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The benefits of practice testing for long-term learning are well established in many contexts. However, little is known about learner characteristics that might moderate its effectiveness. The effects of practice tests might depend on individual prerequisites for learning, especially in real-world educational settings. We explored whether the effects of practice testing in a regular university lecture would depend on cognitive (e.g., prior knowledge), motivational (e.g., learning motivation), or emotional (test anxiety) dispositions. We implemented an experimental intervention design in psychology courses for teacher students (N = 208). One week before the lecture, focal learner characteristics were assessed. Immediately after the lecture, participants completed an online review session with short-answer questions (practice testing with corrective feedback) or summarizing statements (restudy), alternating within each participant. One week later, retention of learning contents was assessed with a criterial test containing short-answer and multiple-choice questions. A testing effect emerged (ηp² =.07), with better retention for the tested compared with the restudied contents. Some learner characteristics affected learning outcomes, but no interactions with testing vs. restudy occurred. These results suggest that the testing effect in the university classroom is a robust phenomenon that benefits learning irrespective of primary individual learning prerequisites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fact-checkers want people to both read and remember their misinformation debunks. Retrieval practice is one way to increase memory, thus multiple-choice quizzes may be a useful tool for fact-checkers. We tested whether exposure to quizzes improved people's accuracy ratings for fact-checked claims and their memory for specific information within a fact check. Across three experiments, 1551 US-based online participants viewed fact checks (either health- or politics-related) with or without a quiz. Overall, the fact checks were effective, and participants were more accurate in rating the claims after exposure. In addition, quizzes improved participants' memory for the details of the fact checks, even 1 week later. However, that increased memory did not lead to more accurate beliefs. Participants' accuracy ratings were similar in the quiz and no-quiz conditions. Multiple-choice quizzes can be a useful tool for increasing memory, but there is a disconnect between memory and belief. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Under certain conditions, the retrieval of some information can increase the recall of other information, a phenomenon known as retrieval-induced facilitation. Chan (Journal of Memory and Language 61:153–170, 2009) proposed two moderating factors to account for why retrieval causes facilitation in some situations and forgetting in others: (1) integration at the time of encoding and (2) the delay between retrieval practice and final test. Chan found a 9–11% facilitation effect when the materials were well integrated and the final test occurred after a 24-h delay. Two sets of experiments sought to replicate and extend Chan's study by examining retrieval-induced facilitation not only following a 24-h delay but after longer delays (i.e., 1 or 2 weeks). A meta-analysis including these replications and the original experiments was also conducted. The results provide additional evidence of retrieval-induced facilitation, with no evidence that the effect varies as a function of the final delay. However, the size of the effect was found to be somewhat smaller than previously observed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BackgroundProviding early psychosis (EP) individuals with family psychoeducation (FPE) can reduce symptoms and improve clinical outcomes. However, relational memory problems may limit prospective utilization of FPE information. This study examines whether memory for FPE can be improved by testing participants during the initial FPE workshop presentation.MethodData were obtained from 20 people with EP and 20 demographically matched healthy comparison subjects (HC). During session one, FPE was presented in small group workshops, with half of the information re-studied twice (re-study condition) and the remaining information tested twice using cued recall tasks (retrieval practice condition). One week later (session two), delayed cued recall was tested for all FPE information. "Testing effects" (i.e., better memory following retrieval practice versus re-study) were examined across all items (standard analysis) and also limited to items successfully retrieved during session one (conditionalized analysis).ResultsHC had better initial recall and learned more over the two retrieval practice trials than EP. However, HC also lost more information than EP over the one-week delay. Both groups produced a significant testing effect. This effect was smaller in EP versus HC across all test items, but did not differ for the conditionalized analysis. Negative symptoms were inversely correlated with delayed cued recall in EP.ConclusionsEP participants benefit from retrieval practice, with participants with less severe negative symptoms showing the greatest benefit. These results encourage use of memory tests during group psychoeducation to improve subsequent long-term recall of clinically relevant information.

Abstract Educational opportunities occur through naturalistic everyday life experiences (e.g., reading a newspaper, listening to a podcast, or visiting a museum). Research primarily examines learning under controlled conditions, such as in a classroom or laboratory. There is relatively little known about the extent to which adults extract semantic content, beyond factual recall, from naturalistic educational experiences. In the present work, we focused on virtual museum exhibits. The materials were sourced directly from an art history museum. The naturalistic nature of this work stems from the type of content used though an important component of naturalistic learning—motivational processes—was not measured. In each of three experiments, we assessed adult learners’ performance on tests of factual recall, inferential reasoning, and self-derivation through memory integration from naturalistic virtual museum exhibits. In anticipation of the potential challenge associated with learning outcomes under naturalistic conditions, we administered a yoked protocol under which participants had opportunities to engage in retrieval practice (Experiment 2a) or restudy (Experiment 2b) as explicit mechanisms of support for the three tests of learning. In all experiments, participants performed successfully on all three tests of learning; factual recall was the most accessible of the three learning outcomes. There was no difference in performance at the group level across experiments, but there was at the individual level, such that idea units generated during retrieval practice predicted learning outcomes, whereas restudy of those exact idea units did not. The current work provides novel insight into mechanisms underlying adult learning from naturalistic educational opportunities.

