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We constructed a fuel-flexible fuel cell consisting of an alkaline anion exchange membrane, palladium anode, and platinum cathode. When an alcohol fuel was used with potassium hydroxide added to the fuel stream and oxygen was the oxidant, the following maximum power densities were achieved at 60 °C: ethanol (128 mW cm−2), 1-propanol (101 mW cm−2), 2-propanol (40 mW cm−2), ethylene glycol (117 mW cm−2), glycerol (78 mW cm−2), and propylene glycol (75 mW cm−2). We also observed a maximum power density of 302 mW cm−2 when potassium formate was used as the fuel under the same conditions. However, when potassium hydroxide was removed from the fuel stream, the maximum power density with ethanol decreased to 9 mW cm−2 (using oxygen as oxidant), while with formate it only decreased to 120 mW cm−2 (using air as the oxidant). Variations in the performance of each fuel are discussed. This fuel-flexible fuel cell configuration is promising for a number of alcohol fuels. It is especially promising with potassium formate, since it does not require hydroxide added to the fuel stream for efficient operation.

Ruthenium encapsulated in an aluminium oxyhydroxide-support was investigated for the transfer hydrogenation of aldehydes and ketones with potassium formate as a sustainable green hydrogen donor. The entrapped ruthenium were narrowly distributed with mean diameters of 1.5–1.8 nm. XPS studies show that the ruthenium was present as Ru 0 and Ru 3+ . The catalysts showed high activity even at low metal loadings of 0.5–2 wt.%. The maximum TOF for benzaldehyde hydrogenation was over 1 wt.% Ru. The reduction of aromatic and aliphatic aldehydes was facile and occurred with 100% yield. In comparison, ketones were less readily reduced although moderate to excellent yields could be obtained after a longer reaction time. No leaching of ruthenium was observed in contrast to a catalyst prepared by wet impregnation. Washing of the used catalyst with water and ethanol effectively removed the deposited bicarbonate co-product and the recycled catalyst maintained its activity up to five runs.

Concentration of de-icing chemicals used at airfields in Northern countries may vary significantly, due to the dilution caused by rain and melting ice or snow. Furthermore, quality variations in cadmium platings used in aircraft components are a common fact. In this study, we examine the influence of the de-icing chemical concentration and the plating quality on the corrosion of cadmium using two cyclic corrosion tests: Boeing and AMS G-12 tests. The tests are performed using four de-icers: pure potassium formate, pure potassium acetate and two commercial chemicals containing these salts, at three concentrations, and four types of cadmium plating. The obtained results show that the extent of corrosion of the cadmium plating decreases with decrease in de-icing chemical concentration. The changes in characteristics of the chemicals, such as pH value, electrical conductivity and the amount of dissolved oxygen, due to changes in concentration, do not unambiguously explain the observation. Rather, the conditions during heat–humidity exposure, particularly the employed temperature, are of key importance. Wetting behavior of the chemicals on the four types of cadmium plating discloses slight differences between the plating types but more distinct differences between the used potassium formates and potassium acetates. A more efficient wetting of cadmium platings by potassium formates than potassium acetates yields one explanation why potassium formates introduce more severe corrosion damage. Concerning the cadmium plating quality, thickness and the amount and distribution of pores are the key parameters in terms of corrosion performance. In this paper, these results are presented and discussed in the light of published literature.

This paper reports on a single alkaline exchange membrane direct formate fuel cell (AEM DFFC) consisting of a carbon-supported palladium catalyst at the anode, a quaternized polysulfone membrane, and a non-precious Fe–Co catalyst at the cathode. It is demonstrated that the AEM DFFC yields a peak power density of 130 mW cm−2 with 5 M potassium formate (HCOOK) at 80 °C. It is further shown that with the addition of KOH to the anolyte, the peak power density rises to as high as 250 mW cm−2 at the same operating temperature. In addition, the AEM DFFC was also tested at 100 mA cm−2 for more than 130 h and no significant degradation in performance is found. The results reported in this work suggest that formate salt (HCOOM, M+ = Na+ or K+) is a potential fuel for alkaline-type direct liquid fuel cells.

Poly (acrylic acid) [PAA]-based aircraft de-icing fluids are widely used commercially but are known to be subject to the formation of insoluble gel particles within wing structures. In this study, the rheological effects of the sodium chloride, potassium formate, and calcium acetate with commercially used PAA-based fluids are reported across the temperature range of −15 to 15 °C. Calcium ions have the potential to create gel particles, reflected in the shifts in the viscosity–temperature profile, while PAA aggregation is influenced by the concentrations and compositions of sodium and potassium salts in the water used for dilution. From the data presented, it is possible to create de-icing fluid formulations with the necessary rheological characteristics from stock solutions by dilution using available water sources, providing that the ion concentration is known.

Non-invasive spatially resolved monitoring techniques may hold the key to observe heterogeneous flow and transport behavior of contaminants in soils. In this study, time-lapse electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) was employed during an infiltration experiment with deicing chemical in a small field lysimeter. Deicing chemicals like potassium formate, which frequently impact soils on airport sites, were infiltrated during snow melt. Chemical composition of seepage water and the electrical response was recorded over the spring period 2010. Time-lapse electrical resistivity tomographs are able to show the infiltration of the melt water loaded with ionic constituents of deicing chemicals and their degradation product hydrogen carbonate. The tomographs indicate early breakthrough behavior in parts of the profile. Groundtruthing with pore fluid conductivity and water content variations shows disagreement between expected and observed bulk conductivity. This was attributed to the different sampling volume of traditional methods and ERT due to a considerable fraction of immobile water in the soil. The results show that ERT can be used as a soil monitoring tool on airport sites if assisted by common soil monitoring techniques.

