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This chapter presents component evaluation, based on experimental data, of a novel ‘integrated’ liquid desiccant air conditioning system (IDCS) operating with a potassium formate solution.

The use of water-based mud (WBM) in drilling applications under extreme reservoir temperatures has been increasing rapidly in the drilling industry over the past few years. It is now more crucial than ever to close the technological gap that present challenges towards developing an environmentally friendly and cost effective high performance WBMs. Synthetic polymers such as sodium salt of sulfonated acrylamide and vinyl lactam (DD) and sodium salt of sulfonated acrylamide, acrylic amide, sodium acrylate and vinyl lactam (DT) are commonly used as primary viscosifiers and fluid loss agents in WBM systems for HPHT fluids. Potassium formate brine (KCHO2) is usually used to stabilize the drilling fluid's performance under HPHT conditions as it helps in decreasing the flocculation of rheological properties of WBM under extreme temperature including the degradation of their rheolo s. It is known that WBMs experience many challenges when exposed to extreme temperatures gical properties over a long period of time. This study aims to developing a water-based drilling mud that is stable at elevated temperatures up to 300°F, while maintaining sufficient inhibitive and good rheological performances. Various drilling mud additives such as synthetic polymers (DD and DT), KCHO2 and other fluid loss additives were investigated in the formulation of the stable WBM. A total of sixteen (16) drilling fluid samples with different concentrations of synthetic DD (1 ppb to 4 ppb), DT (1 ppb to 4 ppb), and KCHO2 (0 wt.% to 10 wt.%) were formulated using the Taguchi design of experiment (DOE), prepared and tested before and after dynamic aging. The experimental results obtained showed that the following drilling mud formulations had their rheological property (PV/YP) values stabilised even after dynamic aging at 300°F: (a) 3.2 wt.% KCHO2, 3 ppb DD, and 4 ppb DT, (b) 6.7 wt.% KCHO2, 2 - 4 ppb DD, and 2 - 4 ppb DT, and (c) 10.0 wt.% KCHO2, 1 - 4 ppb DD, and 1 - 4 ppb DT. This study provides an optimisation guide for the formulation of stable synthetic polymers and potassium formate brine WBMs at elevated temperatures up to 300°F, thus, saving time and cost by eliminating various laboratory tests.

Dietary inclusion of salts of organic acids may modulate intestinal microbiota and enhance performance of pigs. Published data on the effects of potassium formate (KF; pH 6.0-8.5) on pig performance are scarce compared with that of potassium diformate (KDF; pH 4.1-4.5). Therefore, the objective was to evaluate the effects of KDF or KF supplementation on performance of 8- to 22-kg pigs. A 35-d growth trial was conducted with 144 PIC pigs (initial BW of 7.9 ± 0.69 kg) with 6 pigs (3 gilts and 3 barrows) per pen and 8 pens per treatment. Pigs were assigned to 3 diets based on corn (Zea mays), wheat (Triticum aestivum), and soybean (Glycine max) meal for each of the prestarter (days 1-14) and starter phases (days 15-35). The basal diet was supplemented with KDF at 1.20% or KF at 1.56% replacing corn starch to create diets 2 and 3, respectively, to provide a constant formate content. The ADG and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were not affected by the addition of KDF or KF during the prestarter phase. Addition of KDF or KF to the basal diet increased (P0.01) ADG and final BW and improved FCR (P0.05) during the starter and the overall 35-d period. The ADFI was not affected by the treatments. Performance of pigs fed diets supplemented with KF and KDF were similar. Diarrhea incidences were observed during week 1 but no differences were observed (P0.05) among treatments in term of the number of antibiotic treatments or fecal consistency scores. Overall, the supplementation of 1.56% KF or 1.20% KF improved performance of weaned pigs.

The water-gas shift reaction is the key reaction to produce hydrogen by hydrothermal biomass gasification. Salts are ingredients of biomass and accelerate the water-gas shift reaction. In this work, the influences of the NaHCO 3 and the KHCO 3 on water-gas shift reaction (WGSR) were investigated at 10 and 23 MPa and 230–300 °C. The presence of NaHCO 3 and KHCO 3 promotes the WGSR significantly and to the same extend. Additionally, sodium and potassium formate salts are formed from the carbonates. The water-gas shift reaction rate in the presence of salts is found to be: 1.16 × 10 4 ( l mol − 1 ) 0.5 s − 1 e ( − 9155 K / T ) [ CO ] [ NaHCO 3 ] 0.5 .

Raney nickel catalyzed transfer hydrogenation of nitrile was proposed, with formats as hydrogen donor. Three ionic liquids, including [DBUH + ][C2H5COO – ], [DBUH + ][C3H7COO – ], and [DBUH + ][C4H9COO – ], were prepared as reaction medium, and [DBUH + ][C4H9COO – ] showed the best performance. Various nitriles were reduced with potassium formate as hydrogen donor, and considerable to excellent yields of amines were given. The ionic liquid can be used for 6 times at least, and the reaction process is clean.

The mechanism of chromium metal deposition from a trivalent chromium bath containing formic acid and polyethylene glycol 1000 (PEG) was studied on an electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance (EQCM), electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) and a technique for measuring pH on the cathode surface. Reactions of PEG molecules with trivalent chromium ions and their influence on the plating process of trivalent chromium were investigated. EQCM studies at low trivalent chromium ion concentrations show that chromium electrodeposition occurs via the formation of an adsorption layer on the electrode surface, which is called a cathodic film. Cathodic films hinder the penetration of ions from bulk solution to the cathode surface. In the inner portion of the cathodic film and at the cathode surface, intermediate complexes were formed during the deposition process. ESI-MS revealed that the PEG molecules were stable in a trivalent chromium bath containing potassium formate. During electroplating, the PEG molecules decreased the reductive current of hydrogen compared with solutions without PEG; an effect that was also observed due to the pH on the electrode surface. PEG plays a decisive role in the formation of intermediate compounds during electrodeposition.