Introduction: Long-term memory retention is enhanced after testing compared to restudying (testing effect). Notably, memory retrieval further improves when correct-answer feedback is provided after the retrieval attempt (test-potentiated encoding-TPE). Methods: To evaluate whether explicit positive or negative feedback further enhances memory performance beyond the effect of TPE, in two experiments additional explicit positive or negative performance-contingent feedback was presented before providing correct-answer feedback. After an initial exposure to the full material, 40 participants learned 210 weakly associated cue-target word pairs by either restudying or testing (Experiment 1). Depending on the accuracy of the retrieval attempt, the tested word pairs were followed by positive or negative performance feedback (50%) or no feedback (50%). Irrespective of the type of repetition, trials were followed by a restudy opportunity. Participants returned to perform a final cued-recall test (Day 2). Results: Final test results replicated the testing effect (better memory performance for tested compared to restudied items). Explicit performance feedback in addition to correct-answer feedback increased retrieval performance, but only on Day 2. This pattern of results was replicated in Experiment 2 in an independent sample of 25 participants. To assess the specific effects of learning history, we also examined retrieval accuracy and reaction times during repetition cycles: Explicit feedback improved retrieval for material successfully encoded in the initial study phase (consistent positive feedback) as well as for material learned during the repetition phase (mixed positive and negative feedback). Discussion: Performance feedback improves learning beyond the effects of retrieval practice and correct-answer feedback, suggesting that it strengthens memory representations and promotes re-encoding of the material. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this mixed methods study was to identify Doctor of Physical Therapy (DPT) students with markers of potential challenges on the National Physical Therapy Examination (NPTE) and evaluate their outcomes. The qualitative arm, framed by social cognitive theory, identified strategies students used to achieve first-attempt success. Of the 143 students from one DPT program who had markers of potential NPTE challenges, 79% overcame challenges to achieve success, revealing a weaker association between undergraduate grade point average (GPA) and NPTE performance. Year one program GPA and written exam performance while in the program were stronger predictors of NPTE performance. Qualitative analysis of interviews with 19 graduates revealed three themes: (1) Critical resources build confidence for a unique standardized test; (2) Peers support, teach, and hold each other accountable; and (3) Self-care is vital as emotions run high. Participants described needing to change their approaches to learning between undergraduate and DPT education. Critical resources for achieving first-attempt success included contextualizing knowledge in the clinical setting, NPTE preparatory courses, and frequent self-assessment, which facilitated retrieval practice and revealed knowledge deficits. Little is known about graduates who did not achieve first-attempt success but were ultimately successful, warranting further research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Retrieval practice performed shortly upon the encoding of information benefits recall of the retrieved information but causes forgetting of nonretrieved information. Here, we show that the forgetting effect on the nonretrieved information can quickly evolve into recall enhancement when retrieval practice is delayed. During a time window of twenty minutes upon the encoding of information, the forgetting effect observed shortly after encoding first disappeared and then turned into recall enhancement when the temporal lag between encoding and retrieval practice was prolonged. Strikingly, recall enhancement continued to emerge when retrieval practice was postponed up to one week. The results illustrate a fast transition from the forgetting of nonretrieved information to recall enhancement. This fast transition is of relevance for daily life, in which retrieval is often selective and delayed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Unlike conventional understanding of testing that only diagnoses the existing knowledge of the learners, testing has been found to promote learning by providing feedback to the learners. However, it has been found that the testing effect varies from person to person—it has negative consequences for some, while it enhances learning for others. Since the holders of different implicit theories interpret feedback of failure on their performances differently, it is hypothesized that the incremental theory holders will benefit more from testing than the entity theory holders. The current research examines the effect of implicit theories on the feedback of failure on a test. In this study, 2 (implicit theories: entity vs. incremental) × 2 (condition: testing vs. read-only) × 2 (nature of word pairs: related vs. unrelated) mixed subject design, repeated on the last two factors, was deployed. Findings of the study show that learning is better in the testing condition than in the read-only condition, even if the participants' responses are incorrect earlier. Further, the incremental theory holders performed better at the final test than the entity theory holders. These findings show the role of testing and implicit theories in learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Learning arbitrary associations can be a difficult task for students. In two experiments, we investigated the utility of the keyword method, retrieval practice, and a keyword-retrieval combination strategy relative to repeated study for learning anthropologists' names and their contributions to the field of anthropology. Both experiments found that the keyword method and retrieval practice were somewhat equally effective study methods when used separately, though the size of the keyword effect (better learning relative to repeated study) was consistently more robust than that for the retrieval-practice effect. When combined, the individual benefits of each strategy added together so that using the strategies jointly was more effective than using a single strategy. We advance the complementary view of combining the keyword method and retrieval practice. The empirical findings and theoretical interpretation support combining an effective encoding strategy with retrieval practice to facilitate the learning of educational material with arbitrary associations. General Audience Summary: College students often are required to learn material characterized by arbitrary associations; for example, foreign language vocabulary, biology taxonomies, and various terminology. This material is challenging because students cannot utilize typical strategies that allow them to achieve a deep understanding. In two experiments, we investigated effective learning strategies for arbitrary associations using materials that consisted of anthropologists' names and their contributions to the field of anthropology. Students learned anthropologist/contribution pairs using the keyword method, retrieval practice, a keyword-retrieval combination strategy, or repeated study. In both experiments, we found that the keyword method and retrieval practice conferred approximately equal learning benefits relative to repeated study. When combined, the benefits of each technique added together to produce better learning than each technique alone. Our findings indicate that for the learning of educational material with arbitrary associations, students would significantly benefit from a study approach that combines the keyword method with retrieval practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

IntroductionA significant proportion of currently enrolled college students receive support for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and these students are often at risk of academic failure. Retrieval practice or self-testing is an effective, accessible, and affordable tool for improving academic performance. Three recent studies found conflicting results with regards to the effectiveness of retrieval practice in this population.MethodsThe present study compared 36 individuals with ADHD to 36 controls. Participants studied Swahili-English word pairs that varied in difficulty. Half of the pairs were repeatedly studied, and the other half repeatedly tested.ResultsOn a final test, all participants showed a benefit of retrieval practice relative to restudy and participant status did not moderate the effect. However, unmedicated individuals with ADHD performed worse overall, both during the encoding phase and on the final test, whereas medicated participants were not significantly different from controls.DiscussionAn examination of self-reported encoding strategies found unmedicated participants used fewer deep strategies at encoding, consistent with prior work on ADHD and memory. Although retrieval practice is effective in this group, improved strategy use may be necessary to ensure performance that is fully equivalent to that of students without ADHD.

