be applied consistently to shape the classification of lichen-forming fungi. The increasing amount of missing data associated with the progressive addition of taxa resulted in some cases in the expected loss of support, but we also observed an improvement in statistical support for many internodes. We conclude that a phylogenetic synthesis for a chosen taxonomic group should include a comprehensive assessment of phylogenetic confidence based on multiple estimates using different methods and on a progressive taxon sampling with an increasing number of taxa, even if it involves an increasing amount of missing data.

Many lichen species produce both sexual and asexual propagules, but, aside from being minute, these diaspores lack special adaptations for long-distance dispersal. So far, molecular studies have not directly addressed isolation and genetic differentiation of lichen populations, both being affected by gene flow, at a regional scale. We used six mycobiont-specific microsatellite loci to investigate the population genetic structure of the epiphytic lichen Lobaria pulmonaria in two regions that strongly differed with respect to anthropogenic impact. In British Columbia, L. pulmonaria grows in continuous old-growth forests, while its populations in the old cultural landscape of Switzerland are comparably small and fragmented. Populations from both British Columbia and Switzerland were genetically diverse at the loci. Geographically restricted alleles, low historical gene flow, and analyses of genetic distance (upgma tree) and of differentiation (amova) indicated that populations from Vancouver Island and from the Canadian mainland were separated from each other, except for one, geographically intermediate population. This differentiation was attributed to different glacial and postglacial histories of coastal and inland populations in British Columbia. In contrast to expectations, the three investigated Swiss populations were genetically neither isolated nor differentiated from each other despite the long-lasting negative human impact on the lichen's range size in Central Europe. We propose that detailed studies integrating local landscape and regional scales are now needed to understand the processes of dispersal and gene flow in lichens.

Propagation, dispersal, and establishment are fundamental population processes, and are critical stages in the life cycle of an organism. In symbiotic organisms such as lichens, consisting of a fungus and a population of photobionts, reproduction is a complex process. Although many lichens are able to reproduce both sexually and asexually, the extent of vegetative propagation within local populations is unknown. We used six polymorphic microsatellite loci to investigate whether recombination is common in natural populations, and to assess if and how clonal reproduction influences the spatial genetic structure within populations of the epiphytic lichen species Lobaria pulmonaria. High genetic diversity within all 12 investigated populations and evidence of recombination, from various tests, indicated that L. pulmonaria is a predominantly outcrossing species. Nevertheless, clonality occurred in all populations, but the presence of recurring multilocus genotypes influenced the spatial genetic structure only within low-density populations. This could be interpreted as indicative of genetic bottlenecks owing to increased habitat loss and disturbance. Consequently, for a predominantly outcrossing lichen species, exogenous factors might be substantially altering population processes and hence genetic structure.

The control of the directionality of cell ex- pansion was investigated using a class of eight genes, the so-called DISTORTED ( DIS) genes, that are required for proper expansion of leaf trichomes in Arabidopsis thaliana. By tracing the separation of latex beads placed on the trichome surface, we demonstrate that trichomes grow by diffuse rather than tip growth, and that in dis mutants deviations from the normal orientation of growth can occur in all possible directions. We could not detect any differences in intracellular organization be- tween wild-type and dis-group mutants by electron microscopy. The analysis of double mutants showed that although the expression of the dis phenotype is gener- ally independent of branching and endoreduplication, dis mutations act synthetically in combination lesions in the ZWI gene, which encodes a kinesin motor protein. Using a MAP4:GFP marker line, we show that the organization of cortical microtubules is affected in dis-group mutants. The finding that most dis-group mutants have actin defects suggested to us that actin is involved in organizing the orientation of microtubules. By analyzing the microtubule organization in plants treated with drugs that bind to actin, we verified that actin is involved in the positioning of cortical microtu- bules and thereby in plant cell expansion.

Widespread changes in natural and managed environments in the last century have been associated with rapid development of technology with the capacity for massive destruction of natural environments. This has been accompanied by large-scale natural disasters such as floods and droughts and by large-scale technical failures such as Chernobyl, impacting greatly on human existence and welfare. It is the impact on social conditions that has led to increasing interest in maintaining environmental quality and ensuring that human activities do not threaten the ecosystem on which we depend. The threats to human health by water and air pollution led to early research on bioindicators in order to map and monitor the effects of pollution on selected organisms. However the range of objectives to which biomonitoring is applied has grown steadily from water quality and atmospheric pollution to heavy metal accumulation, climate change, and to environmental issues involving management of natural resources such as the effects of fragmentation and habitat alteration, effects of development on biodiversity as well as assessing conservation practices for rare or endangered species.