In this paper, we study the corrosion of cadmium plating by four runway de-icing chemicals using electrochemical measurements and standard (immersion) and proposed (cyclic) runway de-icing corrosion tests for cadmium plating. Besides the obtained electrochemical and gravimetric data, we analyze the exposed surfaces by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) and infra-red spectroscopy (IR). The chemicals included in the tests are pure potassium formate, pure potassium acetate and the corresponding commercial chemicals. Examinations revealed two parallel and linked phenomena on the plating surface, i.e., anodic dissolution of cadmium and development of corrosion products, primarily cadmium carbonate, CdCO3. Electrochemical measurements disclosed that the formed corrosion products slightly improved corrosion resistance of the surface but definitely did not stop corrosion completely, probably due to discontinuous structure. As for the studied de-icing chemicals, potassium formates systematically introduced more segmented corrosion products than potassium acetates and, subsequently, more severe corrosion on the specimens. Immersion cadmium corrosion test did not give very reliable results due to relatively low introduced corrosion rates and very large occasional scatter in the results. Cyclic cadmium corrosion tests introduced relatively greater corrosion rates and somewhat lower deviations than the immersion test, being hence, more reliable, but also more challenging in terms of meeting the weight change criteria for passing the test.

Triethylene glycol (TEG) is one of the most effective sorbents for natural gas dehydration. There are many processes using this approach but none of them can combine high performance and economical energy consumption. In this study hydrocarbon–water phase behavior was investigated for different TEG concentrations in different natural gas dehydration processes. The equilibrium correlations were investigated for predicting water dew point as a function of TEG concentration. The effect of TEG concentration on the outlet gas dew point was also determined using phase envelope diagrams. The results showed that the (DRIZO) process achieved the most significantly reduces water dew point followed by conventional stripping gas dehydration process. Moreover, TEG was modified using potassium formate as additive. The results showed that the absorption capacity of the modified TEG was improved, that is almost duplicated. This modification augments the performance of the proposed mixture which can be potentially applied to a real scale process.

A protocol has been developed for conducting the palladium-catalyzed reductive carbonylation of aryl iodides and bromides using 9-methylfluorene-9-carbonyl chloride (COgen) as a source of externally delivered carbon monoxide in a sealed two-chamber system (COware), and potassium formate as the in situ hydride source. The method is tolerant to a wide number of functional groups positioned on the aromatic ring, and it can be exploited for the isotope labeling of the aldehyde group. Hence, reductive carbonylations run with (13)COgen provide a facile access to (13)C-labeled aromatic aldehydes, whereas with DCO2K, the aldehyde is specifically labeled with deuterium. Two examples of double isotopic labeling are also demonstrated. Finally, the method was applied to the specific carbon-13 labeling of the β-amyloid binding compound, florbetaben.

A protocol for the Pd-catalyzed hydroxycarbonylation of aryl iodides, bromides, and chlorides has been developed using only 1-5 mol % of CO, corresponding to a p(CO) as low as 0.1 bar. Potassium formate is the only stoichiometric reagent, acting as a mildly basic nucleophile and a reservoir of CO. The substoichiometric CO could be delivered to the reaction from an acyl-Pd(II) precatalyst, which provides both the CO and an active catalyst, and thereby obviates the need for handling a toxic gas.

One of the potential non-edible biodiesel feedstocks in Indonesia is kapok seed oil (Ceiba pentandra). However, the biodiesel made directly from kapok seed oil will not comply with the requirement of Indonesian Biodiesel Standard, because the oil contains cyclopropenoid group, i.e. a reactive group that easily polymerizes, making the biodiesel viscous and thus could plug the fuel injection nozzle on the diesel engine. The aim of this study is to determine the suitable conditions for low T and P catalytic transfer hydrogenation process to eliminate the cyclopropenoid group in kapok seed oil. Potassium formate (10 M) was used as a hydrogen donor solution and the catalyst was a 5%- palladium on carbon (5%-Pd/C) utilized at a level of 0,5%-mass to oil. The concentrations of cyclopropenoid group at the beginning and the end of the hydrogenation were determined titrimetrically using Durbetaki reagent. The best condition for catalytic transfer hydrogenation of kapok seed oil found in this study was at 65 °C for 9 hours, which resulted in about 61% decrease of the cyclopropenoid group. Iodine number measurements indicated that the hydrogenation process merely occured on the cyclopropenoid group, because the group was more reactive than the monoenoic/dienoic bonds on the aliphatic fatty acid chains of the oil.