We replicated and extended Maurer and Shipp’s (2021) intervention to teach students the successive relearning study strategy and encourage its use in preparation for course exams. This mixed-methods project was conducted in partnership between the faculty member teaching the course and an undergraduate student enrolled in the course. Results were similar to those reported by Maurer and Shipp (2021) but differed in meaningful ways. In this investigation, students reported more spaced practice in studying for the exam, demonstrated both greater confidence and greater mastery of the targeted course concept and closer alignment of confidence and mastery. They also reported greater unprompted metacognitive awareness of their own need to learn better study strategies. Qualitative responses from students aligned with the recommendation from SoTL literature that interventions to teach students to adopt more effective study methods need to both provide information and research evidence about more effective methods to students. The responses also aligned with the recommendation from SoTL literature to scaffold students through how to use the methods with opportunities to practice them. Time management issues emerged as the largest student-identified barrier to adopting successive relearning.

Prior studies have shown that predictions of subsequent performance (i.e., Judgments of Learning, JoLs) following tests are more accurate than those following re-study and have suggested that retrieval practice allows people to base their predictions on the current retrieval outcomes so that they assign a higher likelihood of remembering to answers with high confidence. We speculated that other mechanisms, such as retrieval fluency during tests, might also be important for JoLs and that they both offer diagnostic information helping learners to make more accurate JoLs. In the present study, we asked participants to study word-pairs and undergo either a test or re-study trial. Two testing formats (cued-recall and multiple-choice) were administrated for the test condition in two experiments. After the initial test or re-study of the word-pair, participants rated their confidence in the current retrieval accuracy (test) or confidence in acquisition (re-study), followed by a JoL rating where participants predicted their performance in the final test one day later. The results of both experiments showed that the correlation between JoL ratings and the final accuracy was higher for test trials compared with re-study trials. Moreover, using mediation analyses, we found that this high correspondence was only partially mediated by participants' confidence in initial tests. Both retrieval reaction time and retrieval confidence simultaneously mediated the correspondence between JoLs and the final accuracy, suggesting that participants were able to correctly base their JoLs on multiple sources of information that are made available through retrieval practice.

The testing effect refers to the finding that retrieving previously encoded material typically improves subsequent recall performance more on a later test than does restudying that material. Storm et al. (2014) demonstrated, however, that when feedback is provided on such a later test the testing advantage then turns to a restudying advantage on subsequent tests. The goal of the present research was to examine whether there is a similar consequence of feedback when the difficulty of initial retrieval practice is modulated. Replicating prior research, we found that on an initial delayed test, recall of to-be-learned items was better following difficult than easy practice. Critically, however, providing immediate feedback on an initial delayed test reversed this pattern. Our findings are consistent with a distribution-based interpretation of how feedback at test modifies recall performance.

How memory representations are eventually established and maintained in the brain is one of central issues in memory research. Although the hippocampus and various brain regions have been shown to be involved in learning and memory, how they coordinate to support successful memory through errors is unclear. In this study, a retrieval practice (RP) – feedback (FB) paradigm was adopted to address this issue. Fifty-six participants (27 in the behavioral group, and 29 in the fMRI group) learned 120 Swahili-Chinese words associations and underwent two RP-answer FB cycles (i.e., RP1, FB1, RP2, FB2). The responses of the fMRI group were recorded in the fMRI scanner. The trials were divided based on participant's performance (correct or incorrect, C or I) during the two RPs and the final test (i.e., trial type, CCC, ICC, IIC III). The results showed that the regions in the salience and executive control networks (S-ECN) during RP, but not during FB, was strongly predictive of final successful memory. Their activation was just before the errors were corrected (i.e., RP1 in ICC trials and RP2 in IIC trials). The anterior insula (AI) is a core region in monitoring repeated errors, and it had differential connectivity with the default mode network (DMN) regions and the hippocampus during the RP and FB phases to inhibit incorrect answers and update memory. In contrast, maintaining corrected memory representation requires repeated RP and FB, which was associated with the DMN activation. Our study clarified how different brain regions support error monitoring and memory maintenance through repeated RP and FB, and emphasized the role of the insula in learning from errors.

Much of the learning that college students engage in today occurs in unsupervised settings, making effective self-regulated learning techniques of particular importance. We examined the impact of task difficulty and supervision on whether participants would follow written instructions to use repeated testing over restudying. In Study 1, we found that when supervised, instructions to test resulted in changes in the self-regulated learning behaviors such that participants tested more often than they studied, relative to participants who were unsupervised during learning. This was true regardless of the task difficulty. In Study 2, we showed that failure to shift study strategies in unsupervised learning was likely due to participants avoidance of testing rather than failure to read the instructions at all. Participants who tested more frequently remembered more words later regardless of supervision or whether or not they received instructions to test, replicating the well-established testing effect (e.g., Dunlosky et al. in Psychol Sci Public Interest 14:4–58, 2013. http://doi.org/10.1177/1529100612453266). In sum, there was a benefit to testing, but instructing participants to test only increased their choice to test when they were supervised. We conclude that supervision has an impact on whether participants follow instructions to test. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Safety instrumented systems(SIS) have been widely used in petroleum and chemical plants to detect and respond to dangerous events and prevent them from developing into accidents. The in-service time of SIS does not exceed its useful life is one of the crucial assumptions of IEC functional safety standards. The testing method recommended in the IEC standard is essentially a chi-square testing, where the testing effect is proportional to the sample size and, therefore, not suitable for testing the type of data distribution under small samples. In this paper, a rapid inference method of useful life (RIUL) is proposed to: i) determine whether the distribution type of failure data is exponential under small samples with the help of Anderson-Darling testing, and ii) use the Bayesian sequential testing method for estimating the useful life. The sequential posterior odds ratio testing is introduced to test the equipment failure rate one by one. The proposed RIUL approach is applied to the liquid-level protection circuit of the hot high-pressure separator. The engineering simulation results show that compared with IEC standard methods, the proposed method can be performed with fewer failure data, providing a theoretical basis for