It was shown that ubiquinone (CoQ(10)) and ubiquinol (CoQ(10)H(2)) produce fluorescence products under alkaline conditions when reacted with 2-cyanoacetamide. The reaction mixture from CoQ(10) gave fluorescence with excitation and emission maximum wavelengths at 442 nm and 549 nm, respectively. This reaction was considered to proceed via Craven's reaction. Moreover, 2-cyanoacetamide was shown to be a useful reagent for high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with post-column fluorescence derivatization of CoQ(10) and CoQ(10)H(2) in blood. CoQ(10) showed a linear response in the range of 0.32-1276 ng, and the detection limit (S/N = 3) was 0.16 ng. Moreover, the sample pretreatment by deproteinization and extraction of CoQ(10) and CoQ(10)H(2) from plasma using 1-propanol with potassium formate was effective for excellent separation of CoQ(10) and CoQ(10)H(2) from other fluorescent substances in the blood. This simple and rapid pretreatment was considered to minimize the oxidation of CoQ(10)H(2). On the other hand, CoQ(10) and CoQ(10)H(2) in plasma samples obtained by finger prick were detected, as in venous blood obtained by venipuncture. Our method involving the simple and rapid collection of plasma by finger prick and sample pretreatment is thought to be applicable for the determination of CoQ(10)H(2)/total CoQ(10) ratio as a biomarker of oxidative stress.

Corrosion effects of five runway de-icing chemicals on aluminium alloy 2024, magnesium alloy RZ5 and cadmium-plated and subsequently chromate-treated steel 4340 were investigated by cyclic polarisation measurements, open circuit potential monitoring and cyclic chemical exposure tests. The runway de-icing chemicals included in the study contained urea, which has a long history as a runway de-icing chemical, and four new commercial de-icing chemicals, which were based on betaine and potassium formate. Corrosion effects of urea on aluminium alloy 2024 were more pronounced than those of the new de-icing chemicals. In urea, the breakdown potential, indicating the onset of pitting, was clearly distinguishable in the cyclic polarisation curve and pitting corrosion was detected on the specimen surface after all three types of tests. Weight losses during the chemical exposure tests were also higher for urea than for the other four chemicals, where pitting corrosion was only occasionally detected. The opposite was true in the case of magnesium alloy RZ5: although the alloy experienced general corrosion in each de-icing chemical included in the study, the rate of corrosion was often higher in the new de-icing chemicals than in urea. Corrosion effects of the five de-icing chemicals on cadmium-plated and chromate-treated high-strength steel 4340 were slightly different in all three tests, indicating that differences in coating quality, particularly in the thickness of the coating layers, might have influenced the results. Overall, however, partial loss of the coating layers occurred in all studied de-icing chemicals.

Conversion of carbon dioxide utilizing protons from water decomposition is likely to provide a sustainable source of fuels and chemicals in the future. We present here a time-evolved infrared reflection absorption spectroscopy (IRAS) and temperature-programmed desorption (TPD) study of the reaction of CO2 + H2O in thin potassium layers. Reaction at temperatures below 200 K results in the hydrogenation of carbon dioxide to potassium formate. Thermal stability of the formate, together with its sequential transformation to oxalate and to carbonate, is monitored and discussed. The data of this model study suggest a dual promoter mechanism of the potassium: the activation of CO2 and the dissociation of water. Reaction at temperatures above 200 K, in contrast, is characterized by the absence of formate and the direct reaction of CO2 to oxalate, due to a drastic reduction of the sticking coefficient of water at higher temperatures.

Organic de-icing chemicals, such as propylene glycol and potassium formate, cause environmental degradation in receiving water if left untreated, due to the high organic load resulting in oxygen depletion. Biofilters are commonly used for the treatment of biodegradable organic carbon in water treatment. This study investigated the potential for using biofilters for treating organic de-icing compounds. Lab-scale adsorption tests using filter media made of crushed clay (Filtralite) and granular activated carbon were conducted. Further, a column filtration experiment testing two different crushed clay size ranges was carried out investigating the effect of filter media depth, nutrient addition, and filtration rate. The surrogate parameter used to monitor the removal of de-icing chemicals was dissolved organic carbon (DOC). The adsorption test showed no significant adsorption of DOC was observed. The column test showed that the most active separation occurred in the first ~20 cm of the filter depth. This was confirmed by results from (1) water quality analysis (i.e., DOC removal and adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP) measurement); and (2) calculations based on a filtration performance analysis (Iwasaki model) and filter hydraulic evaluation (Lindquist diagram). The results showed that, for the highest C:N:P ratio tested (molar ratio of 24:7:1), 50–60% DOC removal was achieved. The addition of nutrients was found to be important for determining the biofilter performance. © 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Potassium diformate (KDF) has been regarded as an alternative to antibiotic growth promoters for animals. This paper delineates a 100% atom economical process for the preparation of KDF from formic acid and potassium formate. Parametric optimization of the synthesis was conducted with respect to reaction time, reaction temperature, and molar ratio of the reactants by employing orthogonal design of experiment method. The results manifested a molar ratio of HCOOH to HCOOK of 1.3, reaction temperature of 65 °C, and reaction time of 30 min as the optimal conditions with a KDF product yield of 94.0%. Efforts were also made to explore the antimold performance of KDF on animal feed using the plate count method. Compared with sodium diacetate (SDA), the widely used mold inhibitor, KDF exhibited even better antimold performance for animal feed. To our knowledge, this work first proved the applicability of KDF as a mold inhibitor for animal feed.

A novel air dehumidifier using HCOOK solution has experimentally been tested to be feasible and effective. Air flow rate and its relative humidity have big impacts on air dehumidification. The decrease of relative humidity could be over 25% using a strong HCOOK solution to desiccate highly humid air (>75% RH). However, it does not dehumidify efficiently the air with a relative humidity lower than 43% even if strong HCOOK desiccant solution is used. In highly humid spaces, such as bathroom, swimming pool, or kitchen, air dehumidification using a liquid desiccant is very efficient.

