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The dynamics of two DNA hairpins (5'-TCGCCT-A31-AGGCGA-3' and 5'-TCGCCG-A31-CGGCGA-3') were studied using immobilization-based and diffusion-based single-molecule fluorescence techniques. The techniques enabled separated and detailed investigation of the states and of the transition reactions. Only two states, open and closed, were identified from analysis of the FRET histograms; metastable states with lifetimes longer than the technique resolution (0.3 ms) were not observed. The opening and closing reaction rates were determined directly from the FRET time trajectories, and the Gibbs free energies of these states and of the transition state were calculated using the Kramer theory. The rates, which are undoubtedly of transitions between the fully closed and the fully open states and ranged from 2 to 90 s(-1), were lower (∼10-fold) than the rates previously determined from fluorescence correlation spectroscopy. The heights of the barriers for closing were almost identical for the two hairpins. The barrier for opening the hairpin with the stronger stem was higher (4.3 kJ/mol) than that for the hairpin with the weaker stem, in very good agreement with the difference in stability calculated by the nearest-neighbor method. The barrier for closing the hairpin decreased (∼8 kJ/mol) and the barrier for opening increased (∼4 kJ/mol) with increasing NaCl concentration (10-100 mM), indicating that higher ionic strength stabilizes the folded state with respect to the transition state and stabilizes the transition state relative to the unfolded state. The very good agreements in the dynamics measured for free hairpins, for hairpins anchored to origami, and for hairpins anchored to the coverslip and the very good agreement between the two single-molecule techniques demonstrate that neither the origami nor the coverslip influence the hairpin dynamics, supporting a previous demonstration that origami can serve as a platform for biophysical investigations.

Gillian Hadfield and Stephen Macedo argue that late-Rawlsian stability for the right reasons, that is, stability based on participants’ reciprocal cooperation, can arise even if participants start out only economically rational and indifferent to justice. As they explain, even purely rational actors have an interest in having a neutral “shared logic” to coordinate decentralized enforcement of social cooperation and in internalizing that logic. Once developed and internalized, they add, that logic renders their reasoning public, and their persons, reasonable and responsive to Rawlsian justice considerations. Hadfield and Macedo’s account seeks to lend Rawlsian contractualism a contractarian foundation. I raise five challenges to their account, focusing on the sense in which actors “start out” purely rational; on illiberal means that may serve rational citizens’ joint ends; on the counterexample of Martin Luther King; on the difficulty of specifying the mechanism for shared logic-internalization; and on the further counterexample of a medical student who internalizes compassion, only upon the condition that it serves his rational aims.

We present a test case example of a detailed single-molecule fluorescence study of one of the most sophisticated and complex DNA devices introduced to date, a recently published autonomous bipedal DNA motor. We used the diffusion-based single-molecule Förster resonance energy transfer technique, coupled to alternating laser excitation (sm-FRET-ALEX), to monitor the motor assembly and operation. The study included verification of the formation of the correct structures, and of the correct motor operation, determination of the formation and stepping reaction yields, and identification of side products. Finally, the mechanisms of the motor assembly and operation were elucidated by measuring the reaction kinetics profile of track-walker binding and of lifting of the walker's leg upon fuel addition. The profiles revealed a fast phase, in which about half of the reaction was completed, followed by a slow phase which adds somewhat to the yield, reflecting the incomplete motor assembly and operation identified in the equilibrium experiments. Although further study is needed to fully understand the reasons for the incomplete assembly and operation, this work demonstrates that single-molecule fluorescence, based on its ability to provide detailed in situ structural dynamics information, inaccessible for traditional methods, constitutes an excellent tool for chaperoning the development of DNA-based technology.

