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This study assessed the growth and feed intake performances of Galla goats and their crosses with local goats fed on Brachiaria grass cultivar Mulato II and Napier grass mixed with Leucaena leaf meal. Twenty-four Galla goats and 24 crossbred goats were selected and divided into four groups of three goats for each genotype and put in a partitioned house for goats’ stall feeding. Goats from each group were identified using ear tags, randomised and then allotted one of the dietary treatments. Feed rations used as treatments were hay of Mulato II, silage of Napier grass, Mulato II, ML (67% Mulato + 33% Leucaena leaf meal) and NL (67% Napier grass + 33% Leucaena leaf meal). Individual goat weights were taken on a weekly basis. Feed samples of each diet were collected every week and analysed for nutritive values. The chemical composition of feed showed significant differences (P

Simple Summary The need to address the shortage of protein ingredients linked to both territoriality and growing demand pushes research to focus attention on alternative protein sources, both vegetable and animal (insects). This review describes the characteristics, uses, strengths, and weaknesses of Leucaena leucocephala, a legume that can be used in the zootechnical field as an alternative to traditional protein sources for feed formulation. Abstract In tropical and subtropical regions, as well as in the internal and/or marginal Mediterranean areas, one of the most important problems related to animal production is represented by the inadequate nutritional supplies. The low productivity of the animals, often connected to reduced annual growth, is, in fact, not infrequently attributable to the low nitrogen content and the high fiber content of the local plant species and crop residues that constitute the base ingredients of the rations commonly adopted by farmers. The use of the supplementation with arboreal and shrub fodder, although often containing anti-nutritional factors and toxins that limit its use, could be a profitable way to alleviate the nutritional deficiencies of the basic diets. Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) De Wit is native to Central America and widely naturalized in the majority of Latin American countries. It is a legume suitable for tropical and subtropical environments including the countries of the Mediterranean area. Moreover, its spread is desirable if we consider the multiple uses to which it is suitable, the considerable amount of biomass produced, and its role in preserving the environment. The aim of this work was to highlight the characteristics of Leucaena that can justify its wide diffusion. A structured analysis of strengths and weaknesses was performed accordingly. Being a good protein source for feeding livestock, it could be a species to be introduced in the inland areas of the Mediterranean countries as an alternative protein source; the limit represented by the presence of anti-nutritional factors could be overcome by feed processing and by launching targeted research programs.

Reducing run-off and soil loss are important determinants for maintaining productivity and sustainability on sloping agriculture lands. To control water induced soil erosion, a field study was conducted during 2010–2014 to assess the impact of hedge row intercropping on soil erosion, nutrient dynamics, soil moisture and yield of finger millet (Eleusine coracana L.) on 5 and 10% land slope in combination with conservation treatments. The treatment Gliricidia + Trench planting (G + TP) reduced run-off by 29%, soil loss by 45–48%, and loss of soil organic carbon (SOC), N, P and K by 42–47, 62–65, 54–58 and 51–56%, respectively over control. Similarly for Leucaena + Trench planting (L + TP), the values were 17–19, 27–40, 28–37, 42–50, 39–49, and 37–46%, respectively, over control. Reduced run-off in the G + TP treatment increased soil moisture storage by 11–29%. Intensive pruning of Gliricidia plants for 5 years yielded greater fresh leaf biomass (12–17 Mg ha−1 year−1), whereas Leucaena yielded only 4–5 Mg ha−1 year−1. The SOC, N, P and K conservation efficiencies of G + TP were 42–47, 62–64, 54–58 and 51–56% on 5 and 10% land slope, respectively. Gliricidia hedge row intercropping showed promise for improving the conservation potential of the system by maintaining high productivity. Results of this study will act as a technical reference for the adoption of the Gliricidia based hedge row technology for increasing intercrop productivity as well as conserving soil resources in the Eastern Ghats sloping agriculture lands.

Article Details: Received: 2019-01-06 | Accepted: 2019-04-15 | Available online: 2019-09-30 https://doi.org/10.15414/afz.2019.22.03.64-70 West African Dwarf (WAD) goat is an important livestock and its production is indispensable in the country’s food chain. The WAD goat is a trypanotolerant breed reared mainly for meat. This breed can be bred all year-round, attains sexual maturity early and prolific; thereby satisfying a part of the meat requirement. However, in Nigeria, scarcity, poor utilization of agro-waste and seasonality in feed availability undermines this goat breed in achieving better performance. Hence, the effect for feeding cassava root sievate – cassava leaf meal (CRSCLM) diets on the productive and physiological characteristics of WAD goats were investigated for 97 days. Thirty six (36) WAD goats of about 8–10 months of age and averaging 7.19kg in weight were selected from the College flock for this experiment. The goats were randomly divided into four groups of nine animals each with three goats constituting a replicate. Feed intake and body weight changes were recorded accordingly. Blood samples were drawn from each goat on the last day of the trial and evaluated for haematological, biochemical and electrolyte profiles. Daily feed intke, daily weight gain and feed conversion ratio were not (P >0.05) influenced by the treatment diets. The haematological parameters indicated no significant difference (P >0.05) among the treatment groups. There was significant (P

The tick Rhipicephalus microplus is known to develop resistance against some commercial acaracides, driving a search for natural alternatives. An evaluation was done of the acaricide activity against adult and larval R. microplus of ethanol extracts from three Leucaena spp. genotypes: L. leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit (Native); L. leucocephala (Cunningham); and L. Leucocephala x L. padilla (KX2). Larval immersion and adult immersion tests were used to evaluate acaricide activity. Secondary metabolite profiles of the three genotypes were generated using analytical chromatographic plates. Against the larvae, the 50% extract concentration exhibited 91.68% mortality for the Cunningham genotype, 82.00% for the KX2 and 54.06% for the Native. The Native genotype extract was most effective against adults with a 50% mortality at a 20% concentration. Flavonoids and terpenes were identified in all three genotypes and are probably responsible for their acaricide activity. The Leucaena spp. Cunningham and KX2 extracts were effective against R. microplus larvae, but further research is needed to identify the metabolites that provide this acaricide activity, be it individually or synergistically.