The influence of typical *OH radical scavengers as potassium formate and isopropanol on the radiation-induced removal of lead was individually studied. The lead can be completely removed from aqueous solutions containing 1x10(-2) mol/L of formate already at the dose of 2.5 kGy. With increasing concentration of formate (5x10(-5)-1x10(-2) mol/L) increases the amount of Pb(formate)(+) species in the solution before irradiation. The radiation product is metallic lead at low concentration of formate to PbCO(3) at higher concentration of scavenger. In the system with 10% isopropanol dominates the species Pb(2+) and the product of radiation reduction is then metallic lead.

Molar conductivities, Λ, of dilute aqueous solutions (c = (≈3·10−4 to ≈5·10−3) mol·dm−3) of sodium formate, potassium formate, and formic acid in the temperature range T = (278.15 to 313.15) K are reported. The experimental data are examined by applying the Quint−Viallard conductivity equations and the Debye−Huckel equations for activity coefficients. Limiting conductivities of formate anion in the investigated temperature range were obtained from the data for salts, and then the dissociation constants for formic acid were estimated. Results were compared with the available literature data.

The activity of a binary catalyst in alcoholic solvents for methanol synthesis from CO/H 2 /CO 2 at low temperature was investigated in a concurrent synthesis course. Experiment results showed that the combination of homogeneous potassium formate catalyst and solid copper–magnesia catalyst enhanced the conversion of CO 2 -containing syngas to methanol at temperature of 423–443 K and pressure of 3–5 MPa. Under a contact time of 100 g h/mol, the maximum conversion of total carbon approached the reaction equilibrium and the selectivity of methanol was 99%. A reaction pathway involving esterification and hydrogenolysis of esters was postulated based on the integrative and separate activity tests, along with the structural characterization of the catalysts. Both potassium formate for the esterification as well as Cu/MgO for the hydrogenolysis were found to be crucial to this homogeneous and heterogeneous synergistically catalytic system. CO and H 2 were involved in the recycling of potassium formate.

A review of the impacts of deicers used in winter maintenance practices of Portland cement concrete and as- phalt concrete roadways and airport pavements is presented. Traditional and relatively new deicers are incorporated in this review, including sodium chloride, magnesium chloride, calcium chloride, calcium magnesium acetate, potassium acetate, potassium formate, sodium acetate, and sodium formate. The detrimental effects of deicers on Portland cement concrete exist through three main pathways: 1) physical deterioration such as "salt scaling"; 2) chemical reactions between deicers and cement paste (a cation-oriented process, especially in the presence of magnesium chloride and calcium chloride); and 3) deicers aggrevating aggregate-cement reactions (such as the anion-oriented process in the case of chlorides, acetates, and formates affecting alkali-silica reactivity and the cation-oriented process in the case of calcium chloride and magne- sium chloride affecting alkali-carbonate reactivity). The deicer impacts on asphalt concrete pavements had been relatively mild until acetate- and formate-based deicers were introduced in recent years. The damaging mechanism seems to be a combination of chemical reactions, emulsifications and distillations, as well as the generation of additional stress in the asphalt concrete.

The addition of a surfactant like n-octanol improves the absorption capacity of the absorbent solutions employed in absorption refrigeration coolers. The effect of the addition of n-octanol on the water vapour absorption properties of LiBr + CHO2Na (sodium formate) + water (LiBr/CHO2Na = 2 by mass) and LiBr + CHO2K (potassium formate) + water (LiBr/CHO2K = 2 by mass) solutions has been investigated. The enthalpies of dilution, vapour pressures, densities and viscosities of the mixtures were measured in the range of temperature from 293.15 to 333.15 K and concentrations between 20.0 and 45.0% by mass. The mixture LiBr + CHO2Na (sodium formate) + 1000 ppm of n-octanol solution at 45% by weight exhibits a greater vapour absorption capacity than the LiBr solution conventionally employed in this type of refrigerant machines.

A novel liquid regeneration system integrated with solar evacuated tubes and an evaporative bed was made and tested. Two vacuum tubes were used to heat potassium formate (HCOOK) solution. The hot solution was supplied to an inclined evaporative bed where water was evaporated from the solution by the flow of warm/hot air flow over the bed. The warm/hot air could be provided by a solar air collector. For high efficiency regeneration, a high solution temperature and low vapour pressure in the warm/hot air are required, but as these conditions are contradictory, tests were carried out to establish the optimum compromise in terms of air flowrate and solution temperature. Experimental work indicated that a solution temperature of 45 to 50°C was optimum option for solution regeneration, using a blowing air temperature of approximately 42°C, which could be provided by a solar air collector. In these experiments, 277 to 761 mL of water were evaporated from a 10·5 L HCOOK solution with a concentration betwe...

Corrosion behaviour of four commercial aircraft materials, Al alloy 7075-T6, high strength steel AISI 4340, Ti alloy 9046 and Mg alloy RZ5, was studied in six commercial antiskid chemicals, one sodium acetate based, three potassium acetate based, one sodium formate based and one potassium formate based, using potentiodynamic polarisation measurements (polarisation curves) and chemical exposure tests (weight change data), combined with microstructural examinations (appearance of surfaces). The results show that among the four materials, the Ti alloy experiences least corrosion, showing pitting corrosion during the polarisation measurements and significant weight gains and discoloration in the exposure tests only in Safeway SF. In contrast to this, the Mg alloy and the high strength steel underwent corrosion in all chemicals, with severe pitting corrosion (polarisation measurements), significant weight changes and discoloration (exposure tests) being observed for the Mg alloy and discoloration (expo...

KNpO2(OOCH)2 was isolated from neutral Np(V) solutions with a high concentration of potassium formate. The crystal structure of this compound was determined. The structure consists of infinite anionic chains [NpO2(OOCH)2] − . Potassium cations are located between these chains. The Np coordination polyhedron is a hexagonal bipyramid whose equatorial plane is formed by the oxygen atoms of four HCOO− ions. The Np bipyramids in the chains are bound via common equatorial edges. The anionic chains in the structures of KNpO2(OOCH)2 and NH4NpO2(OOCH)2 studied previously have similar composition but different structure.