Among the advantages of the single-molecule approach when used to study biomolecular structural dynamics and interaction is its ability to distinguish between and independently observe minor subpopulations. In a single-molecule Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) and alternating laser excitation diffusion experiment, the various populations are apparent in the resultant histograms. However, because histograms are calculated based on the per-burst mean FRET and stoichiometry ratio and not on the internal photon distribution, much of the acquired information is lost, thereby reducing the capabilities of the method. Here we suggest what to our knowledge is a novel statistical analysis tool that significantly enhances these capabilities, and we use it to identify and isolate static and dynamic subpopulations. Based on a kernel density estimator and a proper photon distribution analysis, for each individual burst, we calculate scores that reflect properties of interest. Specifically, we determine the FRET efficiency and brightness ratio distributions and use them to reveal 1), the underlying structure of a two-state DNA-hairpin and a DNA hairpin that is bound to DNA origami; 2), a minor doubly labeled dsDNA subpopulation concealed in a larger singly labeled dsDNA; and 3), functioning DNA origami motors concealed within a larger subpopulation of defective motors. Altogether, these findings demonstrate the usefulness of the proposed approach. The method was developed and tested using simulations, its rationality is described, and a computer algorithm is provided.

To achieve single-molecule sensitivity and thus have the ability to detect single diffusing fluorophores, careful alignment of the microsecond-alternating laser excitation (μs-Alex) setup is crucial. The following protocol describes routine alignment for 2c-ALEX (532 nm/635 nm) with spectral windows G550–620R650–750.

Single-molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer (smFRET) has been widely applied to the study of fluorescently labeled biomolecules on surfaces and in solution. Sorting single molecules based on fluorescent dye stoichiometry provides one with further layers of information and also enables “filtering” of unwanted molecules from the analysis. We accomplish this sorting by using alternating laser excitation (ALEX) in combination with smFRET measurements; here we describe the implementation of these methodologies for the study of biomolecules in solution.

Consider a Markov process with countably many states. In order to find a one-state occupation time distribution, we use a combination of Fourier and Laplace transforms in the way that allows for the inversion of the Fourier transform. We derive a closed-form expression for the occupation time distribution in the case of a simple continuous-time random walk on Z and represent the one-state occupation density of a reversible process as a mixture of Bessel densities.

This paper presents an innovative approach towards parametric design using point-clouds as design media. Exposing the internal numeric representation of digital models led to the development of parametric point-clouds as design drivers. A parametric point-cloud concept is presented in this paper, exploring its potential application for behavior modeling, generative design and performance-driven design of building envelopes.

The stability of the nucleosome core particle (NCP) is believed to play a major role in regulation of gene expression. To understand the mechanisms that influence NCP stability, we studied stability and dissociation and association kinetics under different histone protein (NCP) and NaCl concentrations using single-pair Förster resonance energy transfer and alternating laser excitation techniques. The method enables distinction between folded, unfolded, and intermediate NCP states and enables measurements at picomolar to nanomolar NCP concentrations where dissociation and association reactions can be directly observed. We reproduced the previously observed nonmonotonic dependence of NCP stability on NaCl concentration, and we suggest that this rather unexpected behavior is a result of interplay between repulsive and attractive forces within positively charged histones and between the histones and the negatively charged DNA. Higher NaCl concentrations decrease the attractive force between the histone proteins and the DNA but also stabilize H2A/H2B histone dimers, and possibly (H3/H4)2 tetramers. An intermediate state in which one DNA arm is unwrapped, previously observed at high NaCl concentrations, is also explained by this salt-induced stabilization. The strong dependence of NCP stability on ion and histone concentrations, and possibly on other charged macromolecules, may play a role in chromosomal morphology.

An often limiting factor for studying protein folding by single-molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) is the ability to site-specifically introduce a photostable organic FRET donor (D) and a complementary acceptor (A) into a polypeptide chain. Using alternating-laser excitation and chymotrypsin inhibitor 2 as a model, we show that chemical labeling of a unique cysteine, followed by enzymatic modification of a reactive glutamine in an N-terminally appended substrate sequence recognition tag for transglutaminase (TGase) affords stoichiometrically D-/A-labeled protein suitable for single-molecule FRET experiments. Thermodynamic data indicate that neither the presence of the TGase tag nor D/A labeling perturbs protein stability. As the N terminus in proteins is typically solvent accessible, a TGase tag can (in principle) be appended to any protein of interest by genetic engineering. Two-step chemical/enzymatic labeling may thus represent a simple, low-cost, and widely available strategy for D/A labeling of proteins for FRET-based single-molecule protein folding studies, even for non-protein-experts laboratories.

