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The article deals with the content and results of the reforms in the judicial sphere in the territory of Belarus, which took place during the reign of Paul I. He declared the recognition of special rights and privileges for the territory, which was annexed to Russia as a result of partitions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (the so-called Western provinces). First of all, this was reflected in the reform of the judicial system here. The main content of these changes was the restoration of the judiciary of the period of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, although not in full. The article concluded that the reforms of Paul I in the judicial sphere in the territory of the Western provinces were an attempt to form here the judicial system on the basis of local justice traditions of the period of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, but given the realities of the autocratic Russian Empire. The local judicial system, which was established at that time, was similar to the former (before annexing to Russia) – was partially restored former judiciary, continued to use local rights, local nobility had considerable authority in the justice sphere. But at the same time on many aspects this judicial system was significantly different from the former in the direction of unification with the Russian judicial traditions (using of Russian laws, the appointment of some judges by the government, the significant role of governors in the justice, the subordination of the highest court – the Senate, etc.).

The reign of Hadrian (117-138 A.D.) is characterized by important changes in the legal system. This article examines the activities of Hadrian and his lawyers concerning the systematization of the edicts of the praetors and preparation of Edictum perpetuum, a key source for the further development of not only Roman, but also world law. In particular, extracts from the works of Salvius Julianus, Hadrian's leading lawyer, were included in Justinian's Digests. Hadrian's attempts to centralize legislative power in the hands of the Princeps are noted, on the one hand, and the weakening of the influence of lawyers, magistrates, and the Senate on the regulation of law, on the other. The changes in Roman law made by Hadrian, the improvement of the status of freedmen and slaves, and the destruction of the ancient Patriarchal family are indicated. The article analyzes the constitutions of the Princeps, their features and differences from the lawmaking of magistrates, and attempts to summarize the significance of the legislative policy of the Emperor Hadrian.

L’Historiographe du royaume (henceforth, L’Historiographe) is the latest contribution to the corpus of literary works that revisit Morocco’s recent history. Set mainly during King Hassan II’s reign...

Castabala in Ancient Cilicia is a city became prominent during Late Hellenstic period during the reign of Tarkondimotos, vassal king of Rome. The golden age of the city was its time under the Roman Imperial Period. During this period, in 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, a colonnaded street and other monumental buildings were built. In Late Antiquity, idiosyncratic sacred structures/buildings of the singularity of worship were also built in the city. In this context, the buildings named “North Church” and “South Church” were built by re-using of the architectural elements of the monumental buildings of Roman Empire period of the city. North Church is the main subject to be focused in this paper. In the context of Kuzey Kilise, the construction in question takes on a paradoxical meaning. The main reason of it is that the blocks and architectural elements not to be situated in the places which normally they had to be. The monumental mass as called North Church within the scope of the article is analyzed within the frame of the spolia, deconstruction, Genius Loci concept and Artemis Perasia cult, the God-Emperors of Rome, the construction of Christianity via Paul and the interpretation of this construction in the context of poststructuralist critique. Besides, North Church edifice is commentated within the frame of certain contexts and clusteral relationships in terms of church architecture and typology in the context of Cilicia and Anatolia.

This paper is focused on private tomb scenes with mourners dated to the end of the 18th Dynasty located in the Egyptian Memphite necropolis, with a special interest on the artistic resources and the clear division of groups according to the gender of mourners, as mourning men in expressive attitudes are particularly rare in ancient Egyptian scenes. The presence of men in grief, together with the traditional female mourners, within the funerary procession is striking, portraying expressive poses which provoke feeling of empathy and sorrow in the beholder. Indeed, the expressions of feelings in mourning scenes and their diverse artistic treatment in Memphite tomb decoration reveals the innovation and originality of the artists, features that could be traced back to the reign of Akhenaten. This paper explores the complex process of creation of the funerary iconography of the Post-Amarna art, a period of religious, political and social changes which were mirrored in private tomb scenes. El presente trabajo se centra en las escenas de duelo de tumbas privadas de finales de la XVIII Dinastía ubicadas en la necrópolis menfita egipcia, con un especial interés en los recursos artísticos utilizados y la clara división de grupos de acuerdo con su género, ya que los hombres en duelo en actitudes expresivas son especialmente raros en las escenas del arte egipcio. La presencia de hombres en duelo, junto con las tradicionales plañideras, dentro del cortejo funerario es sorprendente, con poses expresivas que provocan sentimientos de empatía y tristeza en el que las contempla. De hecho, la expresión de sentimientos en las escenas de duelo y el variado tratamiento artístico en la decoración de tumbas menfitas es indicativo del nivel de innovación y originalidad de los artistas, rasgos que pueden rastrearse hasta el reinado de Tutankhamón. En un ámbito más amplio, esta investigación explora el complejo proceso de formación del arte post-amarniense, un periodo de cambios religiosos, políticos y sociales que tienen reflejo en las escenas de las tumbas privadas.

