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This essay presents perspectives on the range of potential reciprocity in literacy research and service learning, focusing attention on opportunities for individualized and institutional reciprocation, as observed by Takayoshi and Powell (2003). Researchers and students involved in community-based research or service programs have several opportunities to give back to their research participants and service organizations, and the more they are aware of these opportunities or can make these entities aware of these benefits and act upon them, the more productive such research and service can be to the field of literacy studies as well as to those who participate.

This study utilizes a social exchange framework to analyze the qualitative narratives of 81 graduate student mentors participating in the Intellectual Entrepreneurship Pre-Graduate Internship at The University of Texas at Austin. Findings suggest that in addition to personal benefits, mentorship has four major professional benefits: a deeper perspective both on themselves and their academic discipline; the development of advising and mentoring skills; contributing to the diversity of their academic and professional field by assisting an emerging scholar from an underrepresented population; and knowledge that mentoring can assist both mentees and mentors in reaching their goals. (Contains 1 table.)

The research includes various constructs based on social exchange theory and social cognitive theory. This study mainly explored the relationships among organisational justice, trust, commitment and knowledge-sharing cognition and verified their mediating effects through two variables of trust and commitment. A survey utilising a questionnaire was used with 252 IT professionals from IT companies and departments in Taiwan. Structural equation modelling was used to analyse the data and to evaluate the research model. The results showed that the research model fitted the data well, and the main determinant of knowledge-sharing intention was the building of organisational justice between knowledge intensive workers, confirming our hypotheses that trust and commitment foster organisational commitment. In turn, organisational commitment will help to build individual knowledge-sharing self-efficacy and both directly and indirectly affect intentions to share knowledge. (Contains 6 tables and 2 figures.)

This paper examines the Australian government's Indigenous policy by interrogating the concept of partnership between governments and Indigenous communities through three examples. Increasingly, the Australian federal government is focusing attention on the poor literacy and numeracy outcomes for Indigenous children in remote and very remote locations. The three examples examined in this paper occurred between 2002 and 2007 during the development of the government's policies about partnership accountability. A case study methodological approach evolved into a policy ethnography which was adopted to investigate the central question examined in this paper about the strengths and limitations of partnering as a policy concept. The strongest theme to arise from analysis was that parents and caregivers, and indeed their broader families and communities, had a distinctly different expectation of partnership to that of the government policy. Drawing on social exchange theories, the differences identified were concerned with the asymmetry and reciprocity. Indigenous communities are asserting the right to negotiated agreements that are accountable "both ways" and governments seem to be more focussed on a "one way" process of making Indigenous people accountable for education failure. (Contains 16 notes.)

Despite the increased prevalence of neutral third parties in both formal and informal exchange processes, social exchange theory has yet to consider the effect of nonpartisans on important cognitive and affective outcomes of exchange. This research integrates Simmel's conceptualization of small groups and nonpartisans with contemporary theory and research in social exchange to explore how different levels of neutral third party intervention in an exchange process affect the "relational outcomes" of exchange (perceptions of fairness of, general positive regard toward, the exchange partner and optimism about the tone of future interactions). Experimental results indicate that increased third party intervention is "positively" related to favorable relational outcomes. The increased likelihood of external attributions and decreased salience of conflict associated with high levels of third-party intervention partially explain this result.

Addressing numerous calls for future research on understanding the theoretical mechanisms that explain the relationship between organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) and job performance, this study focused on how an employee's relationships with coworkers mediate the relationship between his or her OCBs and his or her job performance. It also looked at how task autonomy might moderate this mediated relationship. The results of an empirical study involving 364 jewelry designers, 310 coworkers, and 284 supervisors indicated that coworker relations mediated the relationship between OCBs and job performance. In addition, task autonomy positively moderated both paths of this mediated relationship. Finally, these results hold for OCBs that are targeted at individuals but not for OCBs that are targeted toward organizations. (Contains 5 tables and 1 footnote.)