Prebiotic chemistry presumably took place before formation of an oxygen-rich atmosphere and thus under conditions of intense short wavelength UV irradiation. Therefore, the UV photochemical stability of the molecular building blocks of life may have been an important selective factor in determining the eventual chemical makeup of critical biomolecules. To investigate the role of UV irradiation in base-pairing we have studied guanine (G) and cytosine (C) base pairs in the absence of the RNA backbone. We distinguished base-pair structures by IR–UV hole-burning spectroscopy as well as by high-level correlated ab initio calculations. The Watson–Crick structure exhibits broad UV absorption, in stark contrast to other GC structures and other base-pair structures. This broad absorption may be explained by a rapid internal conversion that makes this specific base pair arrangement uniquely photochemically stable.

The vibronic spectra of laser desorbed and jet cooled guanine (G) adenine (A), and cytosine (C) consist of bands from four, two and two major tautomers respectively, as revealed by UV-UV and IR-UV double resonance spectroscopy. The vibronic spectrum of adenine around 277 nm consists of weak nπ* and strong ππ* transitions, based on IR-UV and deuteration experiments. Precise ionization potentials of G and A were determined with 2-color, 2-photon ionization. We also measured vibronic and IR spectra of several base pairs. GC exhibits a HNH ... OH/NH ... N/C=O ... HNH bonding similar to the Watson-Crick GC base pair but with C as enol tautomer. One GG isomer exhibits non-symmetric hydrogen bonding with HNH ... N/NH ... N/C=O ... HNH interactions. A second observed GG isomer has a symmetrical hydrogen bond arrangement with C=O ... NH/NH ... O=C bonding. Two CC isomers were observed with symmetrical C=O ... NH/NH ... O=C bonding and nonsymmetrical C=O ... HNH/NH ... N interaction, respectively. Guanosine (Gs), 2-DeoxyGs und 3-DeoxyGs each exhibit only one isomer in the investigated wavelength range around 290 nm with a strong intramolecular sugar(5-OH) ... enolguanine(3-N) hydrogen bond.

We report resonant two-photon ionization spectra of laser desorbed, jet cooled, cytosine, 1-methyl cytosine, 5-methyl cytosine, and dimers of these. Unlike other pyrimidine bases, cytosine exhibits vibronic spectra with sharp features in two spectral regions, separated by about 5000 cm 1 . We interpret these as being due to two tautomeric forms, one keto and one enol. The dimers absorb at wavelengths that are intermediate between those of the two monomer forms. By UV–UV hole burning we determined the numbers of isomers contributing to each spectrum and by delayed two color ionization we determined triplet lifetimes. We observed hydrogen transfer between bases both in collisions between monomers and after photo-excitation in clusters. 2002 Published by Elsevier Science B.V.

We present R2PI, IR–UV and UV–UV double resonance measurements of the guanine–cytosine (G–C) dimer formed in a supersonic jet. We show that there is only one isomer of G–C in the investigated wavelength range from 33200 to 34100 cm−1. We assigned the observed G–C isomer to a specific structure, based on comparisons of the IR spectra of the G and C monomers with the G–C dimer in the range of the OH and NH stretching vibrations and ab initio-calculated vibrational frequencies and dimer stabilities. The cluster exhibits an HNH⋯O/NH⋯N/CO⋯HNH bonding similar to the Watson–Crick G–C base pair bonding but with C as the enol tautomer. We did not observe any keto–keto or enol–enol G–C dimers in the investigated wavelength region.

In this paper we present detailed R2PI spectra with IR–UV and UV–UV double resonance measurements of the guanine dimer (GG) and its methylated derivatives. We show that there are two isomers of GG in the investigated wavelength range from 32565 to 33600 cm−1. We were able to assign the two isomers to specific structures based on comparison of the intermolecular vibronic patterns of the dimers with and without methylation, on analysis of the IR spectra in the range of the OH and NH stretching vibrations and on comparison with ab initio calculated dimer stabilities and vibrational frequencies. In both structures both guanine moieties are in the keto tautomeric form, even though the enol tautomers are also present in the beam. One isomer exhibits nonsymmetric hydrogen bonding with HNH⋯N, NH⋯N and CO⋯HNH interactions (K9K7-2). The other isomer has a symmetrical hydrogen bond arrangement with CO⋯NH/NH⋯OC bonding (K9K7-1). The most stable guanine dimer forms CO⋯NH/NH⋯OC hydrogen bonds and has C2h symmetry (K9K9-1). Due to its strong exciton splitting the allowed S0–S2 transition is outside the investigated spectral range. We did not observe any keto–enol or enol–enol dimers in the investigated wavelength region. The calculations predict these dimers to be considerably less stable.