espanolEl estilo desarrollado bajo el reinado del Emperador Napoleon III, tanto en las Artes Decorativas, mobiliario como en la ornamentacion de espacios, no obedece a un concepto de diseno creado especificamente para el Segundo Imperio, se trata de una recuperacion de diferentes estilos generados en Francia en siglos anteriores. No es por tanto una estetica nacida paralelamente al Imperio de Napoleon y Eugenia; es una recopilacion de los grandes estilos franceses que en el pasado consiguieron crear fuertes tendencias decorativas tanto en Francia como en las cortes europeas. EnglishThe style developed under the reign of Emperor Napoleon III, both in the Decorative Arts, furniture and in the ornamentation of spaces, does not obey a design concept created specifically for the Second Empire, it is a recovery of different styles generated in France in previous centuries. It is not therefore an aesthetic born parallel to the Empire of Napoleon and Eugenia; is a compilation of the great French styles that in the past managed to create strong decorative trends both in France and in European courts.

Pocos días después de conocer las noticias sobre el incendio que en 1903 arrasó la antigua villa de recreo que la emperatriz Eugenia poseyó en Biarritz, su tristeza ante la desaparición del que fue uno de los edificios más emblemáticos de su reinado. Como ella misma indicaba, con anterioridad al fuego de la villa de Biarritz habían sucumbido ante las llamas los palacios de las Tullerías y de Saint-Cloud -a pesar de que dos palacios tan significativos del reinado del último Bonaparte como son los de Fontainebleau y Compiègne permanecen a día de hoy intactos-. Se olvidó la emperatriz de un tercer edificio desaparecido, el conocido como hôtel d’Albe -hotel de Alba en español-, adquirido por ella misma con la intención de destinarlo a las estancias de su familia en la capital francesa.

As a result of the proliferation of Short literary composition genres (Prabandas), various catalog texts (Paattiyal) arose as a continuation of the tradition of finding literature and giving grammar explanations therefor. Panniru Paatiyal, Venpaa Paatiyal, Chidambara Paatiyal, Navaneetha Paatiyal, Prabandha Deepika, Ilakkana vilakkam, Thonnuul vilakkam etc. and even some grammar books that deal with five grammar forms (Ainthilakkanam) are involved in this grammatical endeavor and have given grammar to different numbers of Short Literary Compositions. These numerical differences record the development of the literature as a result of the passage of time. This number extends from 54 to 360. This genre of 96 Short Literary Works can be attributed to the fact that the number system operating in the set tradition is also applied to Short Literary Works and to be a permanent one. The name of the literary genre, Kalambakam, is given in various ways by dividing its name. There are various reasons for the mix of 18 types of elements (15-21), the proliferation of many types of compositions, and the mixing of Agappaadalkal (Agam songs). This can be explained by the fact that the name is derived from a variety of hybrids rather than one character. Nandikkalambakam, the first and foremost of the Kalambaka literatures, was sung with the third Nandi Varman of the Pallava dynasty as the Leader of the song. 25 years Nandi ruled from (847-872) with Kanchi as his capital, the Pallava dynasty and the wars fought to expand the territory of many Nandikalambaka songs. Although there are some differences in the view of Nandivarman's reign, it is accepted by scholars that he belonged to the ninth century and that Nandi Kalambakam, who led him to the song, and the ninth century. Even though this literature is in our school and college curriculum, its literary style beauty and glossary competency are unknown to the so called scholars too. So this article tries to explain the above said features of the Nandhi Kalambakam.

We come to know that this inscription was given in the 8th reign of the Sonadu Kondaruliya Maravarman Sundara Pandya Devan, with the great participation of his brother, Maravarma Kulasekara Pandian, who was worthy of the title Konerinmai Kondan. According to the Venetian traveler Marco Polo who set foot upon Pandya Nadu during the rule of Maravarma Kulasekara Pandyan, this place was famous for pearl harvesting and was also the vital seaport of the Pandya Nadu. The inscription depicts the succeeding Pandyas having friendly and business relations with the Sonagars to make the trade be carried on wonderfully with no issues. From the inscription, we come to know that Aiyan Malavarayan was the cause of the construction and deity worship related ceremonies that takes place in Sonakarpalli. It is also mentioned that the rulers remembered the royal attributes as dignified and not just ministers and subject to authority, which shows us the respectful traits of the Pandya kings. The people giving importance to the worship done by the Sornars (Muslim traders) as they worshipped their lord is quite well known by the inscription.

According to David Easton, “Politics involves change; and the political world is a world of flux, tensions, and transitions” (Miftah, 2019: 1). Ethiopia’s history of political transition fits the conceptualization of politics as changes and the political world as a world of flux. Political transition in Ethiopia has been dominantly tragic. Atse Tewodros II’s political career ended in the tragedy of Meqdela (1868), Atse Yohannes IV’s reign culminated in the ‘Good Friday in Metema’ (1889), while Menelik’s political career ended peacefully, and that of his successor, Iyasu, ended in tragedy before his actual coronation (1916). The emperor was overthrown in a coup in 1974, and Mengistu’s regime came to an end when he fled the country for Zimbabwe (1991). (Miftah, 2019) Thus far, revolutions, peasant upheavals, and military coup d’états have been political instruments of regime change in Ethiopia. What is missing in the Ethiopian experience of transition so far is the changing of governments through elections. This article discusses the challenges and opportunities for a political transition in Ethiopia using comparative data analysis and various presentation methods.