In the last decades, several methods were proposed for assessing environmental quality — mainly air pollution — on the basis of lichen data (see chapter 4, this volume). At the end of the 80s the predictivity of 20 different methods with respect to instrumental pollution data was tested in Switzerland using multiple regression [1, 5]. The highest correlation was found with the sum of frequencies of lichen species within a sampling grid of 10 units positioned on the trunks of free-standing trees. This method was immediately and widely adopted in several other countries, esp. Italy and Germany, with some modifications, chiefly concerning the size of the sampling grid. Since 1987, hundreds of studies were carried out with this approach, which led to its standardization in the form of guidelines both in Germany [13], and in Italy [7].

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is an important tool for studying the cellular and subcellular structures of lichens and SEM has been particularly valuable for examining the external and internal morphology of cells and plectenchyma (Hale 1973; Garty and Delarea 1987; Jahns 1987; Lumbsch and Kothe 1992; Valladares et al., 1994; Honegger and Peter 1994; Scheidegger 1995) and for studying lichen taxonomy (Tibell 1991; Scheidegger 1993). SEM alone or combined with micro-analytical techniques has been used in environmental studies of lichens to examine calcium oxalate on the thallus surface of Parmotrema reticulatum (Modenesi 1993), to evaluate the impact of air pollution on the integrity of cell membranes of Ramalina duriaei (Garty et al. 1993) and to investigate the lichen-rock interface (Ascaso and Wierzchos 1994; Williamson et al. 1998). For most biological SEM applications it is necessary to fix specimens, in order to stabilise structures and functional states. The main problem encountered during preparation of biological specimens for electron microscopy (EM) arises from the necessity to transform the aqueous biological sample into a solid in which it can resist the physical impact of the electron microscope (high vacuum, electron beam irradiation). Fixation is achieved either by chemical (chemical fixation) or by physical treatments e.g. freezing (cryofixation).

We investigated the lichen flora of the main habitats existing in Rodnei Mountains identifying 283 lichen species, and one subspecific taxon. Of these, 67 taxa are new records for the lichen flora of Romania, and 182 species are reported for the first time in Rodnei Mountains. Considering previous reports and our results, 442 lichen taxa are reported in Rodnei Mountains region in total, accounting for approx. 35% of the total lichen flora of Romania. When comparing the Red Lists of Romania and surrounding Carpathian countries, our data revealed the presence of a high number of threatened species in the region.

Premise of the study: Microsatellite primers were developed in the endangered tree species Taxus wallichiana from Nepal to investigate regional genetic differentiation, local genetic diversity, and gene flow for the conservation of this species under climate- and land-use change scenarios in mountain regions of Nepal. Methods and Results: We developed 10 highly polymorphic microsatellite markers from 454 DNA sequencing. Characterization of the new microsatellite loci was done in 99 individuals collected from three valleys with different climatic regimes. The number of alleles per locus varied from four to 12. Observed heterozygosity of populations, averaged across loci, ranged from 0.30 to 0.59. Conclusions: The new markers provided by this study will substantially increase the resolution for detailed studies in phylogeography, population genetics, and parentage analysis.

Fungal populations that reproduce sexually are likely to be genetically more diverse and have a higher adaptive potential than asexually reproducing populations. Mating systems of fungal species can be self-incompatible, requiring the presence of isolates of different mating-type genes for sexual reproduction to occur, or self-compatible, requiring only one. Understanding the distribution of mating-type genes in populations can help to assess the potential of self-incompatible species to reproduce sexually. In the locally threatened epiphytic lichen-forming fungus Lobaria pulmonaria (L.) Hoffm., low frequency of sexual reproduction is likely to limit the potential of populations to adapt to changing environmental conditions. Our study provides direct evidence of self-incompatibility (heterothallism) in L. pulmonaria. It can thus be hypothesized that sexual reproduction in small populations might be limited by an unbalanced distribution of mating-type genes. We therefore assessed neutral genetic diversity (using microsatellites) and mating-type ratio in 27 lichen populations (933 individuals). We found significant differences in the frequency of the two mating types in 13 populations, indicating a lower likelihood of sexual reproduction in these populations. This suggests that conservation translocation activities aiming at maximizing genetic heterogeneity in threatened and declining populations should take into account not only presence of fruiting bodies in transplanted individuals, but also the identity and balanced representation of mating-type genes.