In this work, the successful operation of a dynamic DNA device constructed from two DNA origami building blocks is reported. The device includes a bipedal walker that strides back and forth between the two origami tiles. Two different DNA origami tiles are first prepared separately; they are then joined together in a controlled manner by a set of DNA strands to form a stable track in high yield as confirmed by single-molecule fluorescence (SMF). Second, a bipedal DNA motor, initially attached to one of the two origami units and operated by sequential interaction with "fuel" and "antifuel" DNA strands, moves from one origami tile to another and then back again. The operational yield, measured by SMF, was similar to that of a motor operating on a similar track embedded in a single origami tile, confirming that the transfer across the junction from one tile to the other does not result in dissociation that is any more than that of steps on a single tile. These results demonstrate that moving parts can reliably travel from one origami unit to another, and it demonstrates the feasibility of dynamic DNA molecular machines that are made of more than a single origami building block. This study is a step toward the development of motors that can stride over micrometer distances.

Ethics 101 students read that utilitarianism is a version of consequentialism. It is not, for the following reason. Utilitarianism says that an act is morally right insofar as it maximizes total utility. Consequentialism says that an act is morally right insofar as it maximizes good consequences. Utilitarians may insist that you maximize total utility, you not thereby maximize good consequences. Such utilitarians would be non-consequentialists. I address replies to this simple argument. The replies center on the definitions of utilitarianism and consequentialism, respectively. Then I provide indications that non-consequentialist utilitarianism is not only a coherent and intriguing notion, it is also an important one. In particular, building on Kenneth Arrow, John Harsanyi and others, we may re-describe John Rawls’s social theory as committed both to non-consequentialism and, provocatively but in my view inescapably, to utilitarianism. On this heretical reading, Rawls’s central theory may be non-consequentialist utilitarian., L’'utilitarisme est généralement considéré comme une version du conséquentialisme. Ce n’est pas le cas, pour la raison suivante. L'utilitarisme stipule qu'un acte est moralement juste dans la mesure où il maximise l'utilité totale. Le conséquentialisme dit qu'un acte est moralement juste dans la mesure où il maximise les bonnes conséquences. Les utilitaristes insistent pour que l'utilité totale soit maximisée, même si les bonnes conséquences ne sont pas maximisées. Ces utilitaristes seraient non- conséquentialistes. J'adresse des réponses à cet argument. Les réponses se centrent sur les définitions de l'utilitarisme et du conséquentialisme, respectivement. Ensuite, je fournis des indications que l'utilitarisme non - conséquentialiste n'est pas seulement une notion cohérente et intrigante, mais également importante. En particulier, en s'appuyant sur Kenneth Arrow, John Harsanyi et d’autres, nous pouvons re-décrire la théorie sociale de John Rawls comme étant à la fois non-conséquentialiste et, de manière provocatrice mais à mon avis, inévitable, utilitariste. Sur la base de cette lecture hérétique, la théorie centrale de Rawls peut être considérée comme une forme d’utilitarisme non- conséquentialiste., Full Text / Article complet

We present R2PI and IR–UV double resonance spectra of the nucleobase adenine seeded in a supersonic jet. We show that there is only one tautomer of adenine which absorbs in the wavelength range 36 050 to 36 700 cm−1. The IR spectra, measured in the range 3200 to 3700 cm−1, show bands at 3452, 3508 and 3569 cm−1, which we assign to the symmetric NH2 , N–H and antisymmetric NH2 stretching vibrations of a single tautomer of adenine. We compare the experimental IR–UV double resonance spectra with ab initio based normal mode calculations. The observed tautomer is most probably the 9H amino-form of adenine.