Transactional sex, or the exchange of money and gifts for sexual activities within nonmarital relationships, has been widely considered a contributing factor to the disproportionate prevalence of HIV/AIDS among young women in sub-Saharan Africa. This study applied social exchange theory to premarital relationships in order to investigate the linkages between a variety of young women's resources--including employment and material transfers from male partners--and sexual behaviors. Data on the first month of premarital relationships (N = 551 relationships) were collected from a random sample of young adult women ages 18-24 in Kisumu, Kenya, using a retrospective life history calendar. Consistent with the hypotheses, results showed that young women's income increases the likelihood of safer sexual activities, including delaying sex and using condoms consistently. Material transfers from the male partner displayed the opposite effect, supporting the view that resources obtained within the relationship decrease young women's negotiating power.

Purpose: This study makes a distinction between a school having high attrition and one having difficulties in hiring. It does so by exploring the relationship between definitions of hard-to-staff schools, school demographics, and school conditions that are often associated with a school being hard-to-staff. Research Design: The study relies on a survey of Ohio schools to ascertain information on vacancies for 2004-2005. The survey also collected information on principal perceptions of the impact of various school conditions and difficulty in hiring. Information was received about 3,371 teaching vacancies in 1,040 schools. The overall response rate from schools was 67%. In the first stage of analysis, a descriptive analysis explored the relationship between school demographic factors, definitions of hard-to-staff, and school conditions. In the second stage, three regression models were tested for seven definitions of hard-to-staff to determine whether school demographics and conditions were predictive of being hard-to-staff under any of the definitions. Findings: The analyses showed that school demographics such as poverty, student ethnicity, and school location are not predictive of difficulty in hiring in general. School conditions such as central office help in hiring are more important than the demographic characteristics typically associated with a school being hard-to-staff. Conclusions: How we define hard-to-staff matters. The characteristics of a hard-to-staff school vary depending on the definition used. Thus, we need to be more specific in defining hard-to-staff schools so that both research on these schools and resource targeting by policy makers yield better results. (Contains 10 notes and 12 tables.)

Inferences about emotions in children are limited by studies that rely on only one research method. Convergence across methods provides a stronger basis for inference by identifying method variance. This multimethod study of 116 children (mean age = 8.21 years) examined emotional displays during social exchange. Each child received a desirable gift and later an undesirable gift after performing tasks, with or without mother present. Children's reactions were observed and coded. Children displayed more positive affect with mother present than with mother absent. Independent ratings of children by adults revealed that children lower in the personality dimension of Agreeableness displayed more negative emotion than their peers following the receipt of an undesirable gift. A curvilinear interaction between Agreeableness and mother condition predicted negative affect displays. Emotional assessment is discussed in terms of links to social exchange and the development of expressive behavior. (Contains 1 figure and 1 table.)

Men who batter, because of particular personality traits and sense of entitlement, may select partners whom they perceive will be dependent on them, meet their emotional needs, or be "objects" of physical attractiveness. During treatment intake, 181 offenders responded to the question, "What attracted you to her (your partner)?" We explored whether men who mentioned their own needs or her physical traits would engage in more frequent and severe violence and would have specific forms of personality disorder dimensions or personality traits. Six categories of attraction, including "her physical traits" and "his needs," were derived from the men's responses. The results showed that men who focused on their partners' physical attractiveness were more likely to be violent after treatment. Men who cited their own needs for their attraction had higher scores on borderline personality, alcohol abuse, and psychotic thinking and lower scores on compulsive-conforming. (Contains 3 tables.)