Dietary inclusion of salts of organic acids may modulate intestinal microbiota and enhance performance of pigs. Published data on the effects of potassium formate (KF; pH 6.0-8.5) on pig performance are scarce compared with that of potassium diformate (KDF; pH 4.1-4.5). Therefore, the objective was to evaluate the effects of KDF or KF supplementation on performance of 8- to 22-kg pigs. A 35-d growth trial was conducted with 144 PIC pigs (initial BW of 7.9 ± 0.69 kg) with 6 pigs (3 gilts and 3 barrows) per pen and 8 pens per treatment. Pigs were assigned to 3 diets based on corn (Zea mays), wheat (Triticum aestivum), and soybean (Glycine max) meal for each of the prestarter (days 1-14) and starter phases (days 15-35). The basal diet was supplemented with KDF at 1.20% or KF at 1.56% replacing corn starch to create diets 2 and 3, respectively, to provide a constant formate content. The ADG and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were not affected by the addition of KDF or KF during the prestarter phase. Addition of KDF or KF to the basal diet increased (P0.01) ADG and final BW and improved FCR (P0.05) during the starter and the overall 35-d period. The ADFI was not affected by the treatments. Performance of pigs fed diets supplemented with KF and KDF were similar. Diarrhea incidences were observed during week 1 but no differences were observed (P0.05) among treatments in term of the number of antibiotic treatments or fecal consistency scores. Overall, the supplementation of 1.56% KF or 1.20% KF improved performance of weaned pigs.

This chapter presents component evaluation, based on experimental data, of a novel ‘integrated’ liquid desiccant air conditioning system (IDCS) operating with a potassium formate solution.

The use of water-based mud (WBM) in drilling applications under extreme reservoir temperatures has been increasing rapidly in the drilling industry over the past few years. It is now more crucial than ever to close the technological gap that present challenges towards developing an environmentally friendly and cost effective high performance WBMs. Synthetic polymers such as sodium salt of sulfonated acrylamide and vinyl lactam (DD) and sodium salt of sulfonated acrylamide, acrylic amide, sodium acrylate and vinyl lactam (DT) are commonly used as primary viscosifiers and fluid loss agents in WBM systems for HPHT fluids. Potassium formate brine (KCHO2) is usually used to stabilize the drilling fluid's performance under HPHT conditions as it helps in decreasing the flocculation of rheological properties of WBM under extreme temperature including the degradation of their rheolo s. It is known that WBMs experience many challenges when exposed to extreme temperatures gical properties over a long period of time. This study aims to developing a water-based drilling mud that is stable at elevated temperatures up to 300°F, while maintaining sufficient inhibitive and good rheological performances. Various drilling mud additives such as synthetic polymers (DD and DT), KCHO2 and other fluid loss additives were investigated in the formulation of the stable WBM. A total of sixteen (16) drilling fluid samples with different concentrations of synthetic DD (1 ppb to 4 ppb), DT (1 ppb to 4 ppb), and KCHO2 (0 wt.% to 10 wt.%) were formulated using the Taguchi design of experiment (DOE), prepared and tested before and after dynamic aging. The experimental results obtained showed that the following drilling mud formulations had their rheological property (PV/YP) values stabilised even after dynamic aging at 300°F: (a) 3.2 wt.% KCHO2, 3 ppb DD, and 4 ppb DT, (b) 6.7 wt.% KCHO2, 2 - 4 ppb DD, and 2 - 4 ppb DT, and (c) 10.0 wt.% KCHO2, 1 - 4 ppb DD, and 1 - 4 ppb DT. This study provides an optimisation guide for the formulation of stable synthetic polymers and potassium formate brine WBMs at elevated temperatures up to 300°F, thus, saving time and cost by eliminating various laboratory tests.

This paper presents the measurement of the thermal conductivity and the dynamic viscosity of H 2 O/KCOOH (potassium formate) desiccant with a salt concentration from 60 to 80% in the temperature range 1–80 °C. The thermal conductivity measurement gives evidence of a great sensitivity to salt concentration and lower sensitivity to temperature: H 2 O/KCOOH desiccant shows a thermal conductivity from 23 to 33% lower than water at the same temperature. H 2 O/KCOOH desiccant exhibits a Newtonian behaviour in all the investigated ranges of temperature and concentration. The relative viscosity shows a great sensitivity to salt concentration and weak or no sensitivity to temperature up to a solution concentration of salt around 70%. For higher solution concentration of salt (75 and 80%) the relative viscosity shows a great sensitivity also to temperature. H 2 O/KCOOH desiccant presents a dynamic viscosity from 4 to 30 times higher than water at the same temperature.

A formate-based fluid has been successfully used in many high pressure High temperature (HPHT) well operations since they were introduced in field practice. The laboratory research was carried out to determine composition of formate-base drilling fluid. It was formulated using sodium and potassium formate salts, Carboxymethyl Cellulose (CMC), Polyanionic Cellulose (PAC) and other types of polymers. In this research, the compatibility of different polymers with fluids, including potassium/sodium formate salts is being studied. Having said this, however, polymers, when taken to high temperatures, lose their properties. Therefore, this experimental procedure has been done at a temperature of 250°F over a period of 16 h. For doing these tests, six types of potassium/sodium formate fluids were made by different polymers. All samples formulation regarding their type and amount of water used in preparing fluids and the volume of salts used are simultaneously kept constant. On the contrary, the only differences were the types of polymers used in the different formulations. Formulation of formate-base fluids gives the best rheological properties in terms of AV/PV, YP and shale recovery than other fluids.