This paper presents the measurement of the thermal conductivity and the dynamic viscosity of H 2 O/KCOOH (potassium formate) desiccant with a salt concentration from 60 to 80% in the temperature range 1–80 °C. The thermal conductivity measurement gives evidence of a great sensitivity to salt concentration and lower sensitivity to temperature: H 2 O/KCOOH desiccant shows a thermal conductivity from 23 to 33% lower than water at the same temperature. H 2 O/KCOOH desiccant exhibits a Newtonian behaviour in all the investigated ranges of temperature and concentration. The relative viscosity shows a great sensitivity to salt concentration and weak or no sensitivity to temperature up to a solution concentration of salt around 70%. For higher solution concentration of salt (75 and 80%) the relative viscosity shows a great sensitivity also to temperature. H 2 O/KCOOH desiccant presents a dynamic viscosity from 4 to 30 times higher than water at the same temperature.

A formate-based fluid has been successfully used in many high pressure High temperature (HPHT) well operations since they were introduced in field practice. The laboratory research was carried out to determine composition of formate-base drilling fluid. It was formulated using sodium and potassium formate salts, Carboxymethyl Cellulose (CMC), Polyanionic Cellulose (PAC) and other types of polymers. In this research, the compatibility of different polymers with fluids, including potassium/sodium formate salts is being studied. Having said this, however, polymers, when taken to high temperatures, lose their properties. Therefore, this experimental procedure has been done at a temperature of 250°F over a period of 16 h. For doing these tests, six types of potassium/sodium formate fluids were made by different polymers. All samples formulation regarding their type and amount of water used in preparing fluids and the volume of salts used are simultaneously kept constant. On the contrary, the only differences were the types of polymers used in the different formulations. Formulation of formate-base fluids gives the best rheological properties in terms of AV/PV, YP and shale recovery than other fluids.

This paper reports experimental and modeling work for the laboratory scale-up of continuous “trickle-bed” reactors for the electro-reduction of CO2 to potassium formate. Two reactors (A and B) were employed, with particulate tin 3D cathodes of superficial areas, respectively, 45 × 10−4 (2–14 A) and 320 × 10−4 m2 (20–100 A). Experiments in Reactor A using granulated tin cathodes (99.9 wt% Sn) and a feed gas of 100% CO2 showed slightly better performance than that of the tinned-copper mesh cathodes of our previous communications, while giving substantially improved temporal stability (200 vs. 20 min). The seven-fold scaled-up Reactor B used a feed gas of 100% CO2 with the aqueous catholyte and anolyte, respectively [0.5 M KHCO3 + 2 M KCl] and 2 M KOH, at inlet pressure from 350 to 600 kPa(abs) and outlet temperature 295 to 325 K. For a superficial current density of 0.6–3.1 kA m−2 Reactor B achieved corresponding formate current efficiencies of 91–63%, with the same range of reactor voltage as that in Reactor A (2.7–4.3 V), which reflects the success of the scale-up in this work. Up to 1 M formate was obtained in the catholyte product from a single pass in Reactor B, but when the catholyte feed was spiked with 2–3 M potassium formate there was a large drop in current efficiency due to formate cross-over through the Nafion 117 membrane. An extended reactor (cathode) model that used four fitted kinetic parameters and assumed zero formate cross-over was able to mirror the reactor performance with reasonable fidelity over a wide range of conditions (maximum error in formate CE = ±20%), including formate product concentrations up to 1 M.

Electrochemical corrosion tests were performed on various tin-based solder alloys in stirred potassium formate solutions, pH = 8 and 10.5, with or without additives of corrosion inhibitor, between 20 °C and 75 °C. Open circuit and corrosion potentials and corrosion rates were measured, and galvanic corrosion of the tin-silver solder/copper couples was evaluated. The effects of pH and inhibitor on corrosion of tin-based solder alloys were also assessed.

Described herein is the development of a control strategy resulting in exclusion of a persistent impurity (6) formed by a palladium (II)-mediated homocoupling of boronic acid (3) during a Suzuki cross-coupling reaction. Nearly complete suppression of the undesired homocoupling reaction was achieved through two process modifications. Thus, addition of a mild reducing agent, potassium formate, and use of a facile nitrogen subsurface sparge prior to introduction of the catalyst resulted in nearly complete exclusion of homocoupling dimer 6. These modifications apparently minimized the concentration of free Pd(II) in the reaction mixture without causing significant reduction of the oxidative addition product. In addition, use of palladium black as a heterogeneous coupling catalyst rendered the palladium control strategy trivial. Thus, the catalyst was separated from the product solution through use a clarifying filtration, resulting in near quantitative separation of palladium from LY 451395 (5). These conditi...

A study using dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) and stress rheometry was done on the viscoelastic properties of different bitumen-filler blends disposed to de-icing agents. The blends were mixtures of the same bitumen, B200 (B), and four different filler grades, limestone (L) filler, Oulu (O) stone (mica-gneiss with high biotite amount), Rovaniemi (R) stone (diabase) and Hietavaara (H) stone (diabase). The de-icing agents tested were water, formic acid, potassium acetate (KAc) and potassium formate (KFo). From the DMA measurements, the elastic modulus (stiffness) at −25 °C, the glass transition temperature (T g) of the bitumen phase, and the softening temperature were measured. The stiffness data at −25 °C proposed that all agents seem to decrease the stiffness levels of the B-O blend with biotite to a larger extent. Formic acid and 50% potassium formates significantly decreased the stiffness level of the B-L blend. The stiffness of B-H blends was not affected by the chemical treatment. A plasticizing effect of water, formic acid, and 5% potassium acetate, was found for the B-L blend. From the changes in the softening temperatures in the temperature range 15–28 °C, it was concluded that chemical treatment may have an increasing effect on the softening temperatures of all blends, although the effect of hardening could not be omitted. Oscillatory flow measurements with a shear stress rheometer demonstrated that the viscosities of the blends increased significantly after the immersion in de-icing agents.