Structural alterations of the photobiont and mycobiont cells of lichens have been related to CO2-gas exchange during experiments involving water vapour uptake and desiccation of liquid-water-saturated thalli. Increasing water vapour uptake of air dry lichens led to a gradual unfolding of the photobiont cells in Lobaria pulmonaria, Pseudevernia furfuracea, Ramalina maciformis and Teloschistes lacunosus as studied by low-temperature scanning electron microscopy. The data indicated that globular, probably turgid, cells and also slightly infolded or even heavily collapsed cells contributed to positive net photosynthesis, which was reached after water vapour uptake by the four species studied. During desiccation of fully water-saturated thalli of L. pulmonaria, extrathalline water films gradually evaporated before maximum values of CO2-gas exchange were measured and before photobiont cells started to shrivel. In contrast, in P. furfuracea the CO2-gas exchange maximum was reached when a considerable percentage of photobiont cells had already collapsed and while other parts of the thalli were still covered with liquid water. Further desiccation led to cavitation of the cortical cells in both species, this occurring at water contents at which net photosynthesis was still positive.

Cuttings of hybrid poplar (Populus × euramericana var. “Dorskamp”) were exposed to ozone (80 μg/m3 from 2100 hours to 0700 hours, 180 μg/m3 from 0700 hours to 2100 hours) for 3 months. Ozone reduced the starch content in leaves and stem bark, whereas starch granules accumulated in bundle sheath cells along small leaf veins. At the same time, sucrose and inositol content increased in the leaves. Mesophyll cells in the vicinity of the stomata were injured first, and droplet-like material appeared on their walls. In the sieve plates of fumigated trees, the pores showed a higher degree of narrowing than those of the control treatment. Cell collapse in the leaves was accompanied by water loss and an increase in air space. In the stems, the ozone treatment led to a reduced radial width, particularly in the xylem tissue. These results are discussed in relation to reduced or inhibited phloem loading and ozone-induced drought stress. The plants injured by ozone showed quite distinct patterns of metabolite responses as well as enzyme activities (PEP- and RubP-carboxylase) in the leaves from the top to the bottom. There were also remarkable differences in the reaction of sucrose and inositol between leaves and stem bark. Future research should therefore increasingly follow a whole-plant approach for a better understanding of complex plant reactions.

Leaf and bark structure of a birch clone (Betula pendula Roth) continuously exposed to charcoal-filtered air or charcoal-filtered air plus ozone (0.05, 0.075, 0.1 μl 1-1) was investigated throughout one growing season. Increasing ozone dose influenced leaf differentiation by reducing leaf area and increasing inner leaf air space, density of cells developing into stomata, scales and hairs. When approximately the same ozone dose had been reached, macroscopical and microscopical symptoms appeared irrespective of the ozone concentration used during treatment. Structural decline began in mesophyll cells around stomatal cavities (droplet-like exudates on the cell walls), continued with disintegration of the cytoplasma and ended in cell collapse. Epidermal cells showed shrinkage of the mucilaginous layer (related to water loss). Their collapse marked the final stage of leaf decline. When subsidiary cells collapsed, guard cells passively opened for a transitory period before collapsing and closing. With increasing ozone dose starch remained accumulated along the small leaf veins and in guard cells. IIK-positive grains were formed in the epidermal cells. This contrasted with the senescent leaves, where starch was entirely retranslocated. Injury symptoms in stem and petiole proceeded from the epidermis to the cambium. Reduced tissue area indicated reduced cambial activity. In plants grown in filtered air and transferred into ozone on 20 August, injury symptoms developed faster than in leaves formed in the presence of ozone. Results are discussed with regard to O3-caused acclimation and injury mechanisms.