The water-gas shift reaction is the key reaction to produce hydrogen by hydrothermal biomass gasification. Salts are ingredients of biomass and accelerate the water-gas shift reaction. In this work, the influences of the NaHCO 3 and the KHCO 3 on water-gas shift reaction (WGSR) were investigated at 10 and 23 MPa and 230–300 °C. The presence of NaHCO 3 and KHCO 3 promotes the WGSR significantly and to the same extend. Additionally, sodium and potassium formate salts are formed from the carbonates. The water-gas shift reaction rate in the presence of salts is found to be: 1.16 × 10 4 ( l mol − 1 ) 0.5 s − 1 e ( − 9155 K / T ) [ CO ] [ NaHCO 3 ] 0.5 .

Raney nickel catalyzed transfer hydrogenation of nitrile was proposed, with formats as hydrogen donor. Three ionic liquids, including [DBUH + ][C2H5COO – ], [DBUH + ][C3H7COO – ], and [DBUH + ][C4H9COO – ], were prepared as reaction medium, and [DBUH + ][C4H9COO – ] showed the best performance. Various nitriles were reduced with potassium formate as hydrogen donor, and considerable to excellent yields of amines were given. The ionic liquid can be used for 6 times at least, and the reaction process is clean.

The mechanism of chromium metal deposition from a trivalent chromium bath containing formic acid and polyethylene glycol 1000 (PEG) was studied on an electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance (EQCM), electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) and a technique for measuring pH on the cathode surface. Reactions of PEG molecules with trivalent chromium ions and their influence on the plating process of trivalent chromium were investigated. EQCM studies at low trivalent chromium ion concentrations show that chromium electrodeposition occurs via the formation of an adsorption layer on the electrode surface, which is called a cathodic film. Cathodic films hinder the penetration of ions from bulk solution to the cathode surface. In the inner portion of the cathodic film and at the cathode surface, intermediate complexes were formed during the deposition process. ESI-MS revealed that the PEG molecules were stable in a trivalent chromium bath containing potassium formate. During electroplating, the PEG molecules decreased the reductive current of hydrogen compared with solutions without PEG; an effect that was also observed due to the pH on the electrode surface. PEG plays a decisive role in the formation of intermediate compounds during electrodeposition.

It was shown that ubiquinone (CoQ(10)) and ubiquinol (CoQ(10)H(2)) produce fluorescence products under alkaline conditions when reacted with 2-cyanoacetamide. The reaction mixture from CoQ(10) gave fluorescence with excitation and emission maximum wavelengths at 442 nm and 549 nm, respectively. This reaction was considered to proceed via Craven's reaction. Moreover, 2-cyanoacetamide was shown to be a useful reagent for high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with post-column fluorescence derivatization of CoQ(10) and CoQ(10)H(2) in blood. CoQ(10) showed a linear response in the range of 0.32-1276 ng, and the detection limit (S/N = 3) was 0.16 ng. Moreover, the sample pretreatment by deproteinization and extraction of CoQ(10) and CoQ(10)H(2) from plasma using 1-propanol with potassium formate was effective for excellent separation of CoQ(10) and CoQ(10)H(2) from other fluorescent substances in the blood. This simple and rapid pretreatment was considered to minimize the oxidation of CoQ(10)H(2). On the other hand, CoQ(10) and CoQ(10)H(2) in plasma samples obtained by finger prick were detected, as in venous blood obtained by venipuncture. Our method involving the simple and rapid collection of plasma by finger prick and sample pretreatment is thought to be applicable for the determination of CoQ(10)H(2)/total CoQ(10) ratio as a biomarker of oxidative stress.

Corrosion effects of five runway de-icing chemicals on aluminium alloy 2024, magnesium alloy RZ5 and cadmium-plated and subsequently chromate-treated steel 4340 were investigated by cyclic polarisation measurements, open circuit potential monitoring and cyclic chemical exposure tests. The runway de-icing chemicals included in the study contained urea, which has a long history as a runway de-icing chemical, and four new commercial de-icing chemicals, which were based on betaine and potassium formate. Corrosion effects of urea on aluminium alloy 2024 were more pronounced than those of the new de-icing chemicals. In urea, the breakdown potential, indicating the onset of pitting, was clearly distinguishable in the cyclic polarisation curve and pitting corrosion was detected on the specimen surface after all three types of tests. Weight losses during the chemical exposure tests were also higher for urea than for the other four chemicals, where pitting corrosion was only occasionally detected. The opposite was true in the case of magnesium alloy RZ5: although the alloy experienced general corrosion in each de-icing chemical included in the study, the rate of corrosion was often higher in the new de-icing chemicals than in urea. Corrosion effects of the five de-icing chemicals on cadmium-plated and chromate-treated high-strength steel 4340 were slightly different in all three tests, indicating that differences in coating quality, particularly in the thickness of the coating layers, might have influenced the results. Overall, however, partial loss of the coating layers occurred in all studied de-icing chemicals.