reasonable maintenance and replacement of equipment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of a behaviour change intervention to reduce patient delay with symptoms of acute coronary syndrome. Design: A 3‐arm web‐based, parallel randomized controlled trial. Methods: The intervention comprised 12 behaviour change techniques (BCTs) embedded in a text‐only or text+visual narrative (the techniques were systematically identified through systematic review and a consensus exercise). Between February and November 2017, n = 145 people who had recently experienced acute coronary syndrome were randomly allocated to intervention ('text+visual' or 'text‐only') or control. Intentions to phone an ambulance immediately for acute coronary syndrome symptoms were assessed before and after the intervention using symptom scenarios, and the change in intention was compared across the three groups. Results: Significant increases in intention to phone an ambulance immediately for ACS symptoms were seen following the 'text+visual' intervention but not following 'text‐only' or control. However, the study was underpowered to detect any significant changes in intention between the 3 groups. There were no unintended effects on intentions for non‐urgent symptoms. Conclusions: A 'text+visual' BCT‐based intervention may significantly increase intention to phone an ambulance with symptoms of ACS. Further testing of the effect of the intervention on actual behaviour is required. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Retrieving information from memory can—under many circumstances—strengthen one's memory of the retrieved information itself. The strategic use of retrieval to enhance memory and help long-term retention is known as retrieval practice. However, it is unclear whether its effect also holds true in the case of learning mathematics. This research is an exploratory case study, where we test a method— using test-enhanced learning as formative assessment—in a high-needs vocational school. Since the literature on how this method works in classroom settings in mathematics is limited, the purpose of our case study was to get a better view and to lay the groundwork for further experiments. The experimental group and one of the control groups were from the vocational school, while the other control group was from an elite grammar school. On the final test members of the experimental group outscored their schoolmates and reached statistically the same scores as the control group from the elite grammar school. By means of the method, we were able to reduce the performance gap in long-term retention between students from the elite grammar school and students from the urban high-needs school. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Financial literacy is an important life skill, yet the impact of financial education has often been found to be modest. We conducted a field experiment to assess the effectiveness of a postinstruction intervention using a smartphone app that incorporated cognitive science principles aimed at improving learning. College students who completed a required credit review workshop during their sophomore year used the smartphone app in one of three practice conditions: control (no practice), massed, or spaced retrieval practice with elaborative feedback. On a final assessment about 5 months later, students who engaged in spaced retrieval practice were superior to those in the control and massed practice conditions in terms of knowledge. Given the ubiquity of smartphones today, the results highlight the potential of harnessing easily accessible technology as learning tools to augment the retention and transfer of knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The forward testing effect (FTE) refers to the finding that retrieval practice of previously studied material can facilitate recall of newly studied (critical) material. Such interim retrieval practice can also lead to a differential FTE, i.e., a more pronounced FTE for items at early than later serial positions in the critical material. The present study examined whether this differential FTE also holds with interim semantic generation of extra-list items, and whether it is influenced by study material. Consistent with prior work, the results of two experiments showed that both interim retrieval practice and interim semantic generation induce the general (list-level) FTE when unrelated study lists are applied, whereas retrieval practice only creates the effect with categorised study lists. Critically, however, the differential FTE was present in response to retrieval practice but absent in response to semantic generation. This pattern held regardless of which material was studied, thus experimentally dissociating the general (list-level) from the differential (item-level) FTE. The findings may suggest that retrieval practice, but not semantic generation, induces a reset of the encoding process which promotes attentional encoding such that a more pronounced FTE arises for early than middle and late serial positions in the critical list. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Retrieval practice typically benefits later memory more than restudy (i.e., the testing effect). The benefits of retrieval-based learning generalize across a range of materials and contexts, leading many cognitive scientists to advocate for broad educational implementation. However, educators and practitioners call for more research on factors critical to education (e.g., individual differences between learners). One key understudied factor is the amount of relevant prior knowledge held by the learner, which can moderate the effectiveness of other learning strategies (i.e., expertise-reversal effects). The current study investigated the potential moderating influence of prior knowledge on the learning benefits of retrieval. To assess the causal effects of prior knowledge on later learning strategy effectiveness, we randomly assigned online participants to be trained in multiple topics within one of two academic domains over 3 days. Participants then engaged in a more typical testing effect paradigm—they studied new scientific text passages related to their trained or untrained domain and completed two rounds of focused restudy or retrieval with elaborative feedback (repeated for the other domain). Two days later, participants took a final test on the previously learned information from both domains. Despite being rated as more effortful than restudy, retrieval practice led to greater overall test performance (with larger relative benefits on retention than transfer questions). Critically, despite a substantial benefit from training-induced knowledge, testing effects were nearly identical for high and low prior knowledge information. This suggests that prior knowledge is not a critical boundary condition of retrieval-based learning. Educational Impact and Implications Statement: This study compared the effectiveness of two learning strategies, restudy (i.e., focused restudying of examples or key ideas) versus retrieval practice (i.e., short answer practice questions with detailed feedback), for learners with low versus high prior knowledge of the to-be-learned scientific text passages. Retrieval practice led to greater overall performance than focused restudy (i.e., about +10% or one letter grade higher) and these benefits were similar for learners with low and high prior knowledge. This indicates that retrieval practice is more effective than restudy when learning complex, educationally relevant information and that students with lower and higher levels of relevant prior knowledge will similarly benefit from retrieval-based learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Implementation of testing as a study strategy will prepare students for course exams. • Educating students regarding testing as a study strategy does not impact grades. • Students perceived use of testing as a study strategy does not impact final grades. Critical thinking is essential in nursing education as no concept can be understood in isolation. The use of retrieval practice improves encoding, aiding in recollection of