Keynote paper presented at the International Leucaena Conference, 1‒3 November 2018, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.Leucaena leucocephala subsp. leucocephala was introduced to Hawaii after European settlement and spread widely for cattle fodder and fuelwood. As in many other tropical locations where it has been introduced, it has naturalized and spread in disturbed and drier habitats. While it is common in disturbed areas, it is much less common in intact native dry forests. It is resilient to wildfire and mammalian grazing, which conversely threaten the integrity of remnant native dryland forest. The successional trajectory of areas dominated by leucaena has not been well studied in Hawaii, but it is probable that other non-native rather than native species will replace it. As a result of its widespread distribution, especially on steep slopes, priority for its eradication or control is low. Current biocontrol options are limited in effectiveness. Control of leucaena can and should be given greater priority to protect native dryland forests and inhibit spread of seeds. Restoration of dryland habitats requires intensive, sustained efforts, usually involving volunteers. Combining cultural and/or use values in restoration projects holds promise for stimulating and sustaining community involvement.

The effects of temperature and holding times on the torrefaction of Leucaena Leucocephala (Leucaena) were elucidated via a novel isothermal decomposition approach. The torrefaction was performed in a fixed-bed reactor at temperature ranged from 200 to 300 °C for 20, 40 and 60 min. The effects of both torrefaction temperature and holding time were studied quantitatively and qualitatively by evaluating the distribution product yields and surface morphological changes. Quantitatively, the mass yield decreased with increasing temperature for all tested holding times, while the liquid and gas yields increased steadily due to the release of volatiles from the biomass decomposition. Qualitatively, significant morphological changes on Leucaena due to torrefaction were evidently captured via SEM imaging analysis. For torrefaction temperatures from 200 to 260 °C, the raw and torrefied Leucaena showed that pore evolution process had become evident. However, for torrefaction temperatures from 280 to 300 °C, the torrefied Leucaena revealed that the internal structure of torrefied Leucaena underwent pore development process. The pore development was noticeably observed for all temperatures. The values of activation energy (Ea) and pre-exponential factor (ln A) for the torrefaction were calculated based on the Coats–Redfern method for first order reaction. The values of Ea and ln A for 20, 40 and 60 min were found to be 39.75, 40.10 and 42.31 kJ/mol, and 3.92, 4.14 and 4.67. As a conclusion, the torrefaction of Leucaena from 200 to 300 °C for 20 min holding time is more reactive as compared to that at higher holding time.

Keynote paper presented at the International Leucaena Conference, 1‒3 November 2018, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.The Center for Research in Sustainable Systems of Agricultural Production (CIPAV) has worked since 1991 on the establishment and management of intensive silvopastoral systems (ISPS) involving leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala). The initial work was carried out in the Valle del Cauca department, and afterwards in other regions of Colombia and abroad. This document presents the main characteristics of the work carried out on various farms in the tropical lowlands of Colombia, located between 0 and 1,300 masl, with 22‒28 °C average annual temperature. The leucaena ISPS integrate this species with grasses, mainly Cynodon plectostachyus, C. nlemfuensis and Megathyrsus maximus, although other species have been used, such as Dichanthium annulatum, Urochloa humidicola (including cv. Llanero, formerly classified as Brachiaria dictyoneura) and Urochloa hybrids. Leucaena is planted at densities in excess of 10,000 plants per ha, in rows 1 to 1.5 m apart with 0.3‒0.6 m between plants within rows. These ISPS are grazed by Bos indicus and B. taurus cattle and their crosses, in beef, dairy (tropical lowlands) and dual-purpose systems. The proper management of an ISPS requires a rotational grazing strategy with each paddock grazed for 1‒3 days (ideally 1 day) followed by a 42‒46 day rest period. Stocking rates are 2.5‒4.5 head/ha. Average daily gains by beef cattle are 650‒800 g/head (2‒3 kg/ha/d). Production in dairy systems (tropical lowlands) fluctuates between 5 and 14 L milk/cow/d, depending on genetic makeup, season (dry or rainy) and supplementation, with up to 17,000 L milk/ha/yr. Information from various farms that use ISPS is presented including main ecological characteristics and animal performance.

Plenary paper presented at the International Leucaena Conference, 1‒3 November 2018, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.Leucaena leucocephala has played a key role in the development of sustainable cattle ranching in Latin America. This species is the backbone of the so-called Intensive Silvopastoral Systems (ISPS) that combine high-density cultivation of leucaena as fodder shrubs (4,000–40,000 plants/ha) with grasses and trees. The layers of vegetation added by shrubs and trees increase the system’s capacity for transforming solar energy into biomass and enhance habitat complexity. Although part of the biomass is transformed into livestock products, a significant amount is deposited as litter on the soil and, along with the nitrogen fixed by leucaena and other trees, has positive effects on soil properties and grass production. The increased complexity of the system has measurable effects on biodiversity. ISPS with leucaena support more species of birds, ants, dung beetles and woody plants than conventional pasture monocultures, contribute to landscape-scale connectivity and provide environmental services. They also enhance animal welfare through reduced heat stress and improved availability and quality of fodder resources. ISPS contribute to climate change mitigation by improving above- and below-ground carbon sequestration and by cutting down greenhouse gas emissions per units of dry matter consumed and cattle product. Although these systems have been successfully implemented in Colombia, Mexico and other countries, their adoption is still limited in relation to the area suitable for their introduction.