The article analyses the problem of desertion in the army of the Habsburg Empire and in the regiments recruited from Transylvania in the eighteenth century, a century considered by the historiography of the last decades as the classic ‘era of deserters.’ The causes of desertion are varied and they concern mainly the mode of recruitment specific to those times, when most men did not freely choose to become soldiers. Discipline based on harsh physical punishment, the strenuous efforts to which soldiers were subjected, especially during campaigns, the very poor hygiene and sanitary conditions, alcoholism and mental illnesses (melancholia, Heimweh) and, last but not least, the desire for adventure influenced this phenomenon. There were young men who defected without any qualms of conscience, going from one regiment to another or even from another army to another. In theory, defection was punishable by death, but in practice there was a wide variety of mitigating circumstances in the application of punishments, and the number of those executed was very small in relation to the number of defectors

In the early fourth century CE, after the escalation of a series of succession disputes among the imperial Sima clan, the Jin dynasty collapsed and its capital city of Luoyang 洛陽 was destroyed. However, the end of the dynasty did not cause the Sima clan to fall from power entirely. Instead, the Jin dynasty was reestablished in the new capital of Jiankang 建康, the city known today as Nanjing. The earlier incarnation of the Jin would come to be known as the Western Jin dynasty, while the restored Jin dynasty is referred to as the Eastern Jin. The impact of this cataclysm on the inhabitants of Luoyang and the surrounding regions is difficult to quantify, and even harder to understand in more personal terms. We know that many of those who did not perish fled to the southeast, crossing the Yangzi River to resettle in the new capital. Later texts refer to this period as “The disorder of the Yongjia Reign” (Yongjia zhi luan永嘉之亂). This epithet uses the imperial reign name given to the period between 307 and 313, even though the disasters did not neatly begin and end with those years. Although the Yongjia troubles are addressed throughout surviving historiographic material, there is no work of history dedicated to documenting the ensuing exodus from Luoyang to Jiankang.

The fates of the last Emperors of Russia and Germany are forever linked by the First World War and the revolutions. History knows the circumstances of their abdication; however, their motives still remain a matter of debate. The present research featured a comparative analysis of various points of view on the roles Nicholas II and Wilhelm II played in the revolutions and the political decisions they made. The biographical research clarified the general characteristics of the revolutionary processes that occurred during their reign and how both revolutions affected the institution of monarchy. The authors analyzed the contemporary historiographical discussions of the monarchy and the revolutions caused in both countries by the consequences of the First World War. The article also focuses on the role of social, class, and political groups in both revolutions, as well as on the attempts of monarchists to save the emperors. Tsar Nicholas II and Kaiser Wilhelm II lived in a very similar political context: complicated family ties, rapid economic development, the Great War, etc. Their abdications occurred in similar circumstances and had similar motives and socio-political consequences. However, their further destinies were very different.

At first glance, the late seventeenth-century French court of Louis XIV, resplendent with visual and performing arts that glorified the Sun King as sovereign not only of France but of the entire un...

The contested historiography of the Jingtai Emperor remains a largely untouched subject in contemporary Ming scholarship. In an attempt to contribute to this field of study, this essay surveys and ...

The greater part of Robert Mugabe’s reign was characterised by attempts to silence and curtail civil activism. His rule crystallised in the banning of civil society organisations (CSOs) and wanton ...

The beginning of Queen Anne’s reign saw an intense struggle between High Church Tories and the Whiggish Williamite bishops over issues involving the power of Convocation and the practice of occasio...

Counter-Reformation book production was voluminous and often highly inflammatory, especially in the case of books produced by Catholic writers in politico-religious exile. For Elizabethan Protestan...

This article examines the development of various branches of science in Bukhara during the reign of Amir Temur and the Temurids, the contribution of Mirzo Ulugbek to the development of science in Bukhara, as well as the development of the history of culture and art in the Timurid period.During the reign of Amir Temur and the Temurids, Bukhara became one of the cultural and scientific centers of Movarounnahr. Scholars, poets, and artists who grew up in Bukhara contributed to the second renaissance in Central Asia during the Timurid period.