In this article, the author states that she supports Wayne Bowman's (2006) concern with the impact narratives can have, including their potential to legitimize "existing patterns of privilege and possibility." She argues that "there is nothing inherently emancipatory about narrative." In fact, narrative "may, and often does, legitimatize existing power relations, existing discourses, existing patterns of privilege and possibility." Narrative often leads one to the heart of action and ideals. For those who are in search of varied meanings, storied accounts can lead toward a telling of events that, in their unfolding, present ethical encounters with and for resistance; thereby giving accounts of "processes of rupture" and reinforcing how significant they may be. The wake of said stories present one with how music practices and pedagogies in urban contexts need more than the dualism between healing tales or accounts of horror--they need narratives of rupture. The author follows Kincheloe and Berry (2004), believing that the kind of "feedback looping" involved in a "point of entry" treatment of a text, functions to "expose locations of power, challenge taken-for-granted assumptions and de-center positions of authority." Consequently, this article is an exercise in how one may continuously add questions and thoughts to issues raised in the article. (Contains 1 note.)

The reciprocal exchange of employees' work for pay that is central to employment relationships is viewed here through the lens of the psychological contract. A psychological contract involves promised inducements, promised contributions, delivered inducements, and delivered contributions: How an employee cognitively integrates these 4 elements is a central question in psychological contract theory. Three alternative approaches for integrating the 4 elements were drawn from discrepancy theory, from equity theory, and from need theories of satisfaction, respectively. Experimental findings disconfirmed the discrepancy and equity approaches. Findings were consistent with the premise of the needs model, which is that appraisal is driven by how psychological contract elements facilitate or hinder an employee's effort to fulfill personal needs. Results showed that promised and delivered pay and work contribute uniquely to appraisal but that they vary in their influence on appraisal. These findings were consistent with the needs model principle that elements proximal to need satisfaction matter more than distal elements. That is, what is delivered (for pay and for work) matters more than what is promised, and pay matters more than work. (Contains 2 figures, 4 tables, and 3 footnotes.)

How effective are rewards (for cooperation) and punishment (for noncooperation) as tools to promote cooperation in social dilemmas or situations when immediate self-interest and longer term collective interest conflict? What variables can promote the impact of these incentives? Although such questions have been examined, social and behavioral scientists provide different answers. To date, there is no theoretical and/or quantitative review of rewards and punishments as incentives for cooperation in social dilemmas. Using a novel interdependence-theoretic framework, we propose that rewards and punishments should both promote cooperation, and we identify 2 variables--cost of incentives and source of incentives--that are predicted to magnify the effectiveness of these incentives in promoting cooperation. A meta-analysis involving 187 effect sizes revealed that rewards and punishments exhibited a statistically equivalent positive effect on cooperation (d = 0.51 and 0.70, respectively). The effectiveness of incentives was stronger when the incentives were costly to administer, compared to free. Centralization of incentives did not moderate the effect size. Punishments were also more effective during iterated dilemmas when participants continued to interact in the same group, compared to both (a) iterated dilemmas with reassignment to a new group after each trial and (b) one-shot dilemmas. We also examine several other potential moderators, such as iterations, partner matching, group size, country, and participant payment. We discuss broad conclusions, consider implications for theory, and suggest directions for future research on rewards and punishment in social dilemmas. (Contains 4 tables and 6 footnotes.)

The integration policies in some Northern European countries display relatively poor outcomes of passed exam rates for immigrant language training, and several groups of immigrants have very low employment rates. These measures, in many countries, are strong incentives for host-country language acquisition in addition to the obligation to document acquisition in order to gain a permanent residence permit. Adult educators need to put more teaching intensity into the education of immigrants to raise the level of host-language achievement. This paper explores the antecedents of teaching intensity, induced by educators, in the teaching of adult immigrant students and estimates the relative strength of adult educators' work in order to understand significant factors within the schools. The methodology involved a cross-sectional survey of 764 adult educators from schools for immigrant training in Norway. Our study underlines the importance of relational trust between leaders and adult educators, as well as the significance of social exchange perceptions in adult educators' efforts to teach immigrant students. Clear leadership seems to play a more minor role in the instruction of the immigrant population. (Contains 2 figures, 2 tables and 19 notes.)