Injury caused by low O3 concentrations (0, 0.05, 0.075, 0.1 μl 1-1) was analyzed in the epidermis and mesophyll of fully developed birch leaves by gas exchange experiments and low-temperature SEM: (I) after leaf formation in O3-free and ozonated air, and (II) after transferring control plants into ozonated air. In control leaves, autumnal senescence also was studied in O3-free air (III). As O3 concentration increased, leaves of (I) stayed reduced in size, but showed increased specific weight and stomatal density. The declining photosynthetic capacity, quantum yield and carboxylation efficiency lowered the light saturation of CO2 uptake and the water-use efficiency (WUE). Carbon gain was less limited by the reduced stomatal conductance than by the declining ability of CO2 fixation in the mesophyll. The changes in gas exchange were related to the O3 dose and were mediated by narrowed stomatal pores (overriding the increase in stomatal density) and by progressive collapse of mesophyll cells. The air space in the mesophyll increased, preceded by exudate formation on cell walls. Ozonated leaves, which had developed in O3-free air (II), displayed a similar but more rapid decline than the leaves from (I). In senescent leaves (III), CO2 uptake showed a similar decrease as in leaves with O3 injury but no changes in mesophyll structure and WUE. The nitrogen concentration declined only in senescent leaves in parallel with the rate of CO2 uptake. A thorough understanding of O3 injury and natural senescence requires combined structural and functional analyses of leaves.

Four primers for the amplification of mitochondrial DNA of lichenforming ascomycetes are presented. The primers match the conserved regions U2, U4, and U6, respectively, of mitochondrial small subunit (SSU) ribosomal DNA (rDNA). Polymerase chain reaction using different combinations of the primers produced single amplification products from DNA of eight lichen-forming fungal species but did not amplify DNA of two axenic cultured algal species. The amplification product obtained from Lobaria pulmonaria was sequenced and the 894-bp sequence was compared with the mitochondrial SSU rDNA sequence of Podospora anserine. The two sequences revealed more than 76% identity in the conserved regions U3 to U5 demonstrating that we amplified mitochondrial DNA. The primers matching U2 and U6 yielded amplification products of 800–1000 bp depending on the species examined. The variation observed suggests that mitochondrial SSU rDNA may be useful for phylogenetic analyses of lichen-forming ascomycetes.

In an alpine meadow ecosystem in the Swiss National Park, the lichensCetraria islandica andCladonia symphycarpa occur in small vegetation patches dominated byCarexfirma (Cyperaceae) andSesleria coerulea (Gramineae). Laboratory food-choice experiments with two oribatid mitesFuscozetes setosus andCarabodes intermedius show that the thallus structure and secondary products ofC. islandica are repellent factors against herbivorous mites. In contrast, secondary products ofC. symphycarpa may be an attractant for the mites.

The Swiss National Science Foundation has recently granted a project where we propose to study how different levels of land-use intensity (from primeval forests to arable fields) and climate do affect biodiversity on the southern slope of the Nepalese Himalayas. We will investigate replicated land-use gradients at various altitudes in three regions with a different regional climate, and in particular, different levels of seasonal precipitation. Our core study region will be the Manaslu Conservation Area characterized by an oceanic climate and this region will be compared to a hyper-oceanic region in Annapurna Conservation Area and a semi-oceanic region of the Sagarmatha (Everest) region. By using a quasi-experimental landscape approach organisms will be investigated in six valleys covering different precipitation regimes, altitudinal gradients over 1600 m representing different temperatures, and four land use types ranging from closed forests to open landscapes. These organisms will include plants, lichens, mushrooms, butterflies and birds. Population data of Red Listed mammals (flagship species) will be collected during the project by local authorities. The functional connectivity of forest fragments along land-use and climate gradients will be assessed for two intensively studied species, the epiphytic lichen Lobaria pindarensis and the tree species Taxus wallichiana. DOI: 10.3126/botor.v7i0.4368Botanica Orientalis – Journal of Plant Science (2010) 7: 7-17

Forest management must take into account in its management schemes very different goals such as timber production, protection from natural hazards, and biological conservation. In this paper we propose a new management principle based on the basic ecological characteristics of forests that could help the integration of these goals. We discuss the factors influencing species richness in forests and relate changes in species richness to the history of forest management. A closer look at hypotheses about possible links between disturbances and species richness reveals that dominance reduction is considered to be the main effect of disturbance events on species richness. We therefore propose dominance reduction as a management principle for forests in central Europe that are actively managed. This, we claim, is a way to maintain biodiversity in an integrative management approach. Three types of disturbances are distinguished: endogenous, exogenous, and human-induced disturbances. This distinction allows a connection to be made between natural and anthropogenic impacts on forests, thus overcoming the negative connotation disturbance events have. Planning forest management according to the principle of dominance reduction will facilitate the search for new ways to integrate the different needs society wants to have fulfilled by forests.