Conversion of carbon dioxide utilizing protons from water decomposition is likely to provide a sustainable source of fuels and chemicals in the future. We present here a time-evolved infrared reflection absorption spectroscopy (IRAS) and temperature-programmed desorption (TPD) study of the reaction of CO2 + H2O in thin potassium layers. Reaction at temperatures below 200 K results in the hydrogenation of carbon dioxide to potassium formate. Thermal stability of the formate, together with its sequential transformation to oxalate and to carbonate, is monitored and discussed. The data of this model study suggest a dual promoter mechanism of the potassium: the activation of CO2 and the dissociation of water. Reaction at temperatures above 200 K, in contrast, is characterized by the absence of formate and the direct reaction of CO2 to oxalate, due to a drastic reduction of the sticking coefficient of water at higher temperatures.

Organic de-icing chemicals, such as propylene glycol and potassium formate, cause environmental degradation in receiving water if left untreated, due to the high organic load resulting in oxygen depletion. Biofilters are commonly used for the treatment of biodegradable organic carbon in water treatment. This study investigated the potential for using biofilters for treating organic de-icing compounds. Lab-scale adsorption tests using filter media made of crushed clay (Filtralite) and granular activated carbon were conducted. Further, a column filtration experiment testing two different crushed clay size ranges was carried out investigating the effect of filter media depth, nutrient addition, and filtration rate. The surrogate parameter used to monitor the removal of de-icing chemicals was dissolved organic carbon (DOC). The adsorption test showed no significant adsorption of DOC was observed. The column test showed that the most active separation occurred in the first ~20 cm of the filter depth. This was confirmed by results from (1) water quality analysis (i.e., DOC removal and adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP) measurement); and (2) calculations based on a filtration performance analysis (Iwasaki model) and filter hydraulic evaluation (Lindquist diagram). The results showed that, for the highest C:N:P ratio tested (molar ratio of 24:7:1), 50–60% DOC removal was achieved. The addition of nutrients was found to be important for determining the biofilter performance. © 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Potassium diformate (KDF) has been regarded as an alternative to antibiotic growth promoters for animals. This paper delineates a 100% atom economical process for the preparation of KDF from formic acid and potassium formate. Parametric optimization of the synthesis was conducted with respect to reaction time, reaction temperature, and molar ratio of the reactants by employing orthogonal design of experiment method. The results manifested a molar ratio of HCOOH to HCOOK of 1.3, reaction temperature of 65 °C, and reaction time of 30 min as the optimal conditions with a KDF product yield of 94.0%. Efforts were also made to explore the antimold performance of KDF on animal feed using the plate count method. Compared with sodium diacetate (SDA), the widely used mold inhibitor, KDF exhibited even better antimold performance for animal feed. To our knowledge, this work first proved the applicability of KDF as a mold inhibitor for animal feed.

A novel air dehumidifier using HCOOK solution has experimentally been tested to be feasible and effective. Air flow rate and its relative humidity have big impacts on air dehumidification. The decrease of relative humidity could be over 25% using a strong HCOOK solution to desiccate highly humid air (>75% RH). However, it does not dehumidify efficiently the air with a relative humidity lower than 43% even if strong HCOOK desiccant solution is used. In highly humid spaces, such as bathroom, swimming pool, or kitchen, air dehumidification using a liquid desiccant is very efficient.

The influence of typical *OH radical scavengers as potassium formate and isopropanol on the radiation-induced removal of lead was individually studied. The lead can be completely removed from aqueous solutions containing 1x10(-2) mol/L of formate already at the dose of 2.5 kGy. With increasing concentration of formate (5x10(-5)-1x10(-2) mol/L) increases the amount of Pb(formate)(+) species in the solution before irradiation. The radiation product is metallic lead at low concentration of formate to PbCO(3) at higher concentration of scavenger. In the system with 10% isopropanol dominates the species Pb(2+) and the product of radiation reduction is then metallic lead.

This article describes the development of a high power density Direct Formate Fuel Cell (DFFC) fed with potassium formate (KCOOH). The membrane electrode assembly (MEA) contains no platinum metal. The cathode catalyst is FeCo/C combined with a commercial anion exchange membrane (AEM). To enhance the power output and energy efficiency we have employed a nanostructured Pd/C-CeO2 anode catalyst. The activity for the formate oxidation reaction (FOR) is enhanced when compared to a Pd/C catalyst with the same Pd loading. Fuel cell tests at 60 °C show a peak power density of almost 250 mW cm−2. The discharge energy (14 kJ), faradic efficiency (89%) and energy efficiency (46%) were determined for a single fuel charge (30 mL of 4 M KCOOH and 4 M KOH). Energy analysis demonstrates that removal of the expensive KOH electrolyte is essential for the future development of these devices. To compensate we apply for the first time a polymeric ionomer in the catalyst layer of the anode electrode. A homopolymer is synthesized by the radical polymerization of vinyl benzene chloride followed by amination with 1,4-diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octane (DABCO). The energy delivered, energy efficiency and fuel consumption efficiency of DFFCs fed with 4 M KCOOH are doubled with the use of the ionomer.

Molar conductivities, Λ, of dilute aqueous solutions (c = (≈3·10−4 to ≈5·10−3) mol·dm−3) of sodium formate, potassium formate, and formic acid in the temperature range T = (278.15 to 313.15) K are reported. The experimental data are examined by applying the Quint−Viallard conductivity equations and the Debye−Huckel equations for activity coefficients. Limiting conductivities of formate anion in the investigated temperature range were obtained from the data for salts, and then the dissociation constants for formic acid were estimated. Results were compared with the available literature data.