This paper reports an experimental investigation into the effects of five process variables on the performance of a bench-scale continuous electrochemical reactor used in the reduction of CO2 to potassium formate, and interprets the data in terms of reactor engineering for a (speculative) industrial process for electro-reduction of CO2. The process variables: temperature, catholyte species, catholyte conductivity, cathode specific surface area and cathode thickness were studied, along with CO2 pressure and current density, in a set of factorial and parametric experiments aimed to unravel their main effects and interactions. These variables showed complex interdependent effects on the reactor performance, as measured by the current efficiency and specific energy for generation of formate (HCO 2 − ). The “best” result has a formate current efficiency of 86% at a superficial current density of 1.3 kA m−2, with a product solution of 0.08 m KHCO2 and specific electrochemical energy of 260 kWh per kmole formate. The combined results indicate good prospects for process optimization that could lead to development of an industrial scale reactor.

This study examines the effect of a number of additives on the oxidative degradation of monoethanolamine (MEA) in the presence of dissolved Cu. Additives were selected from three categories: O2 scavengers and reaction inhibitors, chelating agents, and stable salts. Three proprietary inhibitors have been identified that significantly inhibit the rate of degradation at concentrations below 100 mM. Inhibitor A is a stable compound, while Scavengers B and C are stoichiometrically degraded to products that must be removed in an industrial application. Hydroquinone, ascorbic acid, manganese sulfate, and potassium permanganate all increased the rate of oxidative degradation. EDTA (ethylene-diamine-tetraacetic acid) was an effective chelating agent but lost inhibiting capacity over time. Phosphate was a weak chelating agent. Heat stable salts, including potassium chloride, potassium bromide, and potassium formate, were also ineffective oxidation inhibitors. Potassium formate was the strongest of the stable salts...

The migration of organic de-icers in the shallow aquifers typical in Finland is not well known and we need to find solutions to minimise the negative impacts of de-icing on groundwater quality. The objective of the MIDAS project is to find de-icers which have the least harmful impacts on groundwater quality. Migration of sodium chloride as a tracer and five alternative de-icers in aquifers was studied. The alternative de-icers were calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, calcium-magnesium-acetate, potassium acetate and potassium formate. The research consists of leaching of heavy metals from roadsides in the area of Highway 1 in southern Finland; an in vitro study, which represented the full length of winter at low temperatures; and the subsequent on-going field research in south-eastern Finland. So far, in our studies potassium formate caused fewer changes to the quality of the infiltrated water than the chlorides and acetates. After finishing the on-going research the results will be used to choose a preferred de-icer from the existing chemicals and for the development of new less harmful de-icers. The information will be used mainly in Scandinavia and North America where the hydrogeological conditions are similar to those in Finland.

Self-assembly of KHCO(3) fibers is observed when glassy oligomerized films of poly[(aminopropyl)siloxane] containing K(+) ions, denoted K(+)/poly-APS, are exposed to CO(2) and H(2)O. The fibers are crystalline, narrow (0.4-3 microm diam), high aspect ratio (up to at least 300), and, on the basis of Raman spectroscopy, dominated by KHCO(3). The fibers contain fluid that is dominated by aqueous potassium formate (KOOCH). A multistep phenomenological model is proposed to account for the self-assembly.

This article describes the development of a high power density Direct Formate Fuel Cell (DFFC) fed with potassium formate (KCOOH). The membrane electrode assembly (MEA) contains no platinum metal. The cathode catalyst is FeCo/C combined with a commercial anion exchange membrane (AEM). To enhance the power output and energy efficiency we have employed a nanostructured Pd/C-CeO2 anode catalyst. The activity for the formate oxidation reaction (FOR) is enhanced when compared to a Pd/C catalyst with the same Pd loading. Fuel cell tests at 60 °C show a peak power density of almost 250 mW cm−2. The discharge energy (14 kJ), faradic efficiency (89%) and energy efficiency (46%) were determined for a single fuel charge (30 mL of 4 M KCOOH and 4 M KOH). Energy analysis demonstrates that removal of the expensive KOH electrolyte is essential for the future development of these devices. To compensate we apply for the first time a polymeric ionomer in the catalyst layer of the anode electrode. A homopolymer is synthesized by the radical polymerization of vinyl benzene chloride followed by amination with 1,4-diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octane (DABCO). The energy delivered, energy efficiency and fuel consumption efficiency of DFFCs fed with 4 M KCOOH are doubled with the use of the ionomer.

A direct formate fuel cell (DFFC) operated with a fuel of alkaline potassium formate has been studied using Pd anode and Ag cathode electrocatalysts in an intermediate temperature range of 80 to 120 °C by means of cyclic voltammetry and single cell measurements. Voltammetric studies clearly show that the kinetics of the formate electrooxidation on Pd in alkaline media is substantially increased with increasing temperature, leading to a high apparent activation energy of around 74.3±6.2 kJ mol−1. Preliminary single cell measurements show that increasing operating temperature and the formate concentration obviously increase the performance. A DFFC operated with 6 mol dm−3 HCOOK and at 120 °C demonstrates a peak power density of around 160 mW cm−2 over a current density range of 250 to 550 mA cm−2 without Ohmic resistance correction. The DFFC is therefore a promising high performance, environmentally benign and low cost fuel cell technology. Keywords: Direct formate fuel cell, Electrooxidation of formate, Electrocatalysis, Alkaline electrolyte, Activation energy