material. Nurse educators desire student success in course work; however, the overarching goal is to ensure student success on NCLEX-RN and in patient care. Exceptional critical thinking skills will assist students in achieving all of these goals. This quasi-experimental study investigated how students employ testing in preparation for exams, and it sought to determine if outcomes improved when students were made aware of the benefits of testing as a study strategy. Students received three unit exams, a comprehensive final and six content specific tests. One cohort also received an instructional session regarding the usefulness of testing as a study strategy. Students could also respond to an optional survey regarding their utilization of the tests as a study strategy. The study concluded there were no differences in outcomes based on the way in which students utilized tests, nor any differences in outcomes when students were made aware of the benefits of testing as a study strategy. No statistical significance was found regarding the students' reported use of testing as a study strategy, nor with respect to instructing students on the benefits of the use of testing as a study strategy. However, when compared to previous cohorts who did not utilize testing as a study strategy, there were statistical significances noted; therefore, additional research is merited to examine the results further. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using games in a classroom setting to help engagement and learning is becoming popular, but controlled investigations into the benefits of games are few. Games are potentially a way to incorporate retrieval practice into a class and garner subsequent benefits to memory. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether a board game assisted students to remember facts from a year one biological psychology module. Forty-seven participants (42 female, 5 male) took part in a seminar to test the hypothesis that playing the board game would enhance memory compared to taking part in a quiz. An experimental design was adopted with a between-subject factor (group: board game versus quiz) and two within-subjects factors: time of test (before the seminar, immediately after the seminar, 7-days after the seminar) and question type (seminar questions, i.e. questions contained in the game or quiz versus control lecture questions, i.e. questions that were not contained in the game or quiz but in a lecture). Contrary to the hypothesis, there were no differences in scores between the board game and quiz groups. We propose this is due to both groups having participated in retrieval practice during the game or the quiz. However, there was a significant main effect of time of test (scores immediately after the seminar increased) and a main effect of question type (scores were higher for seminar questions than control questions). The time of test x question type interaction was significant; post hoc analyses show that both groups scored higher on seminar questions compared to the control lecture questions in the after seminar test, and in the 7 days test. In conclusion, games can engage students and help them to remember complex material, but it is the use of retrieval practice specifically that aids memory. Our data show that retrieval practice can be equally effective in a board game or quiz, but students preferred the board game. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multiple studies have shown that testing contributes to learning at all educational levels. In this observational classroom study, we report the use of a learning tool developed for a Genetics and Molecular Biology course at the college level. An interactive set of practice exams that included 136 multiple choice questions (MCQ) or matching queries was developed in the open‐source Moodle platform. All MCQ questions contained four answer choices and configured for immediate feedback upon answering. Feedback consisted of providing the right answer and a short explanation of the learning objective examined. The interactive material was tested and refined for several semesters. Usefulness of this tool was assessed in two distinct settings: (1) during a face‐to‐face semester (Fall 2019) by comparing the grades in a final departmental exam between students who used the tool and those who did not, and (2) during an online semester (Fall 2020) by analyzing the grades in the first and last attempts on study sessions and students' performance in monthly exams. We found that when solving practice tests, students obtained a significantly higher scores in the last attempt compared with their first attempt, and that students who used the material performed better than those who did not. In all cases, answering the practice exams was optional, but students made full use of them preferentially during the online semester. This classroom research exemplifies the documented effectiveness of practice tests enhanced with feedback in biological sciences education through an open‐source learning platform. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We replicated and extended Maurer and Shipp's (2021) intervention to teach students the successive relearning study strategy and encourage its use in preparation for course exams. This mixed-methods project was conducted in partnership between the faculty member teaching the course and an undergraduate student enrolled in the course. Results were similar to those reported by Maurer and Shipp (2021) but differed in meaningful ways. In this investigation, students reported more spaced practice in studying for the exam, demonstrated both greater confidence and greater mastery of the targeted course concept and closer alignment of confidence and mastery. They also reported greater unprompted metacognitive awareness of their own need to learn better study strategies. Qualitative responses from students aligned with the recommendation from SoTL literature that interventions to teach students to adopt more effective study methods need to both provide information and research evidence about more effective methods to students. The responses also aligned with the recommendation from SoTL literature to scaffold students through how to use the methods with opportunities to practice them. Time management issues emerged as the largest student-identified barrier to adopting successive relearning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Older adults exhibit deficits in episodic memory tasks, which have often been attributed to encoding or retrieval deficits, with little attention to consolidation mechanisms. More recently, researchers have attempted to measure consolidation in the context of a behavioral experiment using the wakeful rest paradigm (i.e., a brief, quiet period of minimal stimulation, which facilitates memory performance, compared to a distractor task). Critically, older adults might not produce this effect, given established age differences in other episodic memory processes and mind-wandering. In three experiments, we directly compared younger and older adults in modified versions of the wakeful rest paradigm. Critically, we utilized incidental encoding procedures (all experiments) and abstract shape stimuli (in Experiment 3) to limit the possibility of retrieval practice or maintenance rehearsal as potential confounding mechanisms in producing the wakeful rest effect. Wakeful rest reliably and equally benefited recall of incidentally encoded words in both younger and older adults. In contrast, wakeful rest had no benefit for standard accuracy measures of recognition performance in verbal stimuli, although there was an effect in response latencies for non-verbal stimuli. Overall, these results suggest that the benefits of wakeful rest on episodic retrieval are preserved across age groups, and hence support age-independence in potential consolidation mechanisms as measured by wakeful rest. Further, these benefits do not appear to be dependent on the intentionality of encoding or variations in distractor task types. Finally, the lack of wakeful rest benefits on recognition performance might be driven by theoretical