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This paper evaluates two alternative tax policies aimed at reducing atmospheric pollutant emissions. One based upon an environmental tax that burdens directly firms’ emissions, and the other one that burdens both directly and indirectly household consumption’s emissions. Applying input-output approach, we reallocate the emissions generated in the economy according to the responsibility definition, i.e. the production or the consumption accounting principle. Afterwards, we analyse the effects on the products’ prices of implementing an ad-quantum environmental tax based on the Producer Pays Principle (PPP) and/or on the User Pays Principle (UPP). The results obtained, show that both PPP and UPP environmental tax have the same effect on the final products’ prices. However, the price of the intermediate products is only affected by the PPP environmental tax, whereas the UPP environmental tax keeps the prices unchanged.

Although CO2 capture and storage(CCS) technologies are heatedly debated, many politicians and energy producers consider them to be a possible technical option to mitigate carbon dioxide from large-point sources. Hence, both national and international decision-makers devote a growing amount of capacities and financial resources to CCS in order to develop and demonstrate the technology and enable ist broad diffusion.The presented report concentrates on the influence of policy incentives on CCS diffusion and examines the following research question: Which policy strategy is needed to stimulate the international diffusion of carbon capture and storage technologies in the power sector? Based on the analysis of innovation-specific (e.g. CCS competitiveness and compatibility), market-related (e.g. national CO2 discharges and storage capacities) and institutional determinants (e.g. existing national and international policy frameworks) of CCS diffusion, the paper discusses the suitability of various national and international policy instruments to induce the international deployment of CCS. Afterwards, three CCS diffusion paths are derived from fundamentally different carbon stabilisation scenarios which include climate policy measures to stimulate the adoption of CO2 mitigation technologies. Als Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) wird die Abtrennung von Kohlendioxid aus Rauchgas-, Brenngas- oder Industriegasströmen und dessen anschließende langfristige Verwahrung in geeigneten Lagerstätten bezeichnet. Im Wuppertal Paper Nr. 162 geht Daniel Vallentin der Frage nach, welche Handlungsstrategien die internationale Diffusion von CCS-Technologien herbeiführen. In diesem Kontext stellt er unter anderem verschiedene Fallstudien sowie potenzielle Märkte für CCS-Technologien vor.

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The paper reviews urban transport policies in Italian cities and their impact on the concentration of NO2 and PM10. Using parametric and non-parametric techniques, it finds no significant effect of the policy actions currently implemented. Further, it finds evidence of a weak positive impact of plans adoption. These results are interpreted as evidence of positive externalities among actions. Finally, by also discussing case studies, the paper points out the absence of economic instruments and argues that significant welfare gains would derive from their adoption.

"Zurzeit werden für eine Vielzahl deutscher Städte Luftreinhaltepläne aufgestellt oder sind bereits verabschiedet. Aussagen zur betroffenen Bevölkerung erschöpfen sich, wie bspw. im Entwurf des Luftreinhalteplans für die Stadt Kassel, auf rein quantitative Aussagen. Dort wird angegeben, dass 13.410 Einwohner von einer erhöhten Immissionsbelastung betroffen sind I (HLUG 2005: 31). Aussagen dazu, wer sich hinter dieser errechneten Einwohnerzahl verbirgt, werden nicht getroffen. Ist es möglich, dass in den Gebieten mit erhöhter Immissionsbelastung überproportional viele Ausländer oder sozial Benachteiligte wohnen? In der gegenwärtigen Situation wissen wir es nicht. Entsprechend dem beschriebenen Zustand bei den Luftreinhalteplänen werden auch in anderen Instrumenten des planerischen Umweltschutzes keine sozial differenzierten Aussagen getroffen. Hierfür kann es zwei Gründe geben. Erstens: Es gibt in Deutschland keine sozial differenzierten Unterschiede in der Umweltqualität, weshalb eine entsprechende Analyse nicht erforderlich ist. Zweitens: Das Thema ist relevant, wird aber von der Gesellschaft nicht aufgenommen. Was wiederum daran liegen könnte, dass es in Deutschland keine gesellschaftliche Bewegung gibt, die mit der Bürgerrechtsbewegung in den USA, dem Ursprung des Environmental Justice Movements, vergleichbar ist. Sollte der zweite Grund zutreffen, wäre es dringend erforderlich mehr über die Situation umweltbezogener Gerechtigkeit in Deutschland zu erfahren. Aus dieser Motivation heraus führen an der Universität Kassel das CESR und das Fachgebiet für Umweltmeteorologie ein Forschungsprojekt zu 'umweltbezogener Gerechtigkeit und Luftreinhalteplänen' durch. In diesem Projekt werden in zwei Stadtteilen Kassels kleinräumige Analysen zur Umweltsituation (Lärm, Luftbelastung und Qualität von Grünflächen) gemacht. Diese werden in Bezug gesetzt zu Ergebnissen einer Haushaltsbefragung. In dieser wird auf der Ebene von Haushalten der Einfluss soziodemographischer Faktoren (Einkommen, Bildung, Migrationshintergrund) auf die Wahrnehmung von Umweltrisiken, die Betroffenheit durch Umwelteinflüsse sowie gewählte Bewältigungsstrategien untersucht. In der ad-hoc-Gruppe werden erste Ergebnisse zur Diskussion gestellt. Ferner werden aufbauend auf diesen Erfahrungen Überlegungen zu einer Integration umweltbezogener Gerechtigkeit in den planerischen Umweltschutz skizziert." (Autorenreferat)