Keynote paper presented at the International Leucaena Conference, 1‒3 November 2018, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.While Leucaena leucocephala grows wild in Thailand, some Leucaena spp. have been introduced and evaluated for their edible forage yield and quality. Experiments on appropriate management were performed in different environments and productivity was found to be affected by species or cultivar. Environmental conditions, plant spacing, age of plant and cutting height significantly affected growth and performance. Edible forage yield was in the range of 5‒6 t DM/ha/yr. Most species and cultivars contain high protein concentrations and are suitable for use as feed supplements as well as total ration for livestock. The effects of leucaena feeding on livestock are shown in lower mortality and increased productivity. While the leaf meal processing of leucaena for livestock feeding is increasingly recognized and practiced, cultivation of this crop is still minimal and insignificant. The role and importance of leucaena for livestock production, as well as its nutritional quality and factors which limit its use, are reviewed. The need for increased cultivation and integration of leucaena into local farming systems is emphasized. There is an urgent need to increase research support for the efficient cultivation of leucaena and an education campaign to dispel concerns about toxicity aspects.

Keynote paper presented at the International Leucaena Conference, 1‒3 November 2018, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.The leucaena-grass pastures and target markets for adoption project was commissioned by Meat & Livestock Australia (MLA) to examine the scope for further adoption of leucaena-grass pastures in northern Australia. Drawing upon stakeholder and producer interviews, focus groups, mapping of biophysical factors critical to growing leucaena and a review of existing literature, regional adoption profiles were developed using the ADOPT model. This work outlines the current and future potential for adoption of leucaena in northern Australia and recommends 5 interrelated strategic actions designed to support the ongoing adoption. These actions have been designed to address the complex technical, social and biophysical requirements for successful adoption and will require collaboration between investors, The Leucaena Network, producers, government agencies and the private sector to be effective.

Poster presented at the International Leucaena Conference, 1‒3 November 2018, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.

Keynote paper presented at the International Leucaena Conference, 1‒3 November 2018, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.The Australian Government has committed to reducing its greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 26‒28% below 2005 levels by 2030. The Emissions Reduction Fund (ERF), a center-piece of Australia’s climate change policies, provides incentives to reduce GHG emissions through economy-wide eligible activities, such as energy efficiency, waste management, revegetation, livestock management and savanna fire management. Emissions Reduction Fund methods define eligible activities, how to quantify abatement resulting from the activity and the required compliance measures.The requirements for developing ERF methods that quantify GHG abatement estimates resulting from eligible activities are described. Leucaena planting is used as an example. For an ERF method to be made and maintained, the activity must meet all the legislative requirements. This includes meeting the offsets integrity standards and having regard to any adverse environmental, economic and social impacts.

Keynote paper presented at the International Leucaena Conference, 1‒3 November 2018, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.Leucaena has been fed to cattle by the Balinese community in Sumbawa and West Sumbawa districts on Sumbawa Island since the 1980s. However, prior to 2011, this practice was not adopted by the local Sumbawanese farmers. Since then, a model leucaena-based cattle fattening system was developed in Sumbawa and West Sumbawa districts in a collaborative research project between the Assessment Institute for Agricultural Technology (BPTP), University of Mataram and The University of Queensland (UQ) funded by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR), followed by a scaling-out project involving collaboration between the University of Mataram and CSIRO (Applied Research and Innovation Systems in Agriculture - ARISA project) funded by DFAT (Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade) promoting public-private partnerships. Further promotion of leucaena-based fattening systems occurred in Dompu, Sumbawa, through a project with the University of Mataram and Massey University funded by the New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade (MFAT). By the end of October 2018, more than 2,500 farmers on Sumbawa Island were practicing leucaena-based cattle fattening. The main drivers of adoption of cattle fattening with leucaena were: (1) The high growth rates achieved (0.4–0.6 kg/d for bulls fed 100% leucaena and 0.66 kg/d when maize grain was added to the leucaena basal diet) compared with 0.16 kg/d for the traditional system, combined with high profitability; (2) the needs of farmers being met in terms of relevance and cultural appropriateness; (3) field extension staff being well trained and mentored, and respected by the farmers; (4) the local government being highly supportive of leucaena-based cattle fattening; and (5) additional benefits being increased dressing percentage and high carcass quality. The rapid increase in the use of leucaena for cattle fattening in eastern Indonesia is expected to have a significant positive impact on household incomes as well as on regional economic growth.

Keynote paper presented at the International Leucaena Conference, 1‒3 November 2018, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.Leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala) is widely recognized in many countries as a commercially valuable plant, particularly when used as a nutritious fodder in subtropical and tropical regions. However, it is also considered an environmental weed in some countries due to its ability to form dense infestations in disturbed areas, where it is not proactively managed or grazed. These different perspectives have made leucaena a contentious species. Ideally, landholders and relevant jurisdictions in charge of invasive species need to work together to minimize its spread as a weed and manage existing infestations. To date, the response has been varied, ranging from no action through to some jurisdictions formally recognizing leucaena as an environmental weed within relevant legislation and applying requirements to minimize its impact. Between these extremes, there are initiatives such as an industry Code of Practice (i.e. The Leucaena Network in Australia), recommending that those growing leucaena adhere to certain principles and practices to minimize the risk of spread from their operations. The biology of weed leucaena (e.g. large seed production, relatively long-lived seed banks) and the situations in which it spreads (e.g. roadsides and riparian systems) pose management challenges to landholders and relevant jurisdictions. Adaptive management and experimental research are necessary to identify effective control strategies for a range of situations.