This study tested the mediating role of violation in the relationship between breach and both affective and continuance commitment and the extent to which this mediating role is moderated by exchange imbalance amongst a sample of 103 sales personnel. Results suggest that violation mediated the relationship between breach and commitment. Also, results suggest that perceived exchange imbalance moderates this mediating pathway: Low exchange imbalance increases the mediating role of violation in the case of affective commitment. On the other hand, exchange imbalance failed to moderate the mediating influence of violation in the case of continuance commitment. Results are discussed in view of the importance of a) including both measures of violation and breach in future studies and b) the role of social exchange in explaining psychological contract violation. (Contains 3 tables and 2 figures.)

Using data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, we examined whether mothers' (N = 4,127) and fathers' (N = 3,405) relationship status influenced their activation of financial support from relatives over time. We found that relationship status influenced the activation of financial support from relatives but that the effects differed somewhat by gender. Mothers were significantly more likely to activate financial assistance if they did not reside with the focal father, whereas fathers had lower odds of activating support if they were no longer in a relationship with the mother. Thus, the need for assistance may encourage mothers to access support; fathers may be less likely to access support when they deviate from social norms.

Despite the many benefits of involving undergraduates in research and the growing number of undergraduate research programs, few scholars have investigated the factors that affect faculty members' decisions to involve undergraduates in their research projects. We investigated the individual factors and institutional contexts that predict faculty members' likelihood of engaging undergraduates in their research project(s). Using data from the Higher Education Research Institute's 2007-2008 Faculty Survey, we employ hierarchical generalized linear modeling to analyze data from 4,832 science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) faculty across 194 institutions to examine how organizational citizenship behavior theory and social exchange theory relate to mentoring students in research. Key findings show that faculty who work in the life sciences and those who receive government funding for their research are more likely to involve undergraduates in their research project(s). In addition, faculty at liberal arts or historically Black colleges are significantly more likely to involve undergraduate students in research. Implications for advancing undergraduate research opportunities are discussed. (Contains 4 tables.)

Government agencies and professional organizations have attempted to improve education research by creating common standards for judging research quality. However, the absence of agreement regarding research quality has limited the effectiveness of this approach. This article argues that, rather than focusing on standards, policy makers should leverage the market-like behaviors of those engaged in education research by influencing the incentives that drive them. Drawing on political philosophy and social theory, I argue that governments should focus less on standards and protocols and more on reforming the processes by which research capital is distributed.

Sexual social exchange theory was applied to perceptions of a date rape by manipulating the cost of the date and who paid in vignettes presented to 188 U.S. college students, who then rated the characters' sexual expectations, blame, responsibility, and rape justifiability. Findings from this between-participant design partially supported predictions: When the man paid for an expensive date, men agreed more than did women that both characters should have expected sexual intercourse. Conversely, when the costs of an inexpensive date were split, the perpetrator was assigned the most blame, and women agreed more than men that no sexual expectations were warranted. Participant gender affected some responses, although level of rape myth acceptance was the main predictor of rape perceptions. (Contains 4 tables.)

For organizations, the value of employing highly committed individuals is well documented. Accordingly, scholars have endeavored to identify factors that may influence employees' organizational commitment. One factor that has received growing attention in this regard is individuals' perceptions of training offered by an organization. However, despite increased scrutiny over the past decade, the precise nature of the relationship between employee training perceptions and organizational commitment remains unclear. Consequently, in this study we use social exchange theory as a foundation to examine the relationship between perceptions of training comprehensiveness and organizational commitment among individuals serving on cross-functional product development teams within numerous large manufacturing firms. Results of a multilevel regression analysis support a direct relationship between perceived training comprehensiveness and organizational commitment. Additionally, whether individuals specifically chose to participate on a product development team moderated this relationship, but not in the expected direction. We discuss implications of study findings for both research and practice.