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This paper shows in an empirical context that substantial cost reductions can be achieved in the implementation of Dutch national climate policy by (i) targeting the policy at the stock of greenhouse gases, thus allowing polluters flexibility in their timing of emission reductions; and (ii) integrating climate policy with other policies, thereby optimising the restructuring of the economy needed to achieve environmental policy targets. A dynamic applied general equilibrium model with bottom-up information on abatement techniques is used to show that the optimal timing of GHG emission reductions tends to follow the timing for the other environmental themes with an additional emphasis on emission reductions in the later periods. The optimal mix of technical measures and economic restructuring as source of emission reductions is affected by the strictness of environmental policy targets for all themes and hence can only be derived from an integrated analysis of these policies.

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We analyze a dynamic multi-pollutant problem where abatement costs of several pollutants are not separable. The pollutants can be either technological substitutes or complements. Environmental damage is induced by the stock of accumulated pollution. We find that optimal emission paths are qualitatively different for substitutes and complements. We derive general properties governing optimal emission paths and present numerical examples to illustrate our main results. In particular we find that optimal emission paths need not be monotonic, even for highly symmetric pollutants. Finally, we describe a comparatively simple method to implement the optimal path without explicitly knowing its shape.

For the past two decades, China has experienced strong, continuous economic growth. At the same time, the number of motor vehicles in China has rapidly increased. As a direct result of such a phenomenon, China has been registering significant increases in air pollution. In spite of recent advances in air pollution control, it remains a serious problem for China’s major cities, and constitutes an important issue in the agenda of its policy makers. The object of this paper is to explore the use of cost-benefit analysis (CBA) to evaluate and rank alternative policy scenarios regarding the control of air pollution emitted by motor vehicles. The empirical analysis carried out relates specifically to the Chinese context, over a twenty year period, from 2001 to 2020, and focuses on emission changes of the following three principal pollutants: CO, HC and NOx.

(de)Exhaust gas analysis, on-line-analyzer, laser mass spectrometer, laser ionisation, In-cylinder-measurement, diesel-emission, oxides of nitrogen, ammonia, Ill., graph. Darst

