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The problem of using the environment for present and future generations, of course, applies to space activities. Space activity contributes to sustainable development. However, despite the enormous benefi ts this activity also has a negative impact both on the Earth’s biosphere (the earth’s surface, surface and ground water, vegetation, living organisms, atmosphere, the ozone layer), and on near-Earth space. This paper examines national and international legal framework to support sustainable development during space activity. Emphasis is placed on analysis of recent international legal instruments related to space security: «Guidelines for Space Debris Mitigation» (2007) «Framework for the safe use of nuclear power sources in outer space» (2009). Proposed the establishment of a special international instrument to address environmental damage compensation from the rocket and space activities. Expressed caution against extrapolating national environmental legislation on international relations.

Space and security domains are strongly related with each other. Nowadays, space is an indispensable part of security and defence policy, and it is increasingly becoming a critical infrastructure for strategic Command, Control, Communications, Computers, Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (C4ISR) systems. However, space is vulnerable itself to the new space threats. This study reviews the current and near future space role in Turkey's security and defence policy and aims to address the threats against space based capabilities. To provide security from space, space based systems shall themselves need to be secure in space to warrant the security. The concept of security from space starts with space security, in other words the security in space. This paper also highlights the emerging technological opportunities for these space threats to be secure in space in order to provide the security from space. According to the relevant taxonomy, a categorized opportunity proposal for more robust and resilient space/satellite projects' architecture is proposed for Turkey. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper focuses on sectors, methods, and spheres of the space activity of private companies, to provide empirical analysis of space applications and implications for global security. Special emphasis has been given to private companies offering access to satellite imagery and satellite remote sensing, as well as companies entering outer space with new and prospective capabilities as space mining. The article explains the rising importance of geo-intelligence, space surveillance and telecommunication for global security and new kind of security challenges and vulnerabilities such as environmental problems in outer space or technological challenges to security. The author argues that profit-oriented companies play crucial role in new security environment in the US, efficiently changing the law and practice. Finally he points out that new and growing market for subcontractors in space applications raises questions on growing dependence on private resources in traditional sphere of state activity, namely security, in this case provided from and through the outer space. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Space-based detection satellite and remote detection phased array radar are important parts of space security detection system. The aircraft's detection, tracking and parameter estimation, trajectory prediction with detection satellite and radar are primary problems to be solved in the early detection of ballistic aircraft. This paper mainly studies the simulation of aircraft's trajectory in early detection phase, the establishment of a dynamic model of the active segment and trajectory simulation and the simulation to generate a multi-level trajectory vehicle's trajectory data based on the estimation of the key parameters of the aircraft in the single star observing conditions, the trajectory forecast and radar observation conditions for aircraft tracking. Due to the incompleteness of measurements for the single-satellite detection and the bad convergence, this paper proposes a fired at the focal plane method based on the priori template, establish a complete formula derivation algorithm processes, establish a priori standard ballistic template with the simulation trajectory data and the validity of the method using Monte Carlo simulation. Based on the MATLAB graphical user interface, it builds a simulation platform of ballistics aircraft detection probe which can effectively complete the early detection of scene simulation and demonstration. The simulation results show that the method can solve the bad convergence problems of the detection of a single star and it suits for the application to the ballistic vehicle's key point estimation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For two decades, there has been an ongoing debate in the European Union (EU) on how to link space programmes with its security and defence policy and how to translate words into action. This article examines the approaches proposed by two interesting contributions to this debate. The first has been put forward by the EUISS and proposes a top-down institutional approach taking advantage of the opportunity provided by the EU's "Strategic Compass" process on security and defence. Thus, the case of a dedicated "EU Space and Defence Strategy" to be established is proposed. The second approach has been put forward by the French ARES Group and argues that a bottom-up approach can enhance a common strategic view better than top-down declarations. By highlighting the possibility of funding for the development of military space capabilities by the European Defence Fund, the authors argue that the Commission's European secure connectivity project can be an ideal test case for the EU member states to blend their national capabilities with those of the EU. This article contributes to this debate by examining both arguments. It compares them with work done from 2002 to 2006, which was intended, according to a 2004 Council decision "to serve as a reference for future proceedings in the field of military capacities". This analysis differs from the EUISS argument in that it proposes an update of the 2007 EU Space Policy to redefine the Common Security and Defence Policy goals first. Regarding the ARES Group, a bottom-up approach analysis validates the communication needs and their hierarchy, thus concluding that if implemented, it can be a timely solution in the Permanent Structured Cooperation framework. The analysis suggests that a relevant combined cooperative process in the Common Security and Defence Policy domain can give the EU time to examine the space implications of the Russia–Ukraine conflict and to establish its space vision for the European Defence Union. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To resolve the uncertainty of the risk control system in the national space security system, research on analysis and simulation of space security is advanced with operational experiments theory. Space development strategy is established based on the construction of space power, the programming of space mission, and the creation of space technique based on space security situation, forming the space security system. Due to the particularity of space and high risks and costs of space test, realistic demand of research on space to space experiment is proposed. Basic principle and experiment program of space security simulation is are established, and the supporting technology system is given. The modeling scheme of national space security system is provided using high level architecture facing service, which il holds a solid foundation for demonstration, design, and establishment of simulation experiment system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On 2 December 2014, the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) adopted with a vote of 126 in favor, 4 against and 46 abstentions, Resolution 69/32 entitled ‘No first placement of weapons in space. Despite the limited attention received in academic circles, the adoption of Resolution 69/32 represents an important development in the area of space security. First, it indicates the growing recognition of the positive role that transparency and confidence-building measures (TCBMs) play in preventing an arms race in space (PAROS), even from the perspective of those States that has suggested the adoption of a treaty on PAROS, namely China and Russia. Second, it shows the willingness of a crescent number of members of the United Nations General Assembly to engage in initiatives aimed at promoting a more secure space environment. Third, its controversial reception proves that a universal solution to the issue of space security still lays far ahead. In the light of these elements the purpose of the present viewpoint is to analyze Resolution 69/32, evaluate its positive and negative features, and assess its chances to provide a meaningful contribution to a more secure outer space. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While the need for adequate space law may be as urgent as ever, the international community has discovered that today it is increasingly difficult to reach consensus on statutes to govern new space activities. In view of the noticeable slowdown in the law-making process, serious discussions about the most suitable and effective techniques of space legislation are required. The author discusses the political and legal problems of making laws to deal with space and space activities. A number of suggestions aimed at improving the present legislative process are formulated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The creation of Google Earth has initiated a new market for space imaging with hundreds of millions of potential customers. The distribution of data could replace their production as the driving factor in the development of the image business, up to the point where the managers of the flow of information would control and finance the space system, as operators do with satcoms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The world has known three great ages of exploration-the circumnavigation of the globe, with its attendant discovery of new lands; the traversing and cataloguing of the newly-found continents; and the exploration of the uninhabited regions of Antarctica, the deep ocean basins and outer space. The author points to the culturally and historically determined nature of discovery, which has thus far been largely a Western phenomenon, but emphasizes the qualitatively different character of space which takes the Earth, rather than any particular part of it, as its starting point, and which sets forth to chart regions that are most probably abiotic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)—as the global leader in all areas of spaceflight and space science— is a unique organization in terms of size, mission, constraints, complexity and motivations. NASA's flagship endeavor—human spaceflight—is extremely risky and one of the most complicated tasks undertaken by man. It is well accepted that the tragic destruction of the Space Shuttle Challenger on 28 January 1986 was the result of organizational failure. The surprising disintegration of the Space Shuttle Columbia in February 2003—nearly 17 years to the day after Challenger —was a shocking reminder of how seemingly innocuous details play important roles in risky systems and organizations. NASA as an organization has changed considerably over the 42 years of its existence. If it is serious about minimizing failure and promoting its mission, perhaps the most intense period of organizational change lies in its immediate future. This paper outlines some of the critical features of NASA's organization and organizational change, namely path dependence and “normalization of deviance”. Subsequently, it reviews the rationale behind calling the Challenger tragedy an organizational failure. Finally, it argues that the recent Columbia accident displays characteristics of organizational failure and proposes recommendations for the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The political and economic climate in China has changed often and wildly since the country's space programme was founded. Nevertheless the programme has remained remarkably stable and achieved major successes. This article traces the programme's history in the context of the four major periods through which it has lived and offers an explanation of why and how it has survived so well: high-level government support, international prestige and committed personnel. The recent Tiananmen turmoil has not dimmed its progress and the programme looks set both to advance its space commercialization efforts in the short term and to develop a manned capability in the long term. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A pressing issue facing the US space program is the projected shortfall in the skilled aerospace workforce, as the number of students in space-related fields wanes. This has prompted many to emphasize the rhetoric of inspiration that prevailed during the Cold War, at the expense of concrete arguments for space that are thought to be lackluster and insufficient. This essay argues that the logic of inspiration fails to consider the changed context and attitudes of this younger public. Instead, such an approach proves counterproductive in attracting generations compelled by a host of ideas, some incompatible with the rhetoric of competition and prestige that prevailed before. Arguments that draw attention to the pragmatic elements of space, and that successfully align space with the notions that make sense now, may in turn prove to be the solution to draw the best and the brightest to the space program. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Traditional space relations among civilian space actors are undergoing in the post-cold war era a rapid evolution with a growing number of new institutional entities. The cold war era and its resulting political environment, which limited space cooperation to ‘intra-bloc’ cooperation has disappeared, allowing the development of new axes and mechanisms of cooperation. The internationalization and regionalization of space activities witnessed in recent years is foreseen to gain momentum, leading therefore to a new geography of civilian space activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transparency and confidence-building measures (TCBMs) are a set of tools designed to display, predict and discipline states' behaviour with respect to maintaining the security of space. With intentional and unintentional threats to the peaceful use of space on the rise, there is a growing international consensus on the need for greater transparency in space-related activities as well as confidence-building measures to reduce the prospects of disruption to the ever-expanding role of space in our day-to-day lives. Terrestrial TCBMs can serve as a guide to understanding what political arrangements are possible in space, including certain precedents in the areas of arms control, non-proliferation and disarmament. At the same time, current and emerging challenges in space - including orbital space debris, risk of collisions, growing saturation of the radiofrequency spectrum, the crowding of satellites in geostationary (GEO) orbit and threat of purposeful disruption - need to be evaluated in the context of unilateral, bilateral, multilateral and private initiatives to increase space situational awareness and security. This paper describes and evaluates various prospective TCBMs alongside current proposals to advance safety and security in space, including the EU Draft Code of Conduct for Outer Space Activities. It offers specific recommendations, arguing that Europe is uniquely qualified to negotiate a 21st century TCBM architecture thanks to its history of diplomacy and ability to identify common ground among disparate parties. This will only happen, however, with a more defined institutional design and the EU's emergence as a global civilian leader. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The recently unveiled EU Global Strategy for Foreign and Security Policy presents bold and ambitious plans in several increasingly important domains for Europe, including outer space. The EU has committed itself to securing an autonomous access to space, providing security for its space-based assets, and promoting the adoption of a voluntary code of conduct in space. With the evolving dynamics in astropolitics, space security has become an ever more important aspect of space activities. Clearly, the EU has a vested interest in space security, whereas space-enabled services form an important part of European economy and contribute to effective implementation of its energy policy, migration, border control as well as domestic and international crisis management. Since the EU is currently in the process of drafting a European Space Strategy, it should seize the opportunity to take stock of its existing space programs and lay out a promising way forward. Besides reinforcing the existing Copernicus and Galileo programs and further developing the Governmental Satellite Communications (GOVSATCOM) project, the EU should make a significant investment in space security, particularly through boosting its Space Surveillance and Tracking (SST) capabilities and actively working on the international fora to promote a responsible behavior in outer space that could be eventually transformed into a voluntary international code of conduct. Through a comprehensive space policy and by reinforcing its autonomy in outer space, the EU will not only strengthen its foreign and security policy, but also reconfirm its relevant role in global affairs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

International cooperation on outer-space security has fluctuated over the past decades, marked by periods of common endeavor and relative stability as well as times of destabilizing developments and rising tensions. A high-water mark of space-security diplomacy was the 2013 UN Group of Governmental Experts consensus report on “Transparency and Confidence-Building Measures in Outer Space Activities,” which set out a rich menu of measures and promised new levels of cooperative security among states. Regrettably, the report was followed by a series of negative developments that threaten to reverse the cooperative trend it espoused. These developments include the introduction (by Russia and China) and rejection (by the United States) of a revised draft treaty on the Prevention of Placement of Weapons in Outer Space (PPWT); the adoption by the UN General Assembly of a divisive resolution on “no first placement” of space weapons; the failure of the European Union to gain support for its proposed Code of Conduct, as well as escalating strategic tensions. This viewpoint analyzes the re-emergence of these “dark forces” and their implications for multilateral diplomacy and makes suggestions for remedial action to preserve outer-space security. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From the humble beginnings of the sounding rocket programme at the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) in the early sixties the Indian space programme has come a long way to realise independent capabilities in space, launch and ground segment to provide various civilian applications and services to the country. In the past decade, the activities of the Indian Space Research Organisation have witnessed a substantial rise which reflects on the number of missions as well as the budget of the space agency. The present work explores the diversification of the Indian space programme in the past decade with a detailed study on the capabilities and technologies realised with the sustained support of the Government of India into the space programme. Perspectives on the implications (for diplomacy, security and private industry) of the success achieved in the space programme alongside the challenges that may be faced in policy with the rising expectation for various services by different stakeholders within the country have been discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Terrestrial societies are heavily dependent on Earth-orbiting satellites for the provision of services which many people now take for granted. However, with this dependence comes a need to preserve the transmission of these services whilst faced with a number of risks and dangers, including intentional interference, space debris and radiation emanating from space weather phenomena. The European Union (EU) has identified these services, along with the satellites and networks which provide them to its citizens, as critical infrastructures, indicating the need for their security. The article frames the EU's efforts to secure its critical outer space infrastructures, namely the draft International Code of Conduct for Outer Space Activities and the Space Situational Awareness programme, through the lens of anticipatory security. The article concludes that both these approaches to outer space security are predicated upon the precautionary acknowledgement of risks or threats and involve mostly preemptive measures alongside some elements of prevention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The European Union (EU) has put in place a unique multilateral governance model for its EU Space Surveillance & Tracking (EU SST) capability, which reconciles the need for increased autonomy in ensuring the resilience of space-based infrastructure for the European community with the requirements posed by sovereign security concerns. Implemented by a consortium of EU member states, EU SST has been in operation since 2016, and today it serves a growing user community of European organisations with SST services including Collision Avoidance. The participating entities channel diverse contributions into an operational sensor, data sharing, and service provision framework, while integrating the European ecosystem of industry and research and development. From the perspective of the EU SST partners, this paper reviews recent governance and operations, and highlights emerging developments in light of the European Union space programme, including its intersections with Space Traffic Management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article addresses the principal events of 2014 in the field of space activities, and extrapolates from them the primary trends that can be identified in governmental space activities. In 2014, global space activities centered on two vectors. The first was geopolitical, and the second relates to the matrix between increasing commercial space activities and traditional governmental space activities. In light of these two vectors, the article outlines and analyzes trends of space exploration, human spaceflights, industry and technology, cooperation versus self-reliance, and space security and sustainability. It also reviews the space activities of the leading space-faring nations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The article discusses the subject of space security and space exploration, offering information on the launch of the satellite Sputnik 1 by the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics), national security, and the challenges of space security in India.

As societies become ever-more dependent on technology, they also become reliant on those space systems that increasingly enable these technologies to function. Liviu Mureşan and Alexandru Georgescu argue that space systems are thus bound to become closely linked with societal resilience, and that any planning for the future must take space security into account. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The article focuses on the importance of force development in the U.S. Air Force Space Command. Topics discussed include the importance of training, education, and experience in the Air Combat Command (ACC), airmen's training in space intelligence, and the use of space systems such as the Global Positioning System (GPS) in training of airmen.

The article offers the author's insights on the importance of space and cyberspace domain protection in the U.S. Topics discussed include the role of the U.S. Air Force and Air Force Command in its protection, the dependence of remotely piloted aircraft (RPA) in space systems such as the Global Positioning System (GPS), and the support of space and cyberspace on the core missions of the Air Force such as intelligence-surveillance-reconnaissance (ISR), rapid global mobility, and global strike.

Significant initiatives on space traffic management have been recently taken, essentially by developing principles of outer space transparency and confidence building measures (TCBM) beneficial to a safer conduct of space activities. The need for improved practices in space traffic management is a consequence of the increasing number of space-faring nations allowing for more types of missions, growing number of space debris, new private entrants, and rising space content in running critical national infrastructures, to name a few. These expanding space activities underscore the society's dependency on space systems and its vulnerability, calling for an improved long-term sustainability of outer space activities. But the lack of information on the nature of some space payloads and their associated missions introduce a persistent flaw in succeeding to achieve a long thought stable and safer space environment. Indeed this noticeable weakness in the mentioned initiatives is not taken into account at this stage. To overcome this difficulty, a space situational awareness system (SSAS) based on a multinational organization, or under the purview of a UN steered agency, is proposed. It could be implemented promptly, provided there is a shared political will and a recognized urgent need to do so by major space-faring nations gauging their long-term interest while there is still time. The space deterrence postures by dominant space powers that have been identified during the past ten years, or so, argues in favour of broadening as soon as possible the scope of the current TCBM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The United States has been engaged in multiple activities to enhance international stability and ensure the sustainability of space activities. This includes multilateral activities within the United Nations such ash the “Group of Government Experts” to study transparency and confidence building measures (TCBMs) for outer space activities. The European Union has been leading talks on a possible international space code of conduct and the United States is supportive of the process. However, European efforts have not been successful in securing support from space powers such as India and Brazil, much less China and Russia. Codes and TCBMs cannot be a substitute for the capabilities