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to analyse whether a social exchange relationship between temporary workers and organizations is possible. The authors aim to consider whether, when training is perceived by an employee as an organizational practice that promotes his or her employability, this entails a social exchange relationship. Design/methodology/approach: Surveys from 240 call centre workers were analyzed using correlation and multiple regression to explore relationships between training to promote employability, perceived organizational support (POS) and affective commitment. Findings: The data support the idea that social exchange theories are useful frameworks in explaining temporary workers' affective commitment towards organisations. Organisational investment in training was positively related to the affective commitment of these temporary workers. However, employees attributed greater importance to the fact that training increased their employability than to the number of training hours received. The relationship between this human resource management practice and affective commitment partly occurred through the perceived organisational support. Such perception partially mediates the relationship between training as a promoter of employability and this positive attitude. Research limitations/implications: The study is limited due to sample nature and the lack of longitudinal design. It does not provide implications for other types of commitment that may be relevant for temporary workers (continuance commitment, for example). Practical implications: An important implication from this research is that employers should not assume that training is an investment without return from temporary workers. Developmental opportunities, while important to all employees, did make temporary workers more committed to organizations. Originality/value: The paper is the first, to the authors' knowledge, to assess training as promoting employability with a specific measure. While the results are simple, they refute many stereotypes of temporary workers and add an important perspective to the human resource management literature. (Contains 1 figure and 3 tables.)

Set against instructional practices that promote competition and individual performance, Dynamic Assessment, in our view, offers a more appropriate form of pedagogy for learners from cultural backgrounds that favour cooperation during joint activity. Indeed, these learners appear to be disadvantaged when negotiating the contrasting values and practices of their school and their community, a factor that likely contributes to the high attrition rates of Yup'ik Eskimo learners in secondary and tertiary education. This article considers the use of DA in a university Yugtun language course. Three DA sessions between a Yup'ik instructor/mediator and a Yup'ik heritage learner are discussed. Data include three 15-minute videotaped mediation sessions, dialogue journals and student tests. Through detailed analysis of the mediational episodes we discuss not only how the learner moves towards self-regulation in the use of grammar charts, but also how the interactions between the learner and the mediator become more reciprocal over time. (Contains 2 notes, 1 table, and 1 figure.)

Primary processes in schools are hard to pin down despite attempts to measure central aspects of processes and outputs. For this very reason, it is important that teachers are motivated to go above and beyond their formal job responsibilities, a phenomenon called organizational citizenship behaviour. Social exchange theory is a theoretical explanation for organizational citizenship behaviour. This study examines a model of clear leadership and relational building between head and teachers as antecedents, and organizational citizenship behaviour as a consequence of teacher-school exchange. One purpose of this study is to explore the nature of exchanges between parties in the organization of teachers' work and examine the relative impact of these aspects on organizational citizenship behaviour. The methodology adopted was a cross-sectional survey of 234 secondary teachers. The structural equation analysis indicates a strong support for the importance of principal-teacher trust on social exchange and indirectly an impact on organizational citizenship behaviours. We also found some moderate support for the importance of clear leadership on organizational citizenship behaviours. This article presents suggestions for future research and possible implications for practice. (Contains 2 figures, 2 tables and 2 notes.)

Genuine moral disagreement exists and is widespread. To understand such disagreement, we must examine the basic kinds of social relationships people construct across cultures and the distinct moral obligations and prohibitions these relationships entail. We extend relational models theory (Fiske, 1991) to identify 4 fundamental and distinct moral motives. Unity is the motive to care for and support the integrity of in-groups by avoiding or eliminating threats of contamination and providing aid and protection based on need or empathic compassion. Hierarchy is the motive to respect rank in social groups where superiors are entitled to deference and respect but must also lead, guide, direct, and protect subordinates. Equality is the motive for balanced, in-kind reciprocity, equal treatment, equal say, and equal opportunity. Proportionality is the motive for rewards and punishments to be proportionate to merit, benefits to be calibrated to contributions, and judgments to be based on a utilitarian calculus of costs and benefits. The 4 moral motives are universal, but cultures, ideologies, and individuals differ in where they activate these motives and how they implement them. Unlike existing theories (Haidt, 2007; Hauser, 2006; Turiel, 1983), relationship regulation theory predicts that any action, including violence, unequal treatment, and "impure" acts, may be perceived as morally correct depending on the moral motive employed and how the relevant social relationship is construed. This approach facilitates clearer understanding of moral perspectives we disagree with and provides a template for how to influence moral motives and practices in the world. (Contains 4 footnotes.)