Die Komplexität der Modelle zur Berechnung von Schadstoffemissionen aus dem Straßenverkehr hat in den letzten Jahren aufgrund der Verfügbarkeit wesentlich detaillierterer Eingangsdaten erheblich zugenommen. Über die Qualität der modellierten Emissionsdaten lagen bislang jedoch nur unzureichende Kenntnisse vor. Mit der vorliegenden Arbeit werden die Unsicherheiten der Modellierungen von gasförmigen Emissionen des Straßenver-kehrs für den deutschsprachigen Raum eingehend untersucht und quantifiziert. Grundlage der hier durchgeführten Fehlerbetrachtungen ist ein Emissionsmodell, wie es zur Erstellung von zeit-lich und räumlich hoch aufgelösten Emissionskatastern verwendet wird. Um Aussagen über Fehlerbandbreiten von modellierten Emissionsdaten treffen zu können, wurden durch geeignete Methoden statistische Vertrauensbe-reiche der Eingangsdaten ermittelt und diese über Sensitivitätsuntersuchungen und statistische Fehlerrechnung zu einem Gesamtfehler verknüpft. Aus den Ergebnissen der Unsicherheitsberechnungen wurden diejenigen Ein-gangsdaten ermittelt, deren Fehler am stärksten zum Fehler der Gesamtemissionen beitragen und deren Genauig-keit im Rahmen einer zukünftigen Modifizierung des Berechnungsmodells vorrangig verbessert werden sollten. Neben den statistischen Fehlerbetrachtungen wurden experimentelle Messungen von Emissionen unter realen Bedingungen aus der Literatur und unter eigener Beteiligung herangezogen, um durch Vergleiche mit modellier-ten Emissionsdaten Rückschlüsse auf die tatsächlichen Fehler - also die Differenzen zwischen den wahren und den modellierten Emissionen - zu ziehen. Die statistischen Betrachtungen des komplexen Emissionsmodells und die Auswertungen von verfügbaren expe-rimentellen Studien haben ergeben, dass bei Anwendung derzeit verfügbarer Verkehrsdaten und Emissionsfakto-ren selbst bei Modellierungen mit höchstem Differenzierungsgrad mit teilweise erheblichen statistischen und systematischen Fehlern zu rechnen ist. Bei der Ermittlung großräumiger Emissionsdaten des Straßenverkehrs (z.B. Jahresemissionen von Bundesländern) stellen die Emissionsfaktoren in allen Quellbereichen den größten Unsicherheitsfaktor dar. Mit zunehmender räumlicher und zeitlicher Disaggregierung der Emissionsdaten gewin-nen die Fehler von verkehrs- und straßenbezogenen Parametern (Aktivitäten) an Bedeutung., In the past years, the complexity of models for calculation of pollutant emissions from road transport increased strongly because of improved availability of much more detailed input data. Up to now, there had been only inadequate knowledge about quality of modelled emission data. With this work uncertainties of modelled gaseous emissions from road traffic for the area of the German-speaking countries will be investigated and quantified thoroughly. An emission model, how it is used to create temporal and spatial highly resolved emission inventories, serves as a bases for error estimations carried out in this work. Statistical confidence intervals of input data have been de-termined by suitable methods and combined to a total error by sensitivity studies and statistical error calculation. Interpreting the results of uncertainty calculations, those input parameters, whose errors contribute most to the error of total emissions, have been identified. These input parameters should be improved as a matter of priority in the framework of future modifications of calculation models. Besides the statistical error estimations, experimental measurements of emissions under real driving conditions from literature and from own participation have been evaluated. The real errors (that means differences between true and modelled emissions) have been quantified by comparisons between measured and modelled emission data. Statistical examinations of complex emission models and evaluations of available experimental studies have resulted in partially considerable statistical and systematic errors of emission data when using traffic data and emission factors available at present, even by modelling at the highest possible degree of differentiation.. When determining spacious emission data (e.g. annual emission on state level), emission factors are representing the biggest factor of uncertainties for all road traffic source types. The errors of traffic und road concerned parame-ters (activities) gain in importance with increasing spatial and temporal degree of disaggregation.

(de)Emission map, on-board measurements under real traffic conditions, dynamometer cycles, NO2-share of NOx, Ill., graph. Darst

We examine the impact of air pollution on infant death in California over the 1990s. Our work offers several innovations: First, many previous studies examine populations subject to far greater levels of pollution. In contrast, the experience of California in the 1990s is clearly relevant to current debates over the regulation of pollution. Second, many studies examine a few routinely monitored pollutants in isolation, generally because of data limitations. We examine four ?criteria? pollutants in a common framework. Third, we develop an identification strategy based on within zip code variation in pollution levels that controls for potentially important unobserved characteristics of high pollution areas. Fourth, we use rich individuallevel data to investigate effects of pollution on infant mortality, fetal deaths, low birth weight and prematurity in a common framework. We find that the reductions in carbon monoxide (CO) and particulates (PM10) over the 1990s in California saved over 1,000 infant lives. However, we find little consistent evidence of pollution effects on fetal deaths, low birth weight or short gestation.

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This paper analyses the policy relevance of the dominant uncertainties in our current scientific understanding of the terrestrial climate system, and provides further evidence for the need to radically transform - this century - our global infrastructure of energy supply, given the global average temperature increase as a result of anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions. We investigate the effect on required CO2 emission reduction efforts, both in terms of how much and when, of our uncertain knowledge today of the climate sensitivity to a doubling in them atmospheric CO2 concentration. Also the roles of carbon-free energy and energy savings, and their evolutions over time, are researched, as well as their dependence on some of our characteristic modelling features. We use a top-down model in which there are two competing energy sources, fossil and non-fossil. Technological change is represented endogenously through learning curves, and modest but non-zero demand exists for the relatively expensive carbon-free energy resource.