Keynote paper presented at the International Leucaena Conference, 1‒3 November 2018, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.Leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala ssp. glabrata) is a highly palatable and productive forage used mainly by beef producers on extensive properties in northern Australia. When sown into native or sown grass pastures, leucaena provides significant production, economic, environmental and social benefits. Adoption of leucaena was slow initially due to a range of technical, agronomic and landscape factors. These have now been largely overcome through extensive research, development, producer experience and other advances, resulting in around 130,000 ha of cultivated leucaena being utilized across northern Australia.A range of aspects will need to be addressed if the adoption of leucaena is to be accelerated into the future. These include environmental concerns, especially potential weediness, and a range of technological needs, including soil nutritional requirements, grazing and toxicity management, opportunities for companion fodder systems and conservation options. Advances in technology and the ongoing need for a high-quality, profitable and sustainable perennial forage will ensure the continued adoption of leucaena across northern Australia for the foreseeable future.

Keynote paper presented at the International Leucaena Conference, 1‒3 November 2018, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.The perennial legume leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala) is grown across the subtropics for a variety of purposes including livestock fodder. Livestock in Australia emit a significant proportion of the methane produced by the agriculture sector and there is increasing pressure to decrease emissions from beef cattle production systems. In addition to direct productivity gains for livestock, leucaena has been shown to lower enteric methane production, suggesting an opportunity for emissions mitigation and Commonwealth Emissions Reduction Fund (ERF) methodology development, where leucaena browse is adopted for high value beef production. Determining the proportion of leucaena in the diet may be one of the more challenging aspects in attributing mitigation. Current enteric emission relationships for cattle consuming mixed grass-leucaena diets are based on intensive respiration chamber work. Herd-scale methane flux has also been determined using open path laser methodologies and may be used to validate an on-farm herd-scale methodology for leucaena feeding systems. The methodology should also address increased potential for soil organic carbon storage by leucaena grazing systems, and changes in nitrous oxide production. This paper outlines the background, justification, eligibility requirements and potential gaps in research for an emissions quantification protocol that will lead to the adoption of a leucaena methodology by the Australian beef industry. Development of a methodology would be supported by research conducted in Australia.

Keynote paper presented at the International Leucaena Conference, 1‒3 November 2018, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.Leucaena leucocephala became naturalized in Paraguay long ago. However, due to cases of toxicity in horses and cattle, now identified as mimosine toxicity, leucaena was considered a weed until the beginning of this millennium. At this time the mimosine toxicity problem was overcome by the introduction of ruminal fluid from Australia containing the mimosine-degrading and -detoxifying bacterium Synergistes jonesii. As long as an internationally funded technical assistance project was operating (offering technical advice, provision of seed, seed scarification service and transmission of ruminal fluid containing Synergistes), the area sown to leucaena (either in twin rows into grass pastures or as fodder banks) increased rapidly in Paraguay, particularly in the Chaco area. However, the powdery fluvisols of the drier parts of the Chaco were not well suited to growth of leucaena, as persistence was restricted due to the impact of rodents, termites and also leaf-cutting ants, which prosper particularly well in this part of the Chaco. In more humid areas with usually heavier soils, currently leucaena represents an integral part of the feeding systems in hundreds of Paraguayan farms (large-scale as well as smallholders), mainly for steer fattening and dairy cow supplementation. After taking into account the above-mentioned setbacks, the total area of leucaena is currently estimated at about 10,000 ha.

Poster presented at the International Leucaena Conference, 1‒3 November 2018, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.

Keynote paper presented at the International Leucaena Conference, 1‒3 November 2018, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.The demand for milk and dairy products globally is expected to grow in future decades, leading to an increase in the global dairy cattle population. Therefore it is important to identify production options that both improve efficiency and help reduce negative effects on the environment. Intensive silvopastoral systems have been proposed as a sustainable strategy in the tropics to increase the availability and quality of forage throughout the year for milk production from cattle. This paper reports the effects of silvopastoral systems that include leucaena at the farm level on milk production and on the environment in both Colombia and Mexico. Evaluation of different milk production systems has shown that the leucaena-based systems increased milk production both per cow and per hectare, increased the production of milk solids, improved the fatty acid profile in the milk and resulted in environmental benefits when compared with conventional systems.

Keynote paper presented at the International Leucaena Conference, 1‒3 November 2018, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.This paper presents the current status of Leucaena leucocephala (leucaena) feeding systems and proposes research priorities for leucaena development in Argentina. Although research on leucaena as forage for cattle production began in the late 1960s, it was not widely adopted until 2010 (5 decades later). The recent adoption is related to the incorporation of the ‘Australian technology package’, previously adapted for use by farmers in the neighboring region of the Paraguayan Chaco. In June 2018, we surveyed 8 properties with about 2,400 ha of leucaena in silvopastoral systems for beef cattle production in the Argentinean Chaco region, as well as 10 smallholder farms with about 10 ha of leucaena protein banks for dairy cattle in the northeast of Argentina. In the silvopastoral systems, leucaena condition was excellent on most properties in the 750‒1,350 mm/year rainfall zone and low/poor on only 1 farm due to low rainfall (600 mm/year). In protein banks, leucaena condition was excellent or good on 6 of the properties and low/poor on the remaining 4, attributed to ingress of weeds and/or overgrazing. Grass condition was good in most of the systems but was low/poor in 2 silvopastoral systems due to very high stocking rates imposed to restrict leucaena height. Although there is high potential for leucaena development in Argentina, expansion should take place carefully with leucaena planted only on areas suitable for successful establishment, and using appropriate management practices to reduce establishment failures and costs, restrict leucaena height, enhance grass persistence, improve grazing strategies and manage mimosine toxicity problems.