The activity of a binary catalyst in alcoholic solvents for methanol synthesis from CO/H 2 /CO 2 at low temperature was investigated in a concurrent synthesis course. Experiment results showed that the combination of homogeneous potassium formate catalyst and solid copper–magnesia catalyst enhanced the conversion of CO 2 -containing syngas to methanol at temperature of 423–443 K and pressure of 3–5 MPa. Under a contact time of 100 g h/mol, the maximum conversion of total carbon approached the reaction equilibrium and the selectivity of methanol was 99%. A reaction pathway involving esterification and hydrogenolysis of esters was postulated based on the integrative and separate activity tests, along with the structural characterization of the catalysts. Both potassium formate for the esterification as well as Cu/MgO for the hydrogenolysis were found to be crucial to this homogeneous and heterogeneous synergistically catalytic system. CO and H 2 were involved in the recycling of potassium formate.

A review of the impacts of deicers used in winter maintenance practices of Portland cement concrete and as- phalt concrete roadways and airport pavements is presented. Traditional and relatively new deicers are incorporated in this review, including sodium chloride, magnesium chloride, calcium chloride, calcium magnesium acetate, potassium acetate, potassium formate, sodium acetate, and sodium formate. The detrimental effects of deicers on Portland cement concrete exist through three main pathways: 1) physical deterioration such as "salt scaling"; 2) chemical reactions between deicers and cement paste (a cation-oriented process, especially in the presence of magnesium chloride and calcium chloride); and 3) deicers aggrevating aggregate-cement reactions (such as the anion-oriented process in the case of chlorides, acetates, and formates affecting alkali-silica reactivity and the cation-oriented process in the case of calcium chloride and magne- sium chloride affecting alkali-carbonate reactivity). The deicer impacts on asphalt concrete pavements had been relatively mild until acetate- and formate-based deicers were introduced in recent years. The damaging mechanism seems to be a combination of chemical reactions, emulsifications and distillations, as well as the generation of additional stress in the asphalt concrete.

The addition of a surfactant like n-octanol improves the absorption capacity of the absorbent solutions employed in absorption refrigeration coolers. The effect of the addition of n-octanol on the water vapour absorption properties of LiBr + CHO2Na (sodium formate) + water (LiBr/CHO2Na = 2 by mass) and LiBr + CHO2K (potassium formate) + water (LiBr/CHO2K = 2 by mass) solutions has been investigated. The enthalpies of dilution, vapour pressures, densities and viscosities of the mixtures were measured in the range of temperature from 293.15 to 333.15 K and concentrations between 20.0 and 45.0% by mass. The mixture LiBr + CHO2Na (sodium formate) + 1000 ppm of n-octanol solution at 45% by weight exhibits a greater vapour absorption capacity than the LiBr solution conventionally employed in this type of refrigerant machines.

A novel liquid regeneration system integrated with solar evacuated tubes and an evaporative bed was made and tested. Two vacuum tubes were used to heat potassium formate (HCOOK) solution. The hot solution was supplied to an inclined evaporative bed where water was evaporated from the solution by the flow of warm/hot air flow over the bed. The warm/hot air could be provided by a solar air collector. For high efficiency regeneration, a high solution temperature and low vapour pressure in the warm/hot air are required, but as these conditions are contradictory, tests were carried out to establish the optimum compromise in terms of air flowrate and solution temperature. Experimental work indicated that a solution temperature of 45 to 50°C was optimum option for solution regeneration, using a blowing air temperature of approximately 42°C, which could be provided by a solar air collector. In these experiments, 277 to 761 mL of water were evaporated from a 10·5 L HCOOK solution with a concentration betwe...

Corrosion behaviour of four commercial aircraft materials, Al alloy 7075-T6, high strength steel AISI 4340, Ti alloy 9046 and Mg alloy RZ5, was studied in six commercial antiskid chemicals, one sodium acetate based, three potassium acetate based, one sodium formate based and one potassium formate based, using potentiodynamic polarisation measurements (polarisation curves) and chemical exposure tests (weight change data), combined with microstructural examinations (appearance of surfaces). The results show that among the four materials, the Ti alloy experiences least corrosion, showing pitting corrosion during the polarisation measurements and significant weight gains and discoloration in the exposure tests only in Safeway SF. In contrast to this, the Mg alloy and the high strength steel underwent corrosion in all chemicals, with severe pitting corrosion (polarisation measurements), significant weight changes and discoloration (exposure tests) being observed for the Mg alloy and discoloration (expo...

KNpO2(OOCH)2 was isolated from neutral Np(V) solutions with a high concentration of potassium formate. The crystal structure of this compound was determined. The structure consists of infinite anionic chains [NpO2(OOCH)2] − . Potassium cations are located between these chains. The Np coordination polyhedron is a hexagonal bipyramid whose equatorial plane is formed by the oxygen atoms of four HCOO− ions. The Np bipyramids in the chains are bound via common equatorial edges. The anionic chains in the structures of KNpO2(OOCH)2 and NH4NpO2(OOCH)2 studied previously have similar composition but different structure.