(de)Emissions at petrol stations, vapor return systems, gasoline vapor separation, membrane processes, Ill., graph. Darst

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As the first global carbon fund, the World Bank's Prototype Carbon Fund (PCF) aims to catalyze the market for project-based greenhouse gas emission reductions while promoting sustainable development and offering a learning-by-doing opportunity to its stakeholders. Since the inception in 2000, the PCF has engaged in a dialogue with China to get it to sign up as a host country, because the World Bank and other international and bilateral donors expect great potential of the clean development mechanism (CDM) in China and feel the significant need for building CDM capacity in China to enable it to gain more insight into the CDM and increase its capacity to initiate and undertake CDM projects. This paper first discusses why China had hesitated to sign up as a host country of PCF projects until September 2003. Then the paper explains what has led China to endorse the PCF projects. The paper ends with discussions on the implications of the PCF's offering prices for the emerging global carbon market.

Data on GDP per capita and sulfur emissions for twelve European countries were analyzed to determine the relationship between emissions and income in these countries. As a whole, the relationship between sulfur emissions and per capita income is a fourth order polynomial and not a quadratic one as found in most studies. When countries were examined individually, seven out of the twelve countries depicted the same relationship. Looking closely at the regulations restricting sulfur emissions in the UK, the impact of all regulations supported the inverted U-shaped Kuznets curve. Individually, however, it is found that only two regulations have statistically significant impacts: Smoke Abatement Act in 1926 (reduced the amount of sulfur associated with a given level of GDP); and Clean Air Act in 1956 (increased the amount of sulfur emissions associated with a given level of GDP).

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(de)Chemical analysis of complex gas mixtures, simultaneous detection of chemical compounds, high speed gas analysis, trace analysis, laser mass spectrometer, emissions of Otto engines, emission of Diesel engines, processes in catalytic converters, in-cylinder gas analysis, Ill., graph. Darst

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This discussion paper reviews the literature on experiences with innovation under the existing emissions trading schemes in the USA. The basic result from this review is that the innovation effects triggered by emissions trading have been limited because a) targets were not constraining in the beginning, especially under the RECLAIM program, and b) developments outside the permit markets have been exploited to an extent that was previously unexpected. The latter finding can, however, also be understood in part as a result of market forces finding creative solutions. A further result is that methodological approaches that measure innovation behaviour appear to be at least as important for the understanding of the issue as those looking for actual observed innovation.

The „first track“ of Joint Implementation under the Kyoto Protocol gives host and investor countries total freedom in choosing a baseline for a project reducing or sequestering greenhouse gases. This is due to the fact that an overly generous granting of emission credits leads to a corresponding reduction of the host country‘s emission budget. Standardised, multi-project baselines can reduce transaction costs, especially in relatively homogeneous sectors such as electricity production or landfill methane collection. Host countries need capacity to calculate such baselines which currently does not exist. „Boundary organisations“ can bridge the gap between technical analysis and strategic considerations. Interviews with government officials and other stakeholders in East European EU accession countries lead us to the conclusion that countries have not yet realised the chances and pitfalls of baseline definition under the first track, especially as they assume that the EU will define the „acquis communautaire“ as the baseline. However, this would make international emissions trading more attractive than JI.

The benefits of climate policy normally consist exclusively of the reduced impacts of climate change, i.e., the policy's primary aim. Our analysis of benefits of climate policy suggests, however, that researchers and policymakers should also take account of ancillary benefits, e.g., in the shape of improved air quality induced by climate protection measures. A consideration of both, primary and ancillary benefits, has a positive influence on global climate protection efforts, e.g., because the regional impact of ancillary effects attenuates easy-riding motives of countries with respect to their provision of climate protection. In this article, we analyze the nature of ancillary benefits, present an overview of European assessment studies and explain possible methods to estimate ancillary benefits. Main differences between primary and ancillary benefits are pointed out. Furthermore, we stress the major influences of ancillary benefits on climate policy. Finally, we present one of the first models integrating primary and ancillary benefits. By this model quantitative results are calculated with respect to ancillary benefits in the UK considering different green-house gas (GHG) control levels. It is observed that the ancillary benefits could cover about 4 percent of the full GHG reduction cost.

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(de)Barrier discharge, waste gas treatment, numerical modeling, Ill., graph. Darst