Our research focuses on the hydrothermal conversion of carbon dioxide into formate with the aid of zerovalent iron. Conventionally, a one-step approach is applied wherein both (i) the production of hydrogen gas, through the oxidation of zerovalent iron in an aqueous medium and (ii) the conversion of carbon dioxide with this hydrogen gas into formate/formic acid, are performed under the same reaction conditions at a temperature of approximately 300 degrees C. Until now, the yields of formate/formic acid mentioned in the literature are, in the absence of a catalytic substance, low (13.5%). Recently, we developed a hydrothermal hydrogen gas production method based on the oxidation of zerovalent iron and performed under mild conditions (temperature of 160 degrees C). This synthesis method produces hydrogen gas with a high purity (>99 mol%) and a significant yield (approximately 80 mol%). These experimental results suggested that the optimal hydrothermal reaction conditions for the production of hydrogen gas and the conversion of carbon dioxide, are strongly different in case of applying zerovalent iron as the reducing agent. Therefore, this paper studies the potential of a two-step approach to enhance the carbon conversion yields. The first step is the production of hydrogen gas via the developed method at 160 degrees C. The second step is the conversion of carbon dioxide at higher temperatures (250-350 degrees C). This study reveals that the solubility of hydrogen gas into the aqueous solution is a key parameter in order to achieve a high amount of carbon conversion. Therefore, a high temperature, the degree of filling and the initial hydrogen gas amount are necessary to successfully perform the carbon dioxide conversion step with high carbon conversion yields. Applying these insights have led to the experimental observation that via a two-step approach the conversion of potassium hydrogen carbonate into potassium formate can be successfully performed with higher carbon conversion yields, up to 77.9 wt%, and a selectivity of at least 81% when applying a reaction temperature of 280 degrees C for 24 hours, a degree of filling with water of 50 vol% and an initial amount of hydrogen gas of 100 mmol.

Measurements of thermophysical properties (vapor pressure, density, and viscosity) of the water + lithium bromide + sodium formate system (LiBr:CHO2Na =2:1 by mass ratio) and the water + lithium bromide + potassium formate system (LiBr:CHO2K =2:1 by mass ratio) were measured. The system, a possible new working fluid for absorption heat pump, consists of absorbent (LiBr + CHO2Na) or (LiBr + CHO2K) and refrigerant (H2O). The vapor pressures were measured in the ranges of temperature and absorbent concentration from 293.15 K to 343.15 K and from 20.0 mass % to 60 mass %. The experimental data were correlated with an Antoine-type equation. Densities and viscosities were measured in the same range of temperature and absorbent concentration that vapor pressure. Regression equations for densities and viscosities were obtained with a minimum mean-square-error criterion.

Fatty acids containing more than one double bond (polyunsaturated fatty acids) indicated by high iodine value (more than 120 g I 2 /100 g oil) are prone either to oxidative degradation or thermal degradation leading to the appearance of undesirable compounds or to thermal oligo-/polymerization causing gum formation. Therefore, polyunsaturated bonds in the fatty acid chains should be hydrogenated into monounsaturated ones. The conventional method using hydrogen (direct hydrogenation) at relatively high temperature and pressure with the aid of nickel as catalyst, which prone to explosion due to the presence of free gaseous hydrogen at high temperature and pressure. Catalytic transfer-hydrogenation (CTH) therefore is proposed as a promising alternative method, enabling CTH at room condition without the presence of free hydrogen. This research is focused to explore effects of temperature and reaction time to iodine value reduction on CTH of candlenut oil, including kinetics of its methyl ester. The hydrogenation utilizes Ag-Ni/silica 150 A as catalyst and potassium formate (6M) as hydrogen donor. Three reaction temperatures were selected (40 o C, 60 o C and 78 o C), where each reactions were performed for 4, 8, 12 and 16 hours. Hydrogenation was performed in batch reactor using isopropyl alcohol as solvent. Results showed that iodine values decreased with the increase of temperature and longer reaction time. The iodine value was still decreasing at 16 hours reaction time, indicating the possibility of longer reaction time. However, at 16 hours time, the iodine value yield has been within biodiesel standard range (Indonesian National Standard). The hydrogenation was first order reaction towards methyl ester double bonds concentration. K o and E for candlenut methyl ester were 163.15/hour and 25.26 kJ/mol.

Indirect reductive amination of aldehydes, catalyzed by polymer supported triphenylphosphine-palladium acetate complex PS-TPP-Pd(OAc)2 catalyst have been developed. The imine is prepared with molecular sieves in the first stage, followed by reduction with potassium formate catalyzed by PS-TPP-Pd(OAc)2. The recovered catalyst could be reused for four consecutive cycles without loss in activity and provided an excellent yield of the desired products.

During snowmelt, the infiltration of large amounts of propylene glycol (PG), the major compound of many aircraft deicing fluids, affects redox processes and poses a contamination risk for the groundwater. To gain a better understanding about the degradation of PG and the associated biogeochemical processes under these conditions, we conducted saturated soil column experiments at 4 °C. During two successive PG pulses, we monitored the effect of the runway deicer formate (FO) and changing redox conditions on PG degradation. Furthermore, we applied first-order and simplified Monod kinetics to describe PG and FO transport. The transport of 50 mg l(-1) PG showed three stages of microbial degradation, which were defined as lag phase, aerobic phase, and anaerobic phase. During the second pulse, lag effects diminished due to the already accomplished microbial adaption, and the initial degradation rate of PG increased. Degradation of PG was most efficient during aerobic conditions (aerobic phase), while the subsequent drop of the redox potential down to -300 mV decreased the degradation rate (anaerobic phase). Formate addition decreased the overall degradation of PG by 50 and 15 % during the first and second pulse, illustrating the inhibitory effect of FO on PG degradation. The concurrent increase of Fe(III), organic carbon, and the turbidity in the column effluent after PG and FO application suggest the combined export of Fe adsorbed to fragments of detached biofilm. Neither the first-order nor the simplified Monod model was able to reconstruct the dynamic breakthrough of 50 mg l(-1) PG. The breakthrough of 1,000 mg l(-1), however, was described reasonably well with first-order kinetics. At low temperature and high water saturation, the application of first-order degradation kinetics seems therefore appropriate to describe the transport of high concentrations of PG.