constraints on the effect or methodological limitations of recognition memory testing in the current paradigm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cognitive psychology research has emphasized that the strategies that are effective and efficient for fostering long-term retention (e.g., interleaved study, retrieval practice) are often not recognized as effective by students and are infrequently used. In the present studies, we use a mixed-methods approach and challenge the rhetoric that students are entirely unaware of effective learning strategies. We show that whether being asked to describe strategies used by poor-, average-, and high-performing students (Study 1) or being asked to judge vignettes of students using different strategies (Study 2), participants are generally readily able to identify effective strategies: they were able to recognize the efficacy of explanation, pretesting, interpolated retrieval practice, and even some interleaving. Despite their knowledge of these effective strategies, they were still unlikely to report using these strategies themselves. In Studies 2 and 3, we also explore the reasons why students might not use the strategies that they know are effective. Our findings suggest that interventions to improve learners' strategy use might focus less on teaching them about what is effective and more on increasing self-efficacy, reducing the perceived costs, and establishing better habits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Learning complex concepts is necessary for student success, but it is often challenging. Learning such concepts can be influenced by students' study order choices during learning to switch to a new category (interleaved study order) or stay within the same category (blocked study order). Students often prefer stay decisions during learning and make relatively few switch decisions; however, an open question is whether students' switch decisions are related to their level of prior knowledge in the domain and the learning strategy they use (retrieval practice versus study). To examine these relationships, we recruited undergraduate students from an introductory geology course. Prior to the course modules on rock classification, students self-rated their knowledge, took a prior knowledge test, classified rock exemplars by completing study or retrieval practice trials, and made study order choices. Students then completed assignments and attended lectures in their geology course on igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. Next, students self-rated their knowledge, took a new prior knowledge test, completed study or retrieval practice trials, made study order decisions, took final classification tests, and self-reported beliefs about study order choices. Even though students' knowledge increased after course modules on rock identification, and most students believed that domain knowledge impacts study decisions, prior knowledge did not predict students' switch decisions. In contrast, students who completed retrieval practice trials made substantially more switch decisions (i.e., interleaved study) than did students who completed study trials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Judgments of learning are most accurate when made at a delay from the initial encoding of the assessed material. A wealth of evidence suggests that this is because a delay encourages participants to base their predictions on cues retrieved from long-term memory, which are generally the most diagnostic of later memory performance. We investigated the hypothesis that different types of study techniques affect delayed JOL accuracy by influencing the accessibility of cues stored in long-term memory. In two experiments, we measured the delayed-JOL accuracy of participants who encoded semantically unrelated and weakly related word pairs through one of three study techniques: reading the pairs twice (study practice), generating keywords (elaborative encoding), or taking a cued-recall test with feedback (retrieval practice). We also measured the accessibility, utilization, and diagnostic quality of two long-term memory cues at the time of the delayed JOL: (a) retrieval of the target, and (b) noncriterial cues (retrieval of contextual details pertaining to the encoding of the target). We found that the accessibility of targets was positively associated with delayed-JOL accuracy. Further, we provide evidence that when study techniques enhance the accessibility of targets, they likewise enhance delayed-JOL accuracy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Retrieval Induced Forgetting (RIF) demonstrates that retrieval of information can lead to forgetting of related information. The standard RIF paradigm involves studying a certain number of category-exemplar pairs; thereafter, half of the exemplars from half of the categories are retrieved. Finally, all studied pairs are recalled. RIF is revealed when unretrieved exemplars from the retrieved categories are more poorly recalled than exemplars from the unretrieved categories. One explanation for RIF asserts that inhibition prevents interference from the exemplars of the same category during the interpolated retrieval practice phase, which leads to forgetting of these items at final recall. An ongoing debate concerns whether this inhibition requires executive control or whether it is automatic. If inhibition in RIF involves executive control, then a task that will exhaust this limited capacity should reduce or eliminate the RIF effect. The effects of concurrent tasks during the retrieval practice phase have been shown to reduce or eliminate RIF, however, to our knowledge, the effects of prior tasks on RIF has not been investigated. In the present study, in one condition, we conducted an exhaustive inhibition task before the retrieval practice phase and compared this condition to the one in which the prior task was non-exhaustive. Results showed that the RIF effect was eliminated when the prior task was exhaustive. The results supported the executive control view for the inhibition mechanism behind RIF and further showed that exhaustion of the executive control capacity can impair inhibition in subsequent tasks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interim tests of previously studied information can potentiate subsequent learning of new information, in part, because retrieval-based processes help to reduce proactive interference from previously learned information. We hypothesized that an effect similar to this forward testing effect would also occur when making judgments of (prior) learning (JOLs). Previous research showed that making JOLs likely prompts covert retrieval attempts and thereby enhances memory, specifically when providing only parts of previously studied information. This study examined the forward effect of different types of JOLs (i.e., with complete or partial prior study information available) on subsequent learning of new materials, compared to restudy and retrieval practice. In a between-subjects design, participants (N = 161) consecutively studied five lists of 20 words with the aim to recall as many of them on a final cumulative recall test. After the presentation of each of the first four lists, participants either restudied the list, made JOLs with complete words, made JOLs with word stems, or they were tested on word stems. Compared to restudy, practicing retrieval and making JOLs with word stems, but not JOLs with complete words, facilitated the List-5 interim recall performance and attenuated the number of intrusions from prior lists. The findings suggest that, similar to overt retrieval, making JOLs with incomplete information can enhance new learning to the extent that it elicits covert retrieval attempts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Memory retrieval affects subsequent memory in both positive (e.g., the testing effect) and negative (e.g., retrieval-induced forgetting [RIF]) ways, and can be contrasted with other forms of memory modification (e.g., study-based encoding). Divided attention substantially impairs study-based encoding but has a modest effect on retrieval. What of the subsequent