The Chinese economic revolution launched since 1978 by Deng Xiaoping put national economic growth as a priority but ruled out the aspect of equity which was one of the main characteristics of the socialist state. The reVolution resulted a spectacular national economic growth as well as inequality between regions in China. Therefore, the Chinese Government, since the leadership of Jiang Zemin and continued by Hu Jintao, has been trying to improve the condition. This article will explain the strategies and policies of equitable development between regions in China during the reign of Jiang and Hu. By using descriptive qualitative methods, the data used are secondary data obtained from official publications of the Chinese government and supported by scientific articles that can be accessed through the internet. The results obtained indicate the seriousness of the Chinese Government under Jiang and Hu in revising national development priorities. The target of economic growth is lowered and no longer became a priority of development programs. On the other hand, underdeveloped regional development programs such as infrastructure and industrial development are accelerated to catch up with the developed regions.

The article examines arrest protocols drawn up from the mid-1870s to the mid-1880s by local policemen investigating thousands of individuals denounced to the authorities for having voiced criticisms of the monarchy and approval of the campaign of terror in the reign of Alexander II. The discussion proceeds in two stages. It first argues that the arrest protocols constitute grounds for a revisionist challenge to the existing historiography which charts enduring, if gradually declining, popular support for the monarchy in the final decades of tsarism. It then argues for a reappraisal of the efforts by revolutionaries in the reign of Alexander II to destroy the sanctity of the autocracy through the use of “propaganda by the deed.” The campaign to assassinate the tsar emerges in the arrest protocols as an effective form of political messaging that gained real purchase in the popular imagination. It prompted lower-class Russians to articulate their own local grievances in terms of popular sovereignty, natural justice and political accountability.

The purpose of the article is to show the nature of the relationship between Emperor Alexander I, professor of the University of Dorpat Georg Friedrich Parrot and members of the Ministry of Public Education in the process of discussing the reform of parish schools in the Dorpat educational district at the beginning of the 19th century. Professor Parrot became the author of a project on the establishment of parish schools in the district, and his close friendship with the king made it possible to hope for the approval of his ideas by the minister. However, having received the initial support of the emperor, the Dorpat professor faced resistance from some members of the Main Directorate of Schools who did not want to amend the decisions which had already been adopted, and then the military conflict with France became a serious obstacle to the implementation of the planned transformations. Over the course of two years, Parrot had made changes to the text of the draft three times, but could not achieve the final consent of Alexander I. The author comes to the conclusion that Parrot’s desire to get special conditions and partial state maintenance for parish schools of the Dorpat district was unfeasible given the context of the protracted war and the worst financial crisis. The article introduces into scholarship an unpublished correspondence between the emperor and the Dorpat professor, which significantly supplements the idea of the reforms of public education in the first decade of the 19th century.

espanolSe revisan en este texto las concesiones de villazgos en el siglo XVII en el reino de Murcia, pues fueron muy pocos los del reinado de Felipe IV, como las del siglo XVIII. Pero se hace no desde el punto de vista de la mera concesion como merced regia, sino desde la articulacion discursiva de los grupos que promovieron los villazgos y de los que se enfrentaron a ellos. De aqui el titulo del articulo, pues los motivos alegados por los promotores no se redujeron a ficciones de libertad. Se plantea ademas que la proliferacion de villazgos fue paralela a una remodelacion del espacio regnicola en superintendencias fiscales o de rentas provinciales y nuevos corregimientos, que entraron ademas en la almoneda de mercedes o concesiones caracteristica de esta epoca. EnglishThis text reviews the concession of villazgos in the 17th century in the Kingdom of Murcia, since there were very few during the reign of Felipe IV, like those of the 18th century. Not, however, from the point of view of the mere concession as royal grace, but via discursive articulation of the groups that promoted the villazgos and those who opposed them. Hence the title of the article, as the motives alleged by advocates were not reduced to fictions of freedom. It is also suggested that the proliferation of villazgos ran parallel to a remodeling of the reign’s space in fiscal superintendencies or of provincial tax revenues and new administrative areas, which also entered in the graces or concessions market characteristic of this era.

It is to show that the image of the Ottoman state was formed through the Turkestan press during the reign of the Russian Empire. Turkestan periodicals regularly publish articles and reports published abroad. The political developments in Turkey have been closely followed. In particular, the processes related to the coming to power of young Turks in 1908, changes in the Turkish army, various wars are given special attention. It is also noted that the spread of ideas of pan-Islamism and pan-Turkism and that this is extremely dangerous for Turkestan. Sociopolitical processes in Turkey in the early twentieth century, the activities of young Turks in Turkey, party struggles in the country, as well as the attitude of the European community to the leadership of the “Unity and Development” party in the political process were widely covered in Turkestan periodicals. It was also noted in the Western media that the interpretation of these processes was covered without a full understanding of the political activities of young Turks.