Abstract In this paper are discussed the field performances of innovative K-Acetate or K-Formate mud formulations that have been used by Agip S.p.A to drill several wells through very plastic shales in South Italy. Field muds have been carefully designed and evaluated as far as drilling and waste disposal activities are concerned. While drilling, the integration between field observations, standard laboratory tests and non conventional rheological approaches provided the assessment of useful correlations between rheological properties, performances and formulations of field muds. These findings permitted a gradual improvement of the muds performances with a large reduction in dilution rates, bit balling and hole cleaning problems. At the rig, the strict cooperation between all the people involved in field operations represented a key factor for the successful application of the know-how acquired. With respect to the previously wells drilled in the field with traditional dispersed muds, the optimization and careful management of the new muds contributed, in spite of the increased ROP, to a considerable reduction both in time spent for bit balling or reaming and in ton of wastes produced per hole volume. These improvements led to great savings in drilling and disposal costs that largely compensated the 8.4% increase in the mud mixing costs per hole volume due to the presence of potassium salts. Introduction Potassium acetate (KC2H3O2, or simply KAC) has been proposed and successfully applied since 1986 as a more environmentally acceptable alternative to potassium chloride (KCl) for drilling fluids. Potassium chloride, KCl, provides levels of potassium (52% by weight) similar to those provided by KAC (40% by weight) but the high chloride concentrations associated with KCl have a harsh impact on plant life and limit the polymer selection. Recently, an other potassium salt, potassium formate (KCOOH), has been proposed and applied in brines and drill-in fluids formulations. The formate salts are of increasing interest because they have an unusually high solubility in water, at a wide range of densities, and reduce the rate of hydrolytic and oxidative degradation of many viscosifiers and fluid loss agents at high temperatures. In addition to that, they are biodegradable, have a low toxicity to aquatic organisms and display very little corrosiveness towards ferrous-based metals used in oilfield tubulars and ancillary hardware. However, drilling polymer muds for non productive zones, that include in their formulations low concentration of potassium formate as an alternative to the usual KCl, have been extensively applied so far only to Agip wells. In Agip, K-Acetate and K-Form ate polymer muds have been used to drill 11 wells located in two different fields (A and B). The data discussed in this paper only concern the 7 applications performed in the Field A. In this field, the mud performances have been carefully monitored with a special attention to hole cleaning, rate of penetration and mud tolerance to reactive clays. The field muds have been sampled every a hundred meter of penetration depth and analyzed with standard procedures and non conventional rheological tests, such as low shear rate measurements, oscillatory measurements and non conventional analysis of the Fann readings based on the Herschel & Bulkley (H&B) rheological model. These new approaches helped correlate field muds suspension capability, carrying capacity and resistance to shale contamination to the initial mud formulation and in particular to the type and concentration of salts and polymers. Afterwards, the impact of muds formulation and management has been evaluated with reference to some technical and economical indexes that have been considered of major interest for the given operative conditions. Some of the selected indexes have been defined on the base of a statistical study, performed on more than fifty wells, that will be more extensively discussed in a further paper. In this work, the major steps that led to the muds performances evaluation and optimization are discussed and condensed in several learning points. P. 661^

SYNOPSIS This paper is concerned with testing an absorption-recompression chiller using water/potassium formate (H2O/HCOOK) as the working fluid. A limitation of current conventional absorption chillers is that they can be used only with a few refrigerant/absorbent combinations, principally water/lithium bromide. Concentrated lithium bromide solutions have a relatively high crystallisation temperature and can solidify or “freeze” inside the chiller unit. They are also corrosive to metals and very expensive. Many different refrigerant/absorbent combinations have been cited in the literature, but these have similar disadvantages to water/lithium bromide solution. This paper evaluates the performance of a new working fluid namely, water/potassium formate (H2O/HCOOK). The physical properties of potassium formate carry many benefits, i.e. it is less corrosive, less expensive to manufacture, and has a lower density and viscosity than absorbents such as lithium bromide. A small-scale chiller was constructed and ...

Phase equilibria in the sodium formate—potassium formate—water system below 0°C along the NaHCOO : KHCOO = 5 : 1, 4 : 1, 3 : 1, 2 : 1, and 1 : 1 w/w sections have been investigated, the onset temperatures of ice crystallization from the aqueous solutions have been determined, and ice melting polytherms have been constructed for each section. The ice-melting capacity of the formate mixtures at —5 to —10°C has been calculated.

This paper evaluates the absorption and desorption rates of a potassium/water binary mixture and compares them to those of lithium bromide/water. The experimental procedure involved small-scale absorption chiller test rig. Extensive instrumentation was used so that identical operating conditions could be obtained for all tests to ensure a good comparison. Analysis of results has shown that the absorption rates for potassium formate/water is approximately 5% lower than lithium bromide/water. The desorption rates of potassium formate/water was found to be higher than that of lithium bromide/water. Heats of absorption and condensation were also recorded. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

peer-reviewed Doping a 1 wt.% Pd/C catalyst with alkali metal carbonates has a very significant promotional effect on its activity in hydrogen production from the decomposition of formic acid vapour (2 vol.%, 1 bar), potassium and caesium carbonates giving the largest effects. The K carbonate species present on the fresh catalysts react with formic acid to form formate ions, these being dissolved in a formic acid/water solution condensed in the pores of the support. The steady-state activities of the samples containing formate ions were 1-2 orders of magnitude greater than those of the unpromoted Pd/C and CO content was lower than 30 ppm. The activation energies for the reaction increased with doping from 66 to 88-99 kJ mo1-1, relatively independent of the cation of the dopant. Similar but lesser effects were found with unsupported Pd nanocrystals doped with K carbonate. The rate-determining step for the promoted samples appears to be the decomposition of formate ions on the Pd surface. (C) 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. ACCEPTED peer-reviewed

The natural microbial activity in the unsaturated soil is vital for protecting groundwater in areas where high loads of biodegradable contaminants are supplied to the surface, which usually is the case for airports using aircraft de-icing fluids (ADF) in the cold season. Horizontal and vertical distributions of microbial abundance were assessed along the western runway of Oslo Airport (Gardermoen, Norway) to monitor the effect of ADF dispersion with special reference to the component with the highest chemical oxygen demand (COD), propylene glycol (PG). Microbial abundance was evaluated by several biondicators: colony-forming units (CFU) of some physiological groups (aerobic and anaerobic heterotrophs and microscopic fungi), most probable numbers (MPN) of PG degraders, selected catabolic enzymatic activities (fluorescein diacetate (FDA) hydrolase, dehydrogenase, and β-glucosidase). High correlations were found between the enzymatic activities and microbial counts in vertical soil profiles. All microbial abundance indicators showed a steep drop in the first meter of soil depth. The vertical distribution of microbial abundance can be correlated by a decreasing exponential function of depth. The horizontal trend of microbial abundance (evaluated as total aerobic CFU, MPN of PG-degraders, and FDA hydrolase activity) assessed in the surface soil at an increasing distance from the runway is correlated negatively with the PG and COD loads, suggesting the relevance of other chemicals in the modulation of microbial growth. The possible role of potassium formate, component of runway de-icers, has been tested in the laboratory by using mixed cultures of Pseudomonas spp., obtained by enrichment with a selective PG medium from soil samples taken at the most contaminated area near the runway. The inhibitory effect of formate on the growth of PG degraders is proven by the reduction of biomass yield on PG in the presence of formate.