SUMMARY High nitrogen concentrations are known to affect ectomycorrhizas and ectomycorrhizal fungi in field and laboratory experiments. Using NH4+ as a nitrogen source in the growth pouch system, a variety of structural modifications were documented on first order lateral roots of Picea abies (L.) Karst. seedlings. Root cells increased in size and number at high levels of NH4+, resulting in a hypertrophic appearance of roots in both uncolonized seedlings and in those inoculated with mycelia of the ectomycorrhizal fungus Hebeloma crustuliniforme (Bull. ex St. Amans) Qu6l. A fungal mantle surrounded short roots of inoculated seedlings, and the outer walls of epidermal and cortical cells were often thickened when in contact with fungal hyphae. No Hartig net developed, although intracellular penetration of fungal hyphae into epidermal and cortical cells frequently occurred. At moderate NH-4+ concentrations, Hartig net development was incomplete, but occasional intracellular penetration of Hartig net hyphae into epidermal and cortical cells occurred. The addition of high levels of NH + after ectomycorrhizal development resulted in ectomycorrhizas with distinctly altered apical structures. None of the various NH 4? concentrations resulted in significantly different plant dry weights after two months of exposure, either with or without fungal inoculation. After four months, dry weight, root length and branching indices were higher in both inoculated plants and those exposed to high nitrogen. The root/shoot ratio and number of short roots per seedling were high with fungal inoculation. Shoot nitrogen levels after two and four months and the Ca levels after 4 months were higher with increasing NH4+ in the nutrient solution. Other mineral elements were not influenced by nitrogen concentrations and fungal inoculation.

Dispersal is a process critical for the dynamics and persistence of metapopulations, but it is difficult to quantify. It has been suggested that the old-forest lichen Lobaria pulmonaria is limited by insufficient dispersal ability. We analyzed 240 DNA extracts derived from snow samples by a L. pulmonaria-specific real-time PCR (polymerase chain reaction) assay of the ITS (internal transcribed spacer) region allowing for the discrimination among propagules originating from a single, isolated source tree or propagules originating from other locations. Samples that were detected as positives by real-time PCR were additionally genotyped for five L. pulmonaria microsatellite loci. Both molecular approaches demonstrated substantial dispersal from other than local sources. In a landscape approach, we additionally analyzed 240 snow samples with real-time PCR of ITS and detected propagules not only in forests where L. pulmonaria was present, but also in large unforested pasture areas and in forest patches where L. pulmonaria was not found. Monitoring of soredia of L. pulmonaria transplanted to maple bark after two vegetation periods showed high variance in growth among forest stands, but no significant differences among different transplantation treatments. Hence, it is probably not dispersal limitation that hinders colonization in the old-forest lichen L. pulmonaria, but ecological constraints at the stand level that can result in establishment limitation. Our study exemplifies that care has to be taken to adequately separate the effects of dispersal limitation from a limitation of establishment.

DYMYTROVA, L., NADYEINA, O., NAUMOVYCH, A., KELLER, C. & SCHEIDEGGER, C. 2013. Primeval beech forests of Ukrainian Carpathians are sanctuaries for rare and endangered epiphytic lichens. — Herzogia 26: 73– 89. A total of 203 epiphytic lichens and lichen-allied fungi were recorded in the Uholsko-Shyrokoluzhanskyi primeval beech forests, seven of them (Buellia chloroleuca, Lecanora strobilina, Ramonia luteola, Rinodina capensis, Thelopsis flaveola, Usnea wasmuthii and Wadeana dendrographa) are listed for the first time for Ukraine. 25 lichen species, including Arthonia vinosa, Arthopyrenia punctiformis, A. rhyponta, Bacidia incompta, Biatora carneoalbida, Buellia insignis, B. schaereri, Caloplaca cerina var. chloroleuca, C. monacensis, Megalaria laureri, Piccolia ochrophora, Porina hibernica, P. leptalea, Reichlingia leopoldii, Thelocarpon laureri, Verrucaria viridigrana, Xanthoria fulva, X. ulophyllodes are reported as new to the Carpathian Biosphere Reserve. The high species richness of rare and ...