In 2020, Laos successfully contained the spread of COVID-19, with very few cases and no deaths. The key elements of the COVID-19 response reflect not only public health advice but also the core values of the political culture promoted by the ruling Lao People's Revolutionary Party. These include unity, solidarity, struggle, respect for science, guidance by a strong center, and the extension of the state into everyday life in the form of designated roles, committees, and organizations. These significantly shaped the social fabric drawn on in the COVID-19 response. This success, then, can be read as a reaping of some of the benefits of this political culture. More ominously, the global pandemic exacerbated Lao PDR's public debt crisis. Born of years of government backing of megaprojects such as hydropower, this debt is the dark harvest of the LPRP's reign. © 2021 by The Regents of the University of California.

espanolEl 30 de septiembre de 1829 se inicio el viaje de Maria Cristina de Borbon a su futuro enlace con Fernando VII. Una de las recepciones con mayor trascendencia en el recorrido fue la protagonizada por la ciudad de Valencia, entre cuyas muestras de fidelidad estuvo el encargo e interpretacion de la Cantata a la Reina Maria Cristina de Borbon, compuesta por Francisco Andrevi Castella (1786-1853). En este trabajo se estudia hasta que grado esta composicion contribuyo al programa artistico desarrollado y a la proyeccion de la imagen de la monarquia durante los ultimos anos del reinado de Fernando VII. EnglishOn September 30, 1829, Maria Cristina de Borbon and her family began the journey that would culminate in her marriage to Fernando VII. One of the most important receptions along the way took place in the city of Valencia, where one of the tributes consisted of the commission and performance of the Cantata a la Reina Maria Cristina de Borbon by Francisco Andrevi Castella (1786-1853). This paper looks at the extent to which this composition contributed to the artistic program and to the projection of the image of the monarchy during the last years of the reign of Fernando VII.

RESUMEN La embajada a Polonia del Almirante de Aragon de 1597 supuso un punto de inflexion en las relaciones entre la Monarquia Hispana y la corona de Polonia-Lituania. La dificil eleccion de Segismundo III como rey en 1587 no fue reconocida por Felipe II, quien durante anos siguio apoyando a su sobrino, el archiduque Maximiliano, en sus aspiraciones al trono polaco. Sin embargo, a partir de 1596 y por influjo de la diplomacia papal, las dos cortes iniciaron un progresivo acercamiento, que culmino con esta embajada. En este articulo describimos algunos aspectos de la mision, centrando nuestra atencion en la compleja situacion interna de Polonia-Lituania y en una serie de cuestiones en torno al frente danubiano que, olvidadas por la problematica baltica, no han despertado tanto la atencion de los historiadores. Palabras clave: Diplomacia, Felipe II, Segismundo III Toponimos: Polonia-Lituania, Hungria, Crimea Periodo: Edad Moderna. ABSTRACT The Admiral of Aragon’s embassy to Poland in 1597 was a turning point in the relationship between the Hispanic Monarchy and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The difficult election of Sigismund III as king in 1587 was not recognized by Philip II, who for years continued to support his nephew, Archduke Maximilian in his claims to the Polish throne. However, from 1596 onwards, there was a gradual rapprochement that culminated in this embassy. This article describes some aspects of the mission, focusing attention on the complex internal situation of Poland-Lithuania and on a whole series of issues vis-a-vis the Danube front, which, overshadowed by the Baltic problem, have not received so much attention from historians. Key words: Diplomacy, Philip II of Spain, Sigismund III Place names: Poland-Lithuania, Hungary, Crimean Period: Early Modern Age. REFERENCIAS Anusik, Z. 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The cities of Andijan, Marginal, Namangan, Osh, Khujand were considered the largest economic centers of the Fergana Valley. In turn, a number of new cities appeared with them in the XVII-XIX centuries, small-scale cities, which previously did not become so important, became large economic centers. The Kokand Khanate was formed. During the reign of the Kokand Khanate, new cities were founded in the Fergana Valley, like various regions of the country.

On the eighth of October, 1622, Lope de Vega finished La nueva victoria de don Gonzalo de Cordoba. This comedia recounts a Spanish victory in the Battle of Fleurus, one of several military triumphs that encouraged hope and excitement during the early years of Philip IV’s reign. The battle had occurred in late August of 1622, and Lope’s play, written and staged scant weeks later, functioned as a type of journalistic dramatization of Fleurus for corral audiences. I argue that, in addition to its news-bearing utility, the play historicizes its content, moving it from a journalistic happening to an integral part of Spain’s larger historical narrative, broadening and enhancing the ways in which audiences conceived of Fleurus. To do so, La nueva victoria engages with historical consciousness in the form of ballads, chronicles, genealogies, and collective memory. Such strategies enable the play to portray the victory as an essential part of Spain’s story, as a recent event that logically evolved out of the past and promises to condition the future.