learning consequences of retrieval? Earlier studies indicate that certain positive effects (i.e., the testing effect) are not reduced by distraction, whereas negative effects (i.e., RIF) are eliminated. The present study assessed an indirect (positive) effect of retrieval—the forward testing effect (FTE), in which prior retrieval or retrieval attempts enhance subsequent learning. Two experiments examined the role of attention in both the standard FTE and the pretesting effect. In Experiment 1, participants learned three study lists through retrieval practice or restudy, followed by a fourth study list. Prior retrieval practice enhanced subsequent new learning more than restudy (i.e., the standard FTE), and to a similar degree under full attention (FA) and divided attention (DA). In Experiment 2, participants learned cue–target word pairs by either studying the pair or guessing the target when shown a cue (i.e., pretesting) followed by the correct pair. Pretesting enhanced memory more than just studying to a similar degree under FA and DA. In sum, both forms of the FTE were unaffected by distraction, indicating that these positive consequences of retrieval are not based on controlled processes but instead appear to be relatively obligatory consequences of retrieval (or retrieval attempts). These results also have relevance for specific accounts of the standard FTE and the pretesting effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Retrieval-induced forgetting (RIF) experiments show that the act of retrieving some recently encoded items from a given conceptual category leads to greater forgetting of competing items from that same category. However, RIF studies using emotional stimuli have produced mixed results, perhaps due to the reinstatement of arousal or negative affect during retrieval practice. To induce forgetting of negative episodic memories more indirectly, we examined if retrieving neutral semantic memories leads to RIF of related negative memories. In two experiments, participants studied eight categorized lists comprised of an equal number of negative and neutral words (Experiment 1) or neutral words preceded by neutral or negative images (Experiment 2). To avoid re-exposing individuals to negative material during retrieval practice, participants then performed a semantic memory retrieval task in which they generated (i.e., completed word-stems for) new neutral words from half of the studied categories. We found that semantic retrieval, or word generation, induced forgetting of recently studied words irrespective of their emotional valence or original emotional context. Additionally, across both experiments, less successful word generation was associated with stronger RIF effects. In Experiment 2, the magnitude of RIF was also correlated with higher subjective ratings of retrieval effort during word generation. Together, these results suggest that even when retrieving neutral semantic memories, effortful retrieval may enhance inhibitory processes that lead to forgetting of both neutral and negative episodic memories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Introduction Knowledge, once acquired, degrades over time. Exams that contain questions related to previously acquired knowledge (‘retrieval practice questions’) may promote retrieval practice and spaced learning, and subsequently prevent knowledge loss. To investigate this hypothesis, we compare the score of retrieval practice questions to regular questions in exams of a two-year (bio)medical study program. Methods The two-year “Mechanisms of Health and Disease”-program for biomedical sciences and medical students in Nijmegen (the Netherlands) contains 14 spaced exams of 80 questions each. The percentages of correct-, false-, and non-answers were compared between regular questions and retrieval practice questions. Using Pearson correlations between question scores and exam scores (RiT-values), the impact of retrieval practice questions on the internal consistency of exams was determined. Mixed model analyses determined changes in outcomes across time. Results Analysis of 2006 regular questions and 1728 retrieval practice questions revealed a significantly higher percentage of correct and false answers, and a significantly lower percentage of non-answers, in retrieval practice questions versus regular questions (all P

Retrieval-enhanced suggestibility (RES) refers to the finding that immediately recalling the details of a witnessed event can increase susceptibility to later misinformation. In three experiments, we sought to gain a deeper understanding of the role that retrieval plays in the RES paradigm. Consistent with past research, initial testing did increase susceptibility to misinformation - but only for those who failed to detect discrepancies between the original event and the post-event misinformation. In all three experiments, subjects who retrospectively detected discrepancies in the post-event narratives were more resistant to misinformation than those who did not. In Experiments 2 and 3, having subjects concurrently assess the consistency of the misinformation narratives negated the RES effect. Interestingly, in Experiments 2 and 3, subjects who had retrieval practice and detected discrepancies were more likely to endorse misinformation than control subjects who detected discrepancies. These results call attention to limiting conditions of the RES effect and highlight the complex relationship between retrieval practice, discrepancy detection, and misinformation endorsement.

Errors are common during learning, but what factorsinfluence whether those errors are corrected? Evidencesuggests error generation and memory for errors may be twoimportant factors. Middle-school children studied and weretested on their memory for math definitions. After receivingcorrect answer feedback, children recalled their initial testanswers before taking a final test. Memory for errors anderror correction rates were higher for errors that weregenerated compared to errors that were chosen from a list.Further, memory for errors was positively correlated witherror correction, even after controlling for age, grade, andmath and reading skills. However, this relationship was onlypresent for errors that were generated and not for errors thatwere chosen from a list. These findings suggest retrievalplays an important role in the relationship between memoryfor errors and error correction.

We compared students’ exam performance following one oftwo different types of active learning assignments. In oneversion students read text describing experimental evidence forthe principle being studied. In the other version, studentsinstead created a hypothesis and explanation, and then studiedand explained the results. The content was matched acrossconditions. Students performed better in exams requiringgeneralization to novel situations, after providing hypothesesand explanations than after reading the text and answeringquestions about it. These results suggest that prediction andexplanation cycles might be a better active learning approachto promote generalization and transfer than practice questions.

Word games such as crossword puzzles are widely used in ed-ucation to help familiarize students with technical vocabulary.Despite an extensive literature discussing their use, few pub-lished research articles have established their effectiveness onmemory retention and retrieval, especially in comparison tocontrol study methods. We report two experiments in whichuniversity introductory psychology students studied materialsrelevant to their coursework using an on-line interactive wordgame. Results showed that word games improved later tests ofthe material, both on immediate test and after a delay, and re-tention was most enhanced in comparison to control when theclues were solved repeatedly and given with difficult ortho-graphic hints. Importantly, easy clues were not retained overtime even with multiple repetitions. Results suggest that wordgames can be effective in this domain, but it depends on howthey are implemented, and several factors predicted by existingcognitive theory can guide implementation choices.