Keynote paper presented at the International Leucaena Conference, 1‒3 November 2018, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.Agriculture and livestock provide the main source of income for farmers in Myanmar. As feeds with low nutritive value and digestibility are traditionally used for animal feed, alternative feed sources of better quality are needed to improve production levels. While concentrates can be used to improve the quality of diets, this leads to high feed costs. To solve this problem, researchers in Myanmar conducted trials to replace some concentrates with leucaena. The nutritive value of leucaena in Myanmar is relatively the same as found in other countries. Control of leucaena toxicity was also studied in Myanmar by isolating mimosine-degrading bacteria and managing the feeding of leucaena. While farmers in Myanmar are aware that leucaena can be fed to livestock and can be toxic to animals, they have limited knowledge of the real benefits of leucaena as a feed for animals. Research to demonstrate the potential of leucaena feeding to animals in Myanmar and efforts to promote establishment of leucaena stands are urgently needed.

Keynote paper presented at the International Leucaena Conference, 1‒3 November 2018, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.Leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala) cv. Tarramba was first introduced to eastern Indonesia (East and West Nusa Tenggara Provinces) as part of an ACIAR project in 2001‒2003. Its superior value was recognized immediately as it: was preferred by cattle over local leucaena; was less affected by psyllids; provided better dry season growth; and produced poles suitable for construction. In on-farm Bali bull feeding demonstrations, Tarramba leucaena doubled weight gains compared with traditional practices, enabling the most progressive farmers to win local bull-fattening competitions. Owing to strong demand for seed, the East Nusa Tenggara Assessment Institute for Agriculture Technology, in collaboration with the Provincial Livestock Department, assisted smallholders to establish seed orchards to ensure that professionally produced and packaged Tarramba seed was available for commercial sale. By the end of the ACIAR involvement, approximately 2,000 kg of Tarramba seed had been distributed to farmers, in addition to farmer-to-farmer seed sales. Approximately 800,000 ha of land in East Nusa Tenggara Province is suitable for Tarramba leucaena so the potential for this legume to contribute to beef production in the region is huge. Tarramba is now contributing to forage development in other parts of Indonesia as well as in Timor-Leste.

Keynote paper presented at the International Leucaena Conference, 1‒3 November 2018, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.Since its introduction to India in 1976 Leucaena leucocephala ssp. glabrata has spread rapidly, especially in the last couple of decades, mainly due to its use as either firewood or pulpwood. Use of its foliage for feeding livestock has been mainly a by-product of this activity. The foliage is highly nutritious because it has high protein concentration and good palatability, and the tree can withstand repeated defoliation. Research carried out by Indian scientists on leucaena has focused on mainly agronomic management, agroforestry studies of mixed cropping systems, mimosine toxicity, germplasm testing and economic evaluation. Feeding leucaena has had a positive impact on the dairy industry in particular. It is rarely purchased for fodder and is usually poached by smallholders from existing plantations, most of which are established by animal rearers for their own purposes. More widespread use of leucaena for fodder could be achieved in India by introducing varieties with either reduced seed production or sterile ones, which can be easily propagated vegetatively. In addition, psyllid resistance, suitable mechanized harvesting methods and training livestock owners in proper management of leucaena trees should help in making this high quality fodder more popular in India.

The objective of this study was to determine the effect of supplementations of Leucaena leucocephala or Gliricidia sepium by goats fed old Panicum maximum basal diets on their dry matter and nutrient intake, digestibility, and N balance. The experiment used four goats weighing of around 12 kg fed four kinds of diet in Latin square design. The diets were 1 young guinea grass, 2 old guinea grass, 3 old guinea grass 60% + Leucaena 40%, 4 old guinea grass 60% + Gliricidia 40%. Results of the study revealed that dry matter and crude protein intake, dry matter, crude protein, and NDF digestibility were significantly higher when the goats fed young grass, Leucaena- or Gliricidia-supplemented old guinea grass than goats fed old guinea grass only. N retained as proportion of ingested N by the goats fed young guinea grass, and old guinea grass supplemented with Leucaena or Gliricidia were positive (63.95, 68.85, and 67.88%, respectively), while the goats fed old guinea grass was negative (- 55.49%). Intake of young grass resulted in greater N excreted via urine while supplementation with Leucaena or Gliricidia resulted in greater N excreted via feces. It can be concluded that supplementation of Leucaena or Gliricidia is very beneficial to increase dry matter and nutrients intake, digestibility, and N retention in goats fed Panicum maximum basal diets. An important finding of this work is that young forage consumed by goats allows to reach important performances and that supplementation is not essential.