İslâm’ın ilk yıllarından bugüne fıtrî bir olgusallık taşıyan mûsikî sanatı, hayatın tüm mecralarında varlığını göstermiştir. Râşid halifelerle beraber İslam Devleti sınırlarını genişletmiş, yeni kültürlerle tanışılmış ve ictimâî hayatta ilmî faaliyetler artmıştır. Mûsikî sanatı da ilk halifelerle birlikte ibtidâî olarak icra edilmekten ziyade bahsettiğimiz vesilelerle profesyonelliğe doğru evrilmeye başlamıştır. Emevîler döneminde bir sanat dalı olarak beliren ve devlet erkânı tarafından da ilgi gören ve dahi himaye edilen bir uğraşı halini almıştır. Ancak, Abbâsî devletinin geniş kapsamlı kültürel faaliyetleri ile birlikte mûsikî sanatı, ilimler sınıflandırmasında yer almış ve bu sanatın kâideleri belirlenerek nazariyesi oluşturulmaya başlanmıştır. Mûsikîşinaslık ise bir meslek olarak kabul edilmiş, mûsikî icracıları bu manada yaşam sürdürme kaygısı duymadan sanatını geliştirmeye teşvik edilmiştir. Abbasi döneminde önemli oranda gelişme gösteren mûsikî sanatı, devletin halifeleri ve halife çocukları tarafından da ilgi görmüştür. Hükmî ve siyasi bazı engellerin hanedan üyeleri üzerinde etkisi görülmüş olsa da, mûsikîye olan kabiliyetleri, onların bu sanatta faaliyet göstermelerine mani olamamıştır. IX. yüzyıldan günümüze ulaşan eserlerin en önemlilerinden kabul edilen Kitâbü’l-Egânî bağlamında ve tarihsel müzikoloji yöntemi kullanılarak ilk dönem Abbâsî hanedan üyelerinin mûsikî yaşantılarına, icra hayatlarına ve bestekârlıklarına dair rivayetlere yer verilecek olan bu çalışmada, 12 mûsikîşinas/bestekâr hanedan üyesi konu edinilecektir. Yine kaynak tarama yönteminin de temel alındığı bu makalede, Kitâbü’l-Egânî’de yer alan bu isimlerin örnek birer bestesinin güfteleri, usulü ve eserle ilgili var olan diğer bilgilere değinilecektir.

A set of more than 30 tetradrachmas from the second half of the 3rd century AD was discovered in Alexandria in Egypt, at the Kom el-Dikka site excavated by a Polish mission, in a zone of public buildings constructed in the 4th century AD. A row of lime kilns from the construction site of this complex stood on top of the ruins of an early Roman domestic quarter and, after they ceased to be used, were covered with earth and rubble, the latter partly from the destruction layer of these houses. Excavation of the kilns in 2008 and 2009 produced large quantities of 4th and 5th century pottery as well as pieces of marble revetment that had been fed to the kilns, and isolated late Roman coins. The tetradrachmas from two of the kilns (Fc and Fd), which were hoarded apparently in AD 293–295, seems to have preceded the destruction of the early Roman houses and may have been hidden in one of them.

The army of Batu Khan’s 1241 invasion of Central and Eastern Europe was the first, highly unfortunate encounter between Poland and the Mongol empire. The defeat at Legnica, the death of Prince Henry the Pious, and the collapse of his line’s reign in the Duchy of Silesia not only delayed the unifica­tion of Poland by decades, but in practice it also eliminated the Silesian Piasts from effective competition for the future Polish union. It was only the death of Ogedei Khan that forced Batu Khan to return with his army to Mongolia and that saved Poland and Hungary from a prolonged enslavement that was the fate of Ruthenian duchies. The subsequent Mongol invasions of Poland at the turn of 1260 and 1288 only deepened the process of economic decline and destruction of Poland. The defeat suffered by the Mongols in the battles with the Egyptian Mam­luks and the collapse of the Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1291 made the West lose interest in establishing political relations with the Mongols. In Eastern Europe, the western domain of the Mongol Empire, the so-called Golden Horde, grew in strength, and began playing a significant role in the politi­cal life of the entire region. The peak of its power was in the first half of the fourteenth century during the reign of Oz Beg and Jani Beg khans. From the second half of the fourteenth century faltering of the Golden Horde began. In the fifteenth century it was transformed into the so-called Great Horde. The Grand Prince Ivan III of Muscovy’s Great Stand on the Ugra River against Khan Akhmat’s Great Horde in 1480 was a Muscovite triumph. Poland, how­ever, lost one of its few allies in the east. The Polish King Alexander Jagiellon’s failure in 1502 to support the last Khan of the Great Horde, Shah-Akhmad, made way for the destruction of the Great Horde by Ivan III’s ally, the ruler of the Crimean Khanate, Menli I Giray. The fall of the Great Horde meant a symbolic end of shared history between Poland and Mongolia, which had begun with the invasion Mongol in 1241. For Russia, it was the final confirmation of its dropping its sovereignty to the Tatars. For the Crimean Khanate, which de facto broke off previous relations with the former Mongol empire by destroying the Great Horde, meant, however, that it become part of a new, emerging political and economic governance in Eastern Europe.