The vibronic spectrum of laser desorbed and jet cooled guanine consists of bands from three different tautomers of guanine as revealed by UV–UV and IR–UV double resonance spectroscopy. 1-methylguanine, in which the Keto–Enol tautomerism is blocked, shows hole burning spectra from the 9H-and 7H-Keto form. A comparison of the vibronic pattern of the different tautomers demonstrates that the vibronic spectrum built on the redmost guanine band at 32 870 cm−1 (electronic origin 0) can be traced back to the 9H-Enol tautomer, while the spectra built on the origins at 0+404 cm−1 and 0+1044 cm−1 stem from the two Keto tautomers. The IR–UV double resonance spectra of the OH-and NH-stretch vibrations of the different tautomers support this assignment. The UV and IR spectra can be partly assigned by comparison with ab initio calculated vibrational frequencies and with the help of deuteration experiments.

We present R2PI spectra of a series of purine nucleobases, nucleosides, and related derivatives, including adenine, guanine, guanosine, 2-aminopurine, 2,6-diaminopurine, 9-ethyladenine, and 9-methy...

Here we provide high resolution study of DNA hairpin dynamics achieved by probability distribution analysis (PDA) of diffusion-based single-molecule Förster resonance energy transfer (sm-FRET) histograms. The opening and closing rates of three hairpins both free and attached to DNA origami were determined. The agreement with rates previously obtained using the total internal reflection (TIRF) technique and between free hairpins and hairpins attached to origami validated the PDA and demonstrated that the origami had no influence on the hairpin dynamics. From comparison of rates of four DNA hairpins, differing only in stem sequence, and from comparison with rates calculated using nearest-neighbor method and standard transition state theory, we conclude that the unfolding reaction resembles that of melting of DNA duplex with a corresponding sequence and that the folding reaction depends on counterion concentration and not on stem sequence. Our validation and demonstration of the PDA method will encourage its implementation in future high-resolution dynamic studies of freely diffusing biomolecules.

We report resonance-enhanced multiphoton ionization (REMPI) spectroscopy of laser-desorbed, jet-cooled dipeptides, containing either tyrosine or phenylalanine as an aromatic chromophore (C). The single amino acids have multiple origins that we interpret as arising from two types of conformations, with the carboxyl group either anti or gauche with respect to the ring. Spectra for dipeptides of the form X−C, for example, Ala-Tyr, are similar to those of the corresponding single amino acid. On the other hand, spectra for dipeptides of the form C−X, for example, Tyr-Ala, show significant changes in the peaks, which we associate with gauche conformations. This observation can be understood in terms of an interaction between the carboxyl terminus and the ring, associated with the molecule assuming a folded conformation.

While numerous DNA-based molecular machines have been developed in recent years, high operational yield and speed remain a major challenge. To understand the reasons for the limited performance, and to find rational solutions, we applied single-molecule fluorescence techniques and conducted a detailed study of the reactions involved in the operation of a model system comprised of a bipedal DNA walker that strides on a DNA origami track powered by interactions with fuel and antifuel strands. Analysis of the kinetic profiles of the leg-lifting reactions indicates a pseudo-first-order antifuel binding mechanism leading to a rapid and complete leg-lifting, indicating that the fuel-removal reaction is not responsible for the 1% operational yield observed after six steps. Analysis of the leg-placing reactions showed that although increased concentrations of fuel increase the reaction rate, they decrease the yield by consecutively binding the motor and leading to an undesirable trapped state. Recognizing this, we designed asymmetrical hairpin-fuels that by regulating the reaction hierarchy avoid consecutive binding. Motors operating with the improved fuels show 74% yield after 12 consecutive reactions, a dramatic increase over the 1% observed for motors operating with nonhairpin fuels. This work demonstrates that studying the mechanisms of the reactions involved in the operation of DNA-based molecular machines using single-molecule fluorescence can facilitate rationally designed improvements that increase yield and speed and promote the applicability of DNA-based machines.

Essays in this book address a wide range of ethical issues that bear on health inequalities. This introduction identifies these issues and discusses them in relation to broader notions of distributive justice, fairness, choice, and welfare. Since health has many determinants, these essays focus on inequalities in health rather than only on disparities in access to health services. The aim of this chapter is not to summarize or repeat the arguments examined in this book, but rather to ask the right questions and stimulate interest in these crucial issues about how we organize our societies, how we live and die, and how health is distributed by nature and by us. The introduction is organized around five key topics, including: concepts and measures of health inequality; what inequalities in health that matter, as seen from different normative perspectives; how to understand inequalities between individuals and between groups; inequality and discrimination; and how egalitarian theories deal with uncertainty.