The experiment aimed to know the physiological response of Etawah Crossbred pregnant goat were fed katuk leave meal (Sauropus androgynus) and Zn biocomplex as supplement. Sixteen heads of Ettawa crossbred pregnant goat in early third months pregnancy were used in this experiment with 38 ± 2.3 kg of body weight. Completely random design with 4 treatments and 4 replications were applied in this experiment. Those treatment were, R0: farmer pattern fed (Leucaena + 0.5kg consentrate; R1: farmer pattern fed + 77.5g of katuk leave meal; R2: R1 + Zn biocomplex 1.03g/kg consentrate; dan R3: R1 + Zn biocomplex 2.06g/kg consentrate. Variable measured consist of the respiration rate, pulse rate and rectal temperature, using conventional method. Data were tabulated and analized by analysis of variance. Result showed that treatment have significant effect on respiration rate (P

The objective of study to determine the chemical meat composition of kacang male goat fed ration with different energy sources. The livestock used were 12 male goats with an average initial body weight of 11.77 kg, ranging in age from 6 to 12 months according to dental estimates. The design used was Randomized Block Design (RBD) with 4 treatments and 3 replications. The each treatment was T0 = 80% Natural Grass + 20% Leucaena leucocephala ; T1 = 50% natural grass + 20% Leucaena leucocephala + 30% milled corn; T2 = 50% natural grass + 20% Leucaena leucocephala + 30% rice bran and T3 = 50% natural grass + 20% Leucaena leucocephala + 30% cassava. Variables observed in this study include meat protein content, meat fat, water content and collagen. The results of study showed that the meat protein content of male kacang goat received T1 treatment was higher (P

The feasibility and efficacy of inoculating with rumen fluid as a method to control hydroxypyridone (DHP) toxicity in ruminants on high leucaena diets in eastern Indonesia were investigated. Rumen fluid collected from 2 buffalo identified as ‘protected’, due to low levels of DHP excretion in urine, was orally administered to animals identified as ‘unprotected’ and concentrations of urinary DHP monitored. Control animals were dosed with water only. Treatments were randomly allocated to 10 recipient animals: 3 goats and 7 cattle. All animals were fed a diet containing fresh-cut 100% leucaena during the 18-day study period. Measurement of urinary DHP via colorimetric analysis commenced 8 days prior to animals being drenched with rumen fluid or water and continued for 10 days afterwards. Urinary DHP levels in animals that received the inoculum did not differ from those in the control group 10 days post-inoculation (mean 425 mg DHP/L; P = 0.50). Unexpectedly, DHP levels in all animals (rumen fluid and water) declined with time, although the difference did not reach statistical significance (P = 0.12), and remained above considered safe threshold levels. These results suggest that transfer of rumen fluid to overcome leucaena toxicity in animals in eastern Indonesia may not be effective despite great care having been taken to ensure the viability of the anaerobic organisms during the inoculation process; this methodology is also not a practical solution to replicate on a commercial scale. The findings suggest that inoculation may not be necessary if animals previously naïve to leucaena are able to adapt to DHP toxicity by other means.

Keynote paper presented at the International Leucaena Conference, 1‒3 November 2018, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.Leucaena leucocephala is a nutritionally rich forage tree legume that contains a toxic non-protein amino acid, mimosine, from which other toxic compounds 3,4-dihydroxypyridone (3,4-DHP) and 2,3-DHP are formed in the rumen. The rumen bacterium Synergistes jonesii is able to degrade these DHP isomers into non-toxic end products. In this study we developed new PCR-based assays to improve the specificity and sensitivity of detection of S. jonesii in the rumen. Using these new assays in a survey of ruminants from different countries showed S. jonesii appeared to be ubiquitous rather than isolated geographically. The bacterium was present as a minor population (

The integration of leucaena into goat production systems in the tropics and subtropics is reviewed. Goats are well adapted to leucaena, and able to be productive on diets containing up to 100% leucaena as a result of bacterial and hepatic detoxification. Incorporation of leucaena into goat production systems can improve liveweight gains, milk production, worm control and reproduction. Successful feeding systems for goats can be based on both grazed silvopastoral systems and cut-and-carry intensive systems, although there is a lack of farming systems research examining the integration of leucaena into goat production systems, or documentation of the practicalities of these practices. Resumen La integración de leucaena en los sistemas de producción de caprinos en el trópico y subtrópico es revisado en este trabajo. Los caprinos están bien adaptados al consumo de leucaena y son capaces de ser productivos en dietas que contienen hasta un 100% de leucaena como resultado de la detoxificación bacteriana y hepática. La incorporación de leucaena en los sistemas de producción caprina tiene el potencial de mejorar las ganancias de peso vivo, la producción de leche, el control de parásitos internos y la reproducción. Sistemas de alimentación exitosos para caprinos pueden basarse tanto en pastoreo en sistemas silvopastoriles como en sistemas intensivos de corte y acarreo. Sin embargo, hay una escasa investigación sobre sistemas agropecuarios que examinen la integración de leucaena en los sistemas de producción caprina, y de documentación de aspectos prácticos de esta integración.