This paper reports experimental and modeling work for the laboratory scale-up of continuous “trickle-bed” reactors for the electro-reduction of CO2 to potassium formate. Two reactors (A and B) were employed, with particulate tin 3D cathodes of superficial areas, respectively, 45 × 10−4 (2–14 A) and 320 × 10−4 m2 (20–100 A). Experiments in Reactor A using granulated tin cathodes (99.9 wt% Sn) and a feed gas of 100% CO2 showed slightly better performance than that of the tinned-copper mesh cathodes of our previous communications, while giving substantially improved temporal stability (200 vs. 20 min). The seven-fold scaled-up Reactor B used a feed gas of 100% CO2 with the aqueous catholyte and anolyte, respectively [0.5 M KHCO3 + 2 M KCl] and 2 M KOH, at inlet pressure from 350 to 600 kPa(abs) and outlet temperature 295 to 325 K. For a superficial current density of 0.6–3.1 kA m−2 Reactor B achieved corresponding formate current efficiencies of 91–63%, with the same range of reactor voltage as that in Reactor A (2.7–4.3 V), which reflects the success of the scale-up in this work. Up to 1 M formate was obtained in the catholyte product from a single pass in Reactor B, but when the catholyte feed was spiked with 2–3 M potassium formate there was a large drop in current efficiency due to formate cross-over through the Nafion 117 membrane. An extended reactor (cathode) model that used four fitted kinetic parameters and assumed zero formate cross-over was able to mirror the reactor performance with reasonable fidelity over a wide range of conditions (maximum error in formate CE = ±20%), including formate product concentrations up to 1 M.

Electrochemical corrosion tests were performed on various tin-based solder alloys in stirred potassium formate solutions, pH = 8 and 10.5, with or without additives of corrosion inhibitor, between 20 °C and 75 °C. Open circuit and corrosion potentials and corrosion rates were measured, and galvanic corrosion of the tin-silver solder/copper couples was evaluated. The effects of pH and inhibitor on corrosion of tin-based solder alloys were also assessed.

Described herein is the development of a control strategy resulting in exclusion of a persistent impurity (6) formed by a palladium (II)-mediated homocoupling of boronic acid (3) during a Suzuki cross-coupling reaction. Nearly complete suppression of the undesired homocoupling reaction was achieved through two process modifications. Thus, addition of a mild reducing agent, potassium formate, and use of a facile nitrogen subsurface sparge prior to introduction of the catalyst resulted in nearly complete exclusion of homocoupling dimer 6. These modifications apparently minimized the concentration of free Pd(II) in the reaction mixture without causing significant reduction of the oxidative addition product. In addition, use of palladium black as a heterogeneous coupling catalyst rendered the palladium control strategy trivial. Thus, the catalyst was separated from the product solution through use a clarifying filtration, resulting in near quantitative separation of palladium from LY 451395 (5). These conditi...

Our research focuses on the hydrothermal conversion of carbon dioxide into formate with the aid of zerovalent iron. Conventionally, a one-step approach is applied wherein both (i) the production of hydrogen gas, through the oxidation of zerovalent iron in an aqueous medium and (ii) the conversion of carbon dioxide with this hydrogen gas into formate/formic acid, are performed under the same reaction conditions at a temperature of approximately 300 degrees C. Until now, the yields of formate/formic acid mentioned in the literature are, in the absence of a catalytic substance, low (13.5%). Recently, we developed a hydrothermal hydrogen gas production method based on the oxidation of zerovalent iron and performed under mild conditions (temperature of 160 degrees C). This synthesis method produces hydrogen gas with a high purity (>99 mol%) and a significant yield (approximately 80 mol%). These experimental results suggested that the optimal hydrothermal reaction conditions for the production of hydrogen gas and the conversion of carbon dioxide, are strongly different in case of applying zerovalent iron as the reducing agent. Therefore, this paper studies the potential of a two-step approach to enhance the carbon conversion yields. The first step is the production of hydrogen gas via the developed method at 160 degrees C. The second step is the conversion of carbon dioxide at higher temperatures (250-350 degrees C). This study reveals that the solubility of hydrogen gas into the aqueous solution is a key parameter in order to achieve a high amount of carbon conversion. Therefore, a high temperature, the degree of filling and the initial hydrogen gas amount are necessary to successfully perform the carbon dioxide conversion step with high carbon conversion yields. Applying these insights have led to the experimental observation that via a two-step approach the conversion of potassium hydrogen carbonate into potassium formate can be successfully performed with higher carbon conversion yields, up to 77.9 wt%, and a selectivity of at least 81% when applying a reaction temperature of 280 degrees C for 24 hours, a degree of filling with water of 50 vol% and an initial amount of hydrogen gas of 100 mmol.

A study using dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) and stress rheometry was done on the viscoelastic properties of different bitumen-filler blends disposed to de-icing agents. The blends were mixtures of the same bitumen, B200 (B), and four different filler grades, limestone (L) filler, Oulu (O) stone (mica-gneiss with high biotite amount), Rovaniemi (R) stone (diabase) and Hietavaara (H) stone (diabase). The de-icing agents tested were water, formic acid, potassium acetate (KAc) and potassium formate (KFo). From the DMA measurements, the elastic modulus (stiffness) at −25 °C, the glass transition temperature (T g) of the bitumen phase, and the softening temperature were measured. The stiffness data at −25 °C proposed that all agents seem to decrease the stiffness levels of the B-O blend with biotite to a larger extent. Formic acid and 50% potassium formates significantly decreased the stiffness level of the B-L blend. The stiffness of B-H blends was not affected by the chemical treatment. A plasticizing effect of water, formic acid, and 5% potassium acetate, was found for the B-L blend. From the changes in the softening temperatures in the temperature range 15–28 °C, it was concluded that chemical treatment may have an increasing effect on the softening temperatures of all blends, although the effect of hardening could not be omitted. Oscillatory flow measurements with a shear stress rheometer demonstrated that the viscosities of the blends increased significantly after the immersion in de-icing agents.