The problem of the periodization of the reign of Emperor Alexander I in the works of Soviet historians is considered. The relevance of the study is due to the fact that even now the question of the periodization of this period causes controversy among scientists. Understanding that any periodization is conditional, which has emerged among modern historians, requires a revision of various approaches to the periodization of history. As part of the study, a review of a wide range of historiographic sources was carried out, which included special studies devoted to the reign of Alexander I, as well as generalizing works and textbooks that characterize this period of Russian history. The novelty of the research is seen in the fact that for the first time in Russian historiography, it is analyzed how researchers solved the issue of the periodization of the Alexander I reign throughout the Soviet period. Various approaches to the periodization of Russian history in the first quarter of the 19th century are revealed. Their development has been traced throughout the entire existence of the Soviet state. Particular attention is paid to the contradictions that take place in the approaches to the periodization of the reign of Alexander I, proposed by Soviet historians.

Some political developments that took place during the Bayezid II period brought some structural arrangements regarding the economic and fiscal order. The need for recording and auditing that emerged with these developments enabled the development of the accounting practices of the Ottoman Empire during the reign of Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror to continue in the period of Bayezid II. In this study, it is aimed to emphasize the place and importance of the Ottoman Empire in the historical process of accounting in line with the developments in the period of Bayezid II. In line with this purpose, in this study, the developments in the government accounting system in parallel with the commercial life and fiscal structure during the Bayezid II period were discussed in general terms. Afterwards, the foundation records of Fatih Mosque and Imaret's Facilities were examined and the income and expenses of the foundation for the years 1489-1490 were classified and the situation of these income-expenses in today's financial reporting frameworks was discussed.

I. Ahmed’in (salt. 1603-1617) Bosnak asilli annesi Handan Sultan (ol. 1605), Osmanli tarihyaziminda hâlâ muphem bir siyasi kisilik olarak yer almaktadir. Bu makale, Handan Sultan’in hayatini, siyasi kariyerini ve cesitli faaliyetlerini hem yeni tarihsel kanitlarin isiginda, hem de erken modern Osmanli hanedan kadinlari hakkinda mevcut akademik literatur cercevesinde ayrintili bir sekilde tartisarak bu belirsizligi gidermeyi amaclamaktadir. Bu minvalde Istanbul’da kâim cagdas Venedik elcilerinin yayinlanmamis mektuplari cesitli Osmanli arsiv ve anlati kaynaklariyla birlikte kullanilarak, ilk once Handan Sultan’in esi III. Mehmed’in (salt. 1595-1603) hareminde gecirdigi uzun cariyelik yillari, ardindan ergenlik cagindaki oglu I. Ahmed’in hukumdarliginin ilk iki senesindeki valide sultanligi incelenmektedir. Sonuc olarak, Handan Sultan uzerine yapilmis ilk kapsamli biyografik calisma olan bu makale, yerlesmis akademik gorusun aksine, Handan Sultan’in oncu bir naibe valide sultan oldugunu ve onun 17. yuzyil Osmanli hanedan ve saray siyasetindeki bu onemli rolu, Kosem Sultan (ol. 1651) ve Turhan Sultan (ol. 1683) gibi meshur haleflerinden cok daha evvel ustlendigini gostermektedir.

This article describes the peculiar contradictory changes that took place in the silk industry of Turkestan in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Research in the late 19th and early 20th centuries also covered the situation in the silk industry during the reign of the Russian Empire.

The aim of this study is to reveal the importance of letter diplomacy in Ottoman-Russian relations during the reign of Abdulhamid II. In this study, the importance of letters and their contribution to the relations of those two countries are evaluated. Diplomacy has an important place in Ottoman-Russian relations during the Abdulhamid II period. Diplomatic relations between two countries began after the 1877-1878 Ottoman-Russian War. Letter diplomacy has gained great importance in this process. Letter diplomacy played a major role in the Armenian problem, the Cretan issue, and the events of Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia. In addition, letters were sent for the appointment of ambassadors, birthday celebration and coronation. Sultan Abdulhamid II made a great effort in order to maintain diplomatic relationships with Russia.

The death of Pharaoh (Firon) is a famous historical event of Banu Israel (descended from Jacob) in the reign of Joseph (Hazrat Yousaf A.S) Banu Israel flourished a lot and they were the most popular sect of the era. Their strength and population were an alarming threat to the kingdom of Pharaon. So after counseling the mighty king of the time ordered to kill all the boys after taking birth and let the girls survive to be used as maids for the future rulers. Despite this cruel order, pharon makes the life of Banu Israel hell on earth. To wrap up all this cruelty and bringing the vanity of Pharaon to earth Allah sent Moses as Prophet to help Banu Israel. All these incidents are both in Quran and in Torah or Kitab ul khorooj. Yet in Khorooj amendments has been made later by Jews. So to clear the concept a comparative analysis has been made that will also help to enhance our knowledge.