necessary to deter potential adversaries and meet U.S. alliance commitments. In fact, the viability of any such codes may rely on the development of deterrence-related capabilities, for example space situational awareness to attribute hostile acts in space. The United States and its allies should take measures to improve the resilience of space systems across the spectrum of conflict. Improving resilience can consist of both “material” and “non-material” solutions. The former include measures such as hardening space and ground systems against physical and cyber attacks. The latter can include development of alternative means of mission performance, such as the use of allied or commercial systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The challenges facing the space domain are multifaceted and there need not be an expectation that they all be covered by a single initiative. Accordingly, no single space policy proposal will effectively address all challenges to the sustainability of outer space—from environmental to commercial to military. Should one of the existing proposals be adopted, it can make a concrete contribution to space governance, in particular if its adoption is not taken as an end goal that jeopardizes the pursuit of further complementary initiatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The global community of scientists involved in finding and tracking near-Earth asteroids (NEOs), identifying potentially hazardous NEOs, and characterizing the possible effects of asteroid impacts with Earth is developing an awareness of the need to improve and expand efforts to communicate with policy and decision makers about the work they do. This paper addresses the criticality of clear, concise, correct communications about asteroid impact risks and hazards, as well as proper distinctions among risks, hazards, and actual threats. It reviews recent progress in communication about NEO hazards and impact risks, including new recommendations from expert groups, guidelines for responsible communication about hazards and risks, communication issues raised in collaborations with disaster planners, and other relevant developments. The next significant asteroid impact with Earth could be 500 years from now, or next week. The need to be prepared for such an event is clear. Policy and decision makers will depend on the community of experts involved in NEO observations and planning for planetary defense for information on the risks and hazards of asteroid impacts with Earth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Brazil's space program represents an anomaly among those of the world's 10 largest economic powers. During a time that has witnessed the rapid emergence of a variety of national space programs—even among lesser powers like Iran and South Korea–Brazil's failure to emerge as a significant space actor requires further analysis. This article traces the history of Brazil's space efforts and examines the factors that have held it back, some of which continue to influence its policies today: inadequate funding, conflicting organizations, poorly handled foreign relations, and an unclear national vision for Brazil's “place” in space. Recent efforts to overcome these hurdles through an improved domestic strategy and smarter international relations show promise. But a more sustained political commitment to space development will be needed if they are to succeed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On June 10, 2014, Russia and China presented the updated Draft Treaty on the Prevention of the Placement of Weapons in Space, the Threat or Use of Force Against Space Objects (PPWT) to the Conference on Disarmament. The original 2008 Draft PPWT had been poorly received and criticized, inter alia , for not addressing the most pressing threats to space objects, strategically favoring the interests of its co-sponsors and lacking reliable means of verification. In presenting the 2014 update the Russian and Chinese representatives pointed out that it had been drafted by taking into account the criticism leveled to its 2008 version and that it should be now viewed as an international effort rather than as a mere Chinese and Russian initiative: they also added that for this reason the amended Draft PPWT constituted a solid instrument to enhance the security of space objects and stood a higher chance of success than its predecessor. It is, thus worth wondering whether the positive attitude and high expectations of China and Russia towards the amended Draft should be shared or rejected (counteracted, opposed). The present paper gives a rather negative answer to this question. While proceeding to a substantial re-wording and re-organization of its text, the amended Draft maintains the most controversial and debatable aspects of its 2008 version. Therefore, it seems unlikely that delegations within the CD might support it. Despite its overall negative assessment, the present paper argues that the submission of 2014 updated Draft PPWT may positively contribute, at least indirectly, to the security of space objects. The likely failure of the amended draft could be used by the CD members as an opportunity to focus their efforts in putting in place legal barriers to selected threats to space objects, such as the testing of destructive, debris-generating, ASAT devices. There are elements to believe that a ban on destructive ASAT tests could be achieved and acceptable by the majority of States. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is an obvious gap between China's express intention to be a responsible space actor and the perception of its being a possible or imminent threat to space security. This article identifies the elements leading to the false perception held by some States based on an evaluation of China's space-related controversial events: the ideological and military considerations; the misunderstanding and obscurity surrounding China's space policies and activities; the inaccurate contention of China's non-compliance with its international legal obligations and its lack of expertise and experience in international negotiations. Based on the historical opportunities that the China's current government is facing, the conclusion will be reached at how to bridge this gap through transparency improvement and the establishment of confidence-building measures, including the elimination of military involvement and encouraging commercial exploration and utilization of outer space through national legislation; the improvement of the space governance mechanisms; more effective, targeted and meaningful information exchange and policy dialogue to enlarge cooperation and forge strategic military trust. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]