Taking a test on previously learned material can enhance new learning. One explanation for this forward testing effect is that retrieval inoculates learners from proactive interference (PI). Although this release-from-PI account has received considerable empirical support, most extant evidence is correlational rather than causal. We tested this account by manipulating the level of PI that participants experience as they studied several lists while receiving interpolated tests or not. In Experiments 1 and 2, we found that testing benefited new learning similarly regardless of PI level. These results contradict those from Nunes and Weinstein (Memory, 20(2), 138–154, 2012), who found no forward testing effect when encoding conditions minimized PI. In Experiments 3 and 4, we failed to replicate their results. Together, our data indicate that reduced PI might be a byproduct, rather than a causal factor, of the forward testing effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this letter, a parallel‐plate waveguide (PPW)‐type transverse electromagnetic (TEM) transmission chamber covering 2–14 GHz is designed, analyzed, and fabricated, which consists of a feed structure and two metal cover plates. The feeding structure is made of a structure similar to a monoconical antenna, with a good impedance bandwidth. To reduce the edge radiation of the PPW structure, the TEM wave cell (TEM cell) is surrounded by absorbing foam. Moreover, to verify the testing effect of the designed TEM cell, a simple square frequency‐selective surface was tested in the TEM cell. The test results are in good agreement with the simulation results. It has been shown that the designed TEM cell can be used as an effective supplement to the transmission reflection test method for periodic structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Testing of previously studied information potentiates subsequent learning of new information, a phenomenon referred to as the forward testing effect (FTE). The current study aimed to investigate the developmental trajectory of the FTE and whether the reset-of-encoding process contributes to the FTE. Younger children, older children, and adults were instructed to study four lists of unrelated words, then either restudied or were tested following studying each of Lists 1–3, and took an interim test on List 4. Results demonstrated that interim testing on Lists 1–3 enhanced learning of List 4 for younger children, older children, and adults. Importantly, this enhancement varies with items' serial list position in both younger children and older children. Early List 4 items at list primacy positions benefited more from interim testing than later ones at non-primacy positions. Overall, this is the first study demonstrating that (1) the FTE generalizes to younger children, older children, and adults, suggesting the FTE emerges quite early in human life; (2) the reset-of-encoding process contributes to the FTE in both younger and older children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The hippocampus plays a critical role in the rapid learning of new episodic memories. Many computational models propose that the hippocampus is an autoassociator that relies on Hebbian learning (i.e., "cells that fire together, wire together"). However, Hebbian learning is computationally suboptimal as it does not learn in a way that is driven toward, and limited by, the objective of achieving effective retrieval. Thus, Hebbian learning results in more interference and a lower overall capacity. Our previous computational models have utilized a powerful, biologically plausible form of error-driven learning in hippocampal CA1 and entorhinal cortex (EC) (functioning as a sparse autoencoder) by contrasting local activity states at different phases in the theta cycle. Based on specific neural data and a recent abstract computational model, we propose a new model called Theremin (Total Hippocampal ERror MINimization) that extends error-driven learning to area CA3—the mnemonic heart of the hippocampal system. In the model, CA3 responds to the EC monosynaptic input prior to the EC disynaptic input through dentate gyrus (DG), giving rise to a temporal difference between these two activation states, which drives error-driven learning in the EC→CA3 and CA3↔CA3 projections. In effect, DG serves as a teacher to CA3, correcting its patterns into more pattern-separated ones, thereby reducing interference. Results showed that Theremin, compared with our original Hebbian-based model, has significantly increased capacity and learning speed. The model makes several novel predictions that can be tested in future studies. Author summary: Exemplified by the famous case of patient H.M. (Henry Molaison) whose hippocampus was surgically removed, the hippocampus is critical for learning and remembering everyday events—what is typically called "episodic memory." The dominant theory for how it learns is based on the intuitive principle stated by Donald Hebb in 1949, that neurons that "fire together, wire together"—when two neurons are active at the same time, the strength of their connection increases. We show in this paper that using a different form of learning based on correcting errors (error-driven learning) results in significantly improved episodic memory function in a biologically-based computational model of the hippocampus. This model also provides a significantly better account of behavioral data on the testing effect, where learning by testing with partial cues is better than learning with the complete set of information. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Assessing teaching effectiveness is relevant for improving one's teaching and for moving through the tenure process; however, the validity of assessment methods, such as Student Evaluations of Teaching (SET), have been heavily criticized. Statement of the Problem: Using a one–group pretest–posttest design and assessing learning over the semester has several advantages over SET; however, one drawback is in making conclusions about the cause of changes in the post-test. A change could be due to learning in the semester, maturation, history, or even a testing effect. Literature Review: To improve the inferential quality of teaching assessment, a nonequivalent dependent variable (DV) design is highly advantageous. A nonequivalent DV is an outcome that is not the target of the intervention yet responds to the same contextually relevant factors. Teaching Implications: By using a nonequivalent DV design, there might be an increase from the beginning of the semester to the end of the semester in the main DV, but no increase in the nonequivalent DV, which provides a stronger argument that the change in the main DV is due to a true learning effect. Conclusion: Using nonequivalent DV methodology improves inferential quality and is easily implemented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Word retrieval difficulty (lexical access deficit) is prevalent in aphasia. Studies have shown that practice retrieving names from long-term memory (retrieval practice) improves future name retrieval for production in people with aphasia (PWA), particularly when retrieval is effortful. To explicate such effects, this study examined a potential role for semantic competition in the learning mechanism(s) underlying effortful retrieval practice effects in lexical access in 6 PWA. Items were trained in a blocked-cyclic naming task, in which repeating sets of pictures drawn from semantically-related versus unrelated categories underwent retrieval practice with feedback. Naming accuracy was lower for the related items at training, but next-day accuracy did not differ between the conditions. However, greater semantic-relatedness of an item to its set in the related condition was associated with lower accuracy at training but higher accuracy at test. Relevance to theories of lexical access and implications for naming treatment in aphasia are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research has shown the value of retrieval practice and metacognitive awareness for student success. The present research evaluated the use of online question modules, in relationship to examination and final course grades, to encourage the development of these skills in undergraduate anatomy. The results demonstrated trends in both questions completed and metacognitive awareness for final grades and grades on the first set of examinations. However, no association was found between the number of questions completed and the percent of questions on which the student was metacognitively aware. This suggests additional instruction or scaffolding is needed to improve these modules. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]