Chretiens d’Egypte, musulmans d’Ethiopie. Protection des communautes et relations diplomatiques entre le sultanat mamelouk et le royaume salomonien (ca 1270-1516)Les relations diplomatiques entre le royaume chretien d’Ethiopie et les autorites islamiques du Caire, etroitement liees a la regle de nomination du metropolite de l’Eglise ethiopienne par le patriarche d’Alexandrie, connaissent une regularite sans precedent au temps des rois salomoniens et des sultans mamelouks. Entre 1274 et 1516, au moins treize ambassades ethiopiennes sont recues au Caire et quatre lettres du sultan sont portees en Ethiopie par ses emissaires, en sus des lettres du patriarche au roi d’Ethiopie parfois ecrites sur instruction du sultan. L’etude de ces echanges, et tout particulierement des lettres des rois d’Ethiopie copiees en arabe par les chroniqueurs egyptiens, met en lumiere un theme important de ces relations diplomatiques : la question croisee de la protection des chretiens d’Egypte par le roi d’Ethiopie et de la protection des musulmans d’Ethiopie par le sultan d’Egypte et de Syrie. Elaboree par la diplomatie salomonienne, cette mise en miroir des communautes est reactualisee aux xive-xve siecles par les violences subies en Egypte par les sujets chretiens du sultan comme par les guerres menees par le roi chretien contre les musulmans d’Ethiopie. Au xve siecle, la diplomatie mamelouke se l’approprie a son tour, dans ses relations avec le roi chretien comme avec son rival musulman etabli dans l’est de l’Ethiopie. Egypt’s Christians, Ethiopia’s Muslims. Protection of Communities and Diplomatic Relations Between the Mamluk Sultanate and the Solomonic Kingdom (c. 1270–1516)Diplomatic relations between the Christian kingdom of Ethiopia and the Islamic authorities in Cairo were closely linked to the rule of appointment of the head of the Ethiopian church by the patriarch of Alexandria. These relations enjoyed an unprecedented regularity under the reign of the Solomonic kings and the Mamluk sultans. At least thirteen Ethiopian embassies arrived in Cairo between 1274 and 1516, while four letters were sent by the sultan to Ethiopia, in addition to the patriarch’s correspondence with the Christian king, part of which was dictated by the sultan himself. The study of these interactions, and especially of the Ethiopian diplomatic letters copied in Arabic by Egyptian chroniclers, highlights an important aspect of their diplomatic relations: the multifaceted issue of the protection of Egypt’s Christians by the king of Ethiopia and of Ethiopia’s Muslims by the sultan of Egypt and Syria. The Solomonic diplomacy first formulated this mirroring of Egyptian and Ethiopian communities. It was updated however in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries by several episodes of violence against the Christian subjects of the sultan and by the king’s wars against Muslim people in Ethiopia. Moreover, the Mamluk diplomacy endorsed it in the fifteenth century in its relations with the Christian king as well as with his Muslim challenger in eastern Ethiopia.

The properties of the Hospitaller priory of Hungary had since the reign of Sigismund of Luxembourg (r. 1387–1437) been occasionally allocated to secular governors as remuneration for maintenance of...

Introduction. The Story of Usun Debeskertu Khan is a notable monument of old Oirat literature. Its popularity and wide distribution are evidenced by numerous manuscript copies stored by scientific institutions of Russia, Mongolia and China. It consists of instructions attributed to the Tibetan King Tri Ralpacan referred to as the last ‘Dharma King’ of the ancient royal dynasty of Tibet. During his reign, he was able to strengthen the country’s nationhood, dismiss China’s protectorate, and get Buddhism established as the state religion. Indirectly, these events are reflected in the text of his homilies. However, this work was created not during his lifetime but much later — in the 15th century. Ralpacan’s death marked the end of the era of ‘religious kings’, and the country started disintegrating into a vast number of small principalities. The process of active revival and reformation of Buddhism would begin only in the 15th century directed by Je Tsongkhapa and further sustained by the emerged institution of the Dalai Lamas. And it is during this period that the book of Ralpacan’s homilies was compiled. In the mid-17th century, those were translated into Oirat by the famous Khoshut ruler Güshi Nomin Khan recognized in Tibet as a ‘Dharma King’. This circumstance makes it possible to consider the creation of the Oirat translation from the viewpoint of historical events that were taking place in the mid-17th century in Tibet and Dzungaria, as well as to reveal its actual contents. So, a textual space of one didactic text known in Mongolic literatures as The Story of Usun Debeskertu Khan connects names of two great ‘Dharma Kings’ — and two epochs of ‘religious kings’ of Tibetan Buddhism. Goals. The article seeks to introduce the Oirat text of The Story into scientific circulation, and analyzes its historical contents identifying the historical component of the work. Methods. Comparative historical analysis proves a key research method. Despite repeated publications of the text, the latter was never essentially analyzed for historical aspects. Results. And the analysis conducted shows that 1) Tibetan King Ralpacan’s homilies are based on the ‘two principles (guidelines)’ finally adopted in his era, 2) religious and secular norms proclaimed by the text attest to that Buddhism had been thus established as the state religion of Tibet, 3) the fact the text of Tibetan King Ralpacan’s homilies was translated into Oirat by Güshi Nomin Khan implies the latter should be equally revered as a ‘Dharma King’.