SSCI-VIDE+ING+SCT:DFA; International audience; 2,5- Dihydroxyterephthalic acid (H(4)dhtp) was synthesized on an 189 scale by carboxylation of hydroquinone in molten potassium formate. The hydrated form of the Ni-2(dhtp) MOF (also known as CPO-27-Ni and MOF-74(Ni)) was obtained in 92% yield by refluxing for 1 h a water suspension of the H(4)dhtp linker with an aqueous solution of nickel acetate. The ensuing characterization of the material (XRD, HRTEM, TGA, N-2 adsorption at 77 K - S-BET = 1233 m(2) g(-1)) confirmed the formation of a metal-organic framework of at least equal quality to the ones obtained from the previously reported routes (CPO-27-Ni and MOF-74(Ni)), with a different morphology (namely, well-separated 1 mu m platelets for the herein reported water-based route). The temperature dependence of the magnetic susceptibility was measured and satisfactorily simulated assuming a Heisenberg (H = -2J Sigma SiSi+1) ferromagnetic intrachain interaction (J = +8.1 cm(-1)) and an antiferromagnetic interchain interaction (J' = -1.15 cm(-1)). Overall, the reaction in water appears to follow easily distinguishable steps, the first being the deprotonation of H(4)dhtp by an acetate counterion, leading to a soluble nickel adduct of the linker, en route to the MOF self-assembly.

An innovative micro-scale liquid desiccant dehumidification system is numerically investigated. The liquid desiccant dehumidification unit employs a counter-flow low-cost and efficient heat and mass exchange core, improving the thermal performance and eliminating desiccant carryover with the process air. An environmentally friendly, non-corrosive, nontoxic and chemically stable HCOOK potassium formate liquid desiccant solution was employed in the unit. A set of governing differential equations was established for the dehumidification system operation allowing the development of a numerical model to predict and simulate the energy performance and various output parameters of the dehumidifier. A numerical case study was considered for a micro-liquid desiccant dehumidification system using potassium formate and a dehumidification and cooling capacity of around 11.32 kW was attained with about 59% humidity effectiveness and 62% enthalpy effectiveness. In addition, a parametric study was performed to investigate the effect of various operational parameters on the overall performance of the liquid desiccant dehumidifier. Utilizing the developed numerical model, it was shown that the dehumidifier effectiveness is directly proportional to the intake air temperature, intake air relative humidity and liquid desiccant flow rate where the effectiveness is inversely proportional to the intake air velocity and the heat exchanger air channel height.

The properties of aqueous fluid of potassium formate were studied theoretically and experimentally in order to find an improved secondary refrigerant for indirect refrigeration systems. The most important advantages compared to the traditional aqueous solutions of alcohols and glycoles are good thermodynamic properties, low toxicity and non-flammability. A remarkable benefit is a reduced change of a laminar flow. Volumetric heat is lower, which brings about a higher rate of mass flow, if the temperature change of the fluid is maintained constant. However, because of the clearly lower values of viscosity, the pumping power demand is at same level. Good thermal conductivity promotes good heat transfer.

As a prelude to the study of surface formate species with inelastic neutron scattering (INS) we have used INS to obtain the vibrational spectra of the model compounds potassium formate (KHCOO), anhydrous copper formate [Cu(HCOO) 2 ], hydrated copper formate [Cu(HCOO) 2 ·4H 2 O] and formic acid. These data are compared to IR and Raman spectra. In INS we observe vibrational modes for both potassium and copper formate not previously reported in IR and Raman studies, including a librational mode of copper formate at ca. 600 cm -1 . The relative intensities of the formate bands are very different from those observed in IR and Raman spectra and vary considerably between the three compounds studied. The two most intense formate fundamental vibrations in the INS spectrum are the C–H out-of-plane bend and the C–H in-plane bend, both of which have low intensity in IR and Raman spectra. In the INS spectrum the relative intensities of these modes vary considerably between the compounds studied indicating a structural dependency of the INS intensities.

To quantitatively investigate the influence of various •OH (hydroxyl radical) scavengers on the radiation sensitivity of yeast and bacteria, particularly to define the relationship between the protective effect of a scavenger and its •OH scavenging efficiency.In order to study the protective effect of •OH scavengers we used various concentrations of four scavengers (methanol, potassium formate, ethanol and ascorbic acid) in isotonic salt solutions. These solutions containing live yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) or bacteria (Escherichia coli) were irradiated with (60)Co isotope γ -radiation using two different doses and dose rates. The number of surviving cells was determined prior to and after irradiation both in suspension with and without scavengers. The surviving fractions after irradiation with and without the scavenger were evaluated.The main results of the paper were: The surviving fraction increased approximately linearly within the measured interval with increasing concentration of the scavenger. The same dependences were found for the protecting effect depending on the scavenging efficiency. The slopes of these dependences (k) were found to be characteristic for each scavenger. The k value determined the degree in which the scavenging of •OH radicals participated in the protection of living cells. The protective effects of scavengers at the same scavenging efficiency were different and unique for each scavenger. No simple relation was found between the efficiency of scavenger k and the rate constant kOH of the reactions between scavengers and •OH radicals. Our results suggest that the studied scavengers effectively protected yeast and bacteria against ionizing radiation. Although the scavenging of •OH radicals seems to be important for protection of living cells, it is clearly not the only process on which the protection is based.