To effectively utilize sterile hybrids of leucaena, efficient protocols for vegetative propagation are needed that meet different user requirements and capabilities. We developed and compared methods for propagating several sterile hybrids of leucaena and compared them with each other and with propagation via seeds for variety K636. Methods included air-layers, rooted cuttings, grafting and tissue culture (micropropagation). All methods required 14‒20 weeks from generation of new shoots on the stock plant to production of rooted plantlets ready to outplant as compared with 6‒8 weeks for seedlings of K636. Successful rooting was highest for air-layers and rooted cuttings. Grafting had lower success owing to a higher skill requirement for the propagator. Tissue culture showed promise, but use of field-grown material was limited by microbial contamination of propagation media. Rooted cuttings are the best option presently for operational-scale propagation, but the method requires a mist system or a carefully controlled non-mist environment. If an effective method can be developed, grafting of young shoots onto a seedling rootstock is an alternative that retains the advantages of a seedling tap root and requires fewer resources than rooted cuttings or tissue culture. In the case of grafting consequences of eventual resprouting of the rootstock deserve attention. Resumen Para poder utilizar los híbridos estériles de leucaena en forma efectiva, se necesitan protocolos eficientes para la propagación vegetativa que se ajusten a las diferentes necesidades y capacidades de los usuarios. En este estudio desarrollamos y comparamos métodos para propagar varios híbridos estériles de leucaena y los comparamos entre sí y con la propagación a través de semillas de la variedad K636. Los métodos incluyeron acodo aéreo, enraizamiento de estacas, injertos y cultivo de tejidos (micropropagación). Todos los métodos requirieron entre 14 y 20 semanas, desde la generación de nuevos brotes de las plantas madre hasta la producción de plántulas enraizadas listas para ser trasplantadas, en comparación con 6‒8 semanas para las plántulas de K636 provenientes de semillas. El enraizamiento más exitoso fue mediante acodo y enraizamiento de estacas. El injerto fue menos exitoso y requirió de una mayor especialización por parte del propagador. El método de cultivo de tejido demostró ser promisorio, pero la contaminación de los medios de propagación por microbios resultó ser una limitante. La técnica de esquejes enraizados es actualmente la mejor opción para la propagación a escala operativa, pero requiere de un cuidadoso control del ambiente, por ejemplo mediante un sistema de humidificación. Si se logra desarrollar una técnica efectiva, el injerto de brotes jóvenes usando como pie de injerto plántulas que provienen de semilla, es una alternativa que mantiene las ventajas de la raíz pivotante de la plántula y requiere menos recursos que el enraizamiento de estacas o el cultivo de tejido. En el caso de injertos las consecuencias de eventuales rebrotes desde las plantas madre merecen atención.

There is considerable interest from Western Australian (WA) pastoralists on the potential role of leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala) in northern WA, where the potential area for dryland production of species of the genus Leucaena is high. Although it is highly regarded for animal production in other countries and in Queensland, leucaena is a contentious species since its status as an environmental weed currently precludes it from use on pastoral leases in the Kimberley and Pilbara regions of WA. Development of sterile/seedless forms would overcome risks of spread of the species as a weed. The key environmental constraints to growth of leucaena are likely to be the length of the dry season and low fertility of most soils other than the grey/black cracking clays (vertosols). Psyllid resistance and cool temperature tolerance are likely to be of secondary importance. Opportunities for irrigated production are also emerging and may allow leucaena species to be used in environments previously considered well outside their home-range. It is desirable now to re-examine the diversity of the wider leucaena genus for adaptation to WA conditions generally and for the purpose of selecting elite parent material for use in a sterile/seedless leucaena breeding program. These perennial species that can be under production for 30 to 40 years need to be evaluated in the target environments for at least 3‒5 years to fully understand their potential as adult plants. Resumen En el estado de Western Australia (WA), existe un gran interés por parte de los ganaderos en el uso de leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala) debido al considerable área potencial para la producción de especies del género Leucaena en tierras de secano. Aunque es muy apreciada para la producción animal en otros países y en el estado de Queensland, leucaena es una especie muy discutida ya que su condición de maleza ambiental excluye actualmente su uso en tierras oficiales arrendadas para explotación pastoril en las regiones de Kimberley y Pilbara en WA. El desarrollo de formas estériles/sin semillas superaría los riesgos de diseminación de la especie como maleza. Las restricciones ambientales clave para el crecimiento de leucaena probablemente sean la duración de la estación seca y la baja fertilidad de la mayoría de los suelos que no sean de arcillas expansivas (vertisoles). La resistencia a los psílidos (insectos de la familia Psyllidae) y la tolerancia de temperaturas bajas son probablemente de importancia secundaria. Existen oportunidades para la producción bajo riego la cual permitiría que las especies de leucaena sean utilizadas en ambientes que antes se consideraban fuera de su área de adaptación. Se considera deseable volver a examinar la diversidad del género Leucaena respecto a su adaptación a las condiciones de WA en general y con el fin de seleccionar líneas elite para su uso en proyectos de fitomejoramiento para desarrollar variedades de leucaena estériles/sin semillas. Debido a que estas especies perennes pueden ser productivas durante 30‒40 años, se considera que deben evaluarse en diferentes condiciones ambientales durante al menos 3‒5 años para comprender completamente su potencial como plantas adultas.

Keynote paper presented at the International Leucaena Conference, 1‒3 November 2018, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.Concern about mimosine toxicity and its management has contributed to the restricted adoption of leucaena as a forage for ruminants. The toxicity is a function of the antimitotic effects of mimosine, which is rapidly converted to also toxic compounds, isomers of hydroxypyridone (DHP), by plant and microbial enzymes. Work by R.J. Jones and colleagues (1960‒1994) identified a rumen bacterium (Synergistes jonesii) capable of degrading DHP, and rumen fluid containing this bacterium was subsequently made available in Australia as a commercial inoculum for cattle producers.Research by University of Queensland and CSIRO over 15 years, commencing in 2003, found evidence for another pathway of toxin management in Indonesia, where hundreds of Balinese farmers had fed uninoculated Bali bulls (Bos javanicus) up to 100% leucaena without experiencing toxicity symptoms, apart from an initial 1‒2 week period while their cattle became adapted to the new diet. Tests showed that the Indonesian cattle were not degrading all DHP, as it appeared in high concentrations in urine samples, predominantly as 2,3-DHP and almost all (>97%) in a conjugated form. The conjugating compounds (glucuronic acid and sulfate compounds), produced in the liver, appeared to be the major pathway for neutralizing the toxicity of DHP. Other work revealed that S. jonesii was a ubiquitous organism detectable in the rumen fluid of animals in all countries but always as a minor population, often below the level of detection.Since the Indonesian cattle fed leucaena suffered mimosine toxicity symptoms for only a short time before quickly recovering, we hypothesize that conjugation of DHP by the liver was the major detoxification pathway for these animals. This detoxification pathway is also operative in Australia and other countries but further studies are needed to determine its significance.