This paper reports an experimental investigation into the effects of five process variables on the performance of a bench-scale continuous electrochemical reactor used in the reduction of CO2 to potassium formate, and interprets the data in terms of reactor engineering for a (speculative) industrial process for electro-reduction of CO2. The process variables: temperature, catholyte species, catholyte conductivity, cathode specific surface area and cathode thickness were studied, along with CO2 pressure and current density, in a set of factorial and parametric experiments aimed to unravel their main effects and interactions. These variables showed complex interdependent effects on the reactor performance, as measured by the current efficiency and specific energy for generation of formate (HCO 2 − ). The “best” result has a formate current efficiency of 86% at a superficial current density of 1.3 kA m−2, with a product solution of 0.08 m KHCO2 and specific electrochemical energy of 260 kWh per kmole formate. The combined results indicate good prospects for process optimization that could lead to development of an industrial scale reactor.

This study examines the effect of a number of additives on the oxidative degradation of monoethanolamine (MEA) in the presence of dissolved Cu. Additives were selected from three categories: O2 scavengers and reaction inhibitors, chelating agents, and stable salts. Three proprietary inhibitors have been identified that significantly inhibit the rate of degradation at concentrations below 100 mM. Inhibitor A is a stable compound, while Scavengers B and C are stoichiometrically degraded to products that must be removed in an industrial application. Hydroquinone, ascorbic acid, manganese sulfate, and potassium permanganate all increased the rate of oxidative degradation. EDTA (ethylene-diamine-tetraacetic acid) was an effective chelating agent but lost inhibiting capacity over time. Phosphate was a weak chelating agent. Heat stable salts, including potassium chloride, potassium bromide, and potassium formate, were also ineffective oxidation inhibitors. Potassium formate was the strongest of the stable salts...

Aromatic and aliphatic aldehydes are selectively reduced to primary alcohols under mild conditions with potassium formate in the presence of Pd/C catalyst. The high selectivity obtained is attributed due to the presence of the basic potassium bicarbonate generated in situ from the formate salt via the hydrogen transfer process. Molecular hydrogen shows similar activity in the presence of potassium carbonate salts. Ketones did not react under these conditions; therefore, this method is used to separate aldehydes selectively from a mixture of aldehydes and ketones.

The migration of organic de-icers in the shallow aquifers typical in Finland is not well known and we need to find solutions to minimise the negative impacts of de-icing on groundwater quality. The objective of the MIDAS project is to find de-icers which have the least harmful impacts on groundwater quality. Migration of sodium chloride as a tracer and five alternative de-icers in aquifers was studied. The alternative de-icers were calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, calcium-magnesium-acetate, potassium acetate and potassium formate. The research consists of leaching of heavy metals from roadsides in the area of Highway 1 in southern Finland; an in vitro study, which represented the full length of winter at low temperatures; and the subsequent on-going field research in south-eastern Finland. So far, in our studies potassium formate caused fewer changes to the quality of the infiltrated water than the chlorides and acetates. After finishing the on-going research the results will be used to choose a preferred de-icer from the existing chemicals and for the development of new less harmful de-icers. The information will be used mainly in Scandinavia and North America where the hydrogeological conditions are similar to those in Finland.

Self-assembly of KHCO(3) fibers is observed when glassy oligomerized films of poly[(aminopropyl)siloxane] containing K(+) ions, denoted K(+)/poly-APS, are exposed to CO(2) and H(2)O. The fibers are crystalline, narrow (0.4-3 microm diam), high aspect ratio (up to at least 300), and, on the basis of Raman spectroscopy, dominated by KHCO(3). The fibers contain fluid that is dominated by aqueous potassium formate (KOOCH). A multistep phenomenological model is proposed to account for the self-assembly.

A direct formate fuel cell (DFFC) operated with a fuel of alkaline potassium formate has been studied using Pd anode and Ag cathode electrocatalysts in an intermediate temperature range of 80 to 120 °C by means of cyclic voltammetry and single cell measurements. Voltammetric studies clearly show that the kinetics of the formate electrooxidation on Pd in alkaline media is substantially increased with increasing temperature, leading to a high apparent activation energy of around 74.3±6.2 kJ mol−1. Preliminary single cell measurements show that increasing operating temperature and the formate concentration obviously increase the performance. A DFFC operated with 6 mol dm−3 HCOOK and at 120 °C demonstrates a peak power density of around 160 mW cm−2 over a current density range of 250 to 550 mA cm−2 without Ohmic resistance correction. The DFFC is therefore a promising high performance, environmentally benign and low cost fuel cell technology. Keywords: Direct formate fuel cell, Electrooxidation of formate, Electrocatalysis, Alkaline electrolyte, Activation energy