Keynote paper presented at the International Leucaena Conference, 1‒3 November 2018, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.Ancestral genome duplication, genomic diploidization, allopatric diploid speciation and recent allotetraploidy (hybrid tetraploid formation) have all contributed to the complex evolutionary history of the genus Leucaena Benth. (Leguminosae: Caesalpinioideae: mimosoid clade). This complexity makes Leucaena an exemplary group to investigate the impacts of these diverse mechanisms on plant speciation across time and space. Furthermore, this complex evolutionary history offers unique opportunities and challenges for translational applied research to improve the use of Leucaena in agroforestry, livestock production, soil stabilization and enrichment and biofuels. Here we review and synthesize historical and recent research on the evolutionary history of Leucaena and highlight the availability of new genomic data resources and tools.

India is one of the major producers/consumers of paper and pulp products (3-4% of global share). Approximately one-fourth of industry raw material has come from wood-based plantations from the 1990s onwards. The greatest development challenge faced by the industry since that time is sourcing robust raw material from agroforestry on private lands. Following genetic improvement of leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala) and realization of its potential as a multiple-use species, it was introduced into India in 1980 under an international cooperation effort with support from the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA). It has since spread across the country as a panacea for rural needs of fuel wood, small timber and cattle forage. The paper industry has found that it has potential as raw material for paper making. One of the largest Indian paper companies is JK Paper Ltd, which has an annual production capacity of 550,000 t/yr with 3 integrated pulp and paper plants located at Songadh (Gujarat), Rayagada (Orissa) and Kagaznagar (Telangana) producing writing and printing paper and virgin packaging boards. This case study describes the leucaena farm forestry plantation program initiated by JK Paper Ltd, Unit CPM (Central Pulp Mills). The unit, under its agroforestry and farm forestry plantation approach, planted leucaena plantations in 2009-2010 in parts of Gujarat, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh States. To motivate farmers in the mill’s catchment area, and to build confidence in on-farm plantations, exposure visits were arranged to Andhra Pradesh, where huge tracts of agricultural land were under leucaena plantations. As a result, to date, this unit has engaged >7,800 farmers who have established leucaena plantations covering an area of >18,400 ha. A robust plantation R&D network addressed issues such as seed treatment, seed germination, rhizobial inoculation, geometry of plantations, agro-forestry models, selection and development of high production clones, establishment of clonal seed orchards, genetic improvement through mutation techniques and hybridization programs for wood quality improvement. Resumen India es uno de los principales productores/consumidores de productos de papel y de pulpa de papel (3-4% del total mundial). Desde la década de 1990 en adelante aproximadamente una cuarta parte de la materia prima para la industria de papel proviene de plantaciones de árboles maderables. El mayor desafío de desarrollo que enfrenta la industria de papel desde esa época es obtener fuentes sólidas de materia prima proveniente de agroforesterías establecidas en tierras privadas. Como consecuencia de las primeras actividades de mejoramiento genético y del reconocimiento de su alto potencial como especie de uso múltiple, se introdujo en 1980 la leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala) en India, en el marco de una cooperación con la Agencia Sueca de Cooperación Internacional para el Desarrollo (Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency, SIDA). Desde entonces se ha extendido por todo el país respondiendo como una panacea a las necesidades rurales respecto a leña, madera de dimensiones menores y forraje para ganado. La industria del papel encontró que la leucaena tiene potencial como materia prima para la fabricación de papel. Una de las compañías de papel más grandes de la India es JK Paper Ltd con una capacidad de producción de 550,000 t/año en 3 plantas integradas de pulpa y papel, ubicadas en Songadh (Gujarat), Rayagada (Orissa) y Kagaznagar (Telangana), produciendo papel para escribir e imprimir, y cartón de fibra virgen. Este estudio de caso describe el programa de plantaciones agroforestales con leucaena iniciado por JK Paper Ltd, Unidad CPM (Central Pulp Mills). En el marco de un enfoque en plantaciones agroforestales y forestales, se establecieron plantaciones de leucaena en 2009-2010 en partes de los estados de Gujarat, Maharashtra y Madhya Pradesh. Para motivar a los agricultores en el área de influencia de Central Pulp Mills, y para crear confianza en el modelo de producción agroforestal, se organizaron visitas a Andhra Pradesh, donde existen grandes extensiones de tierras agrícolas con plantaciones de leucaena. Como resultado, hasta la fecha se ha involucrado a más de 7,800 agricultores quienes establecieron plantaciones de leucaena cubriendo un área total de más de 18,400 ha. Una sólida red de investigación y desarrollo abordó temas como el tratamiento de la semilla, su germinación, la inoculación con rizobios, la configuración de las plantaciones, los modelos agroforestales, la selección y el desarrollo de clones de alta producción, el establecimiento de bancos clonales para la producción de semillas, el mejoramiento genético mediante técnicas de mutación, y programas de hibridación para mejorar la calidad de la madera.