Although directly related to students' everyday lives, the abstract and even intimidating nature of relational theories often bars students from recognizing the immediate relevance to their relationships. The theories of symbolic interactionism, social exchange, relational dialectics, social penetration, and uncertainty reduction offer students five different perspectives to examine and make sense of often confusing lived experiences with roommates, romantic partners, friends, and family members. This performative activity seeks to redress the disconnect between theory and experience. Given that learning about relationships occurs in the laboratory of everyday life, it follows that the most effective teaching methods for teaching theories about relationships would reflect this environment via active and embodied learning. This performative activity also seeks to redress student difficulties in retention and application of relational theories. Theoretical connection, retention, and application are crucial to student success, and all are influenced by active teaching methodologies and classroom environments that sustain student motivation. This activity is designed to replace a traditional lecture for introducing relational theories to students. After an initial overview, students are tasked with arriving at their own interpretation of an assigned theory and demonstrating that theory through construction of a three-dimensional model or representation and a dramatic performance or role-play. Students engage in theory first through discussion, then through construction of a model, and conclude with a performance for the class. A list of references and suggested readings is included. (Contains 2 tables.)

If money is the root of all evil, is it also the root of all motivation? When talking about workplace performance and training, the experts' consensus is a resounding "No." This article discusses why cash doesn't motivate everyone all the time when it comes to workplace performance and training and takes a look at what does.

Given the rapid development and large expatriate majority within the United Arab Emirates, the country is extremely reliant upon expatriate faculty to educate its people. Through the lens provided by Social Exchange Theory, this study examined the motivations of expatriate faculty to remain or leave their positions at institutions within the UAE. Survey data from 364 expatriate faculty was collected using a modified version of Matier's (1990) motivations tool. Findings showed that, overall, faculty members were quite content to remain. Issues related to the financial aspects and global citizenry in addition to well-adjusted families were the leading reasons to remain, while issues related to the internal workings of the institutions pushed people away. The paper points to areas of strengths and weaknesses for the UAE in its ongoing challenge to retain quality faculty and further educate its people. (Contains 1 table and 4 figures.)

This empirical study investigated the impact of organizational training on employee commitment focusing on employees' emotional and affective responses towards their organization. Organizational training is conceptualized within a multidimensional framework consisting of motivation for training, access to training, benefits from training and support for training. The hypothesis of this study has been built on a resource-based view, social exchange theory and psychological contract theory. Field research was conducted through surveys with 298 participants of four- and five-star hotels operating in Izmir, Turkey. Confirmatory factor analyses were used to analyse the quality of the training scales and multiple regression analyses were conducted to test the hypotheses of the study. The results revealed that all dimensions of training positively affected employee commitment. Implications have been presented for both researchers and human resource practitioners as to how to utilize organizational training factors to increase employee commitment. (Contains 1 figure and 4 tables.)

Because inequality is one of the central concerns of sociologists, it has been addressed, in various ways, by virtually all of the major traditions of sociological social psychology--social structure and personality, symbolic interactionism, and group processes. For those who work in the social structure and personality tradition, inequality refers to inequalities in power, privilege, and resources among sets of actors defined by the major social categories on which society is stratified, including gender, race, and social class. In this article, the authors present a sociological and psychological perspective on the sociology of exchange theories of power and inequality. They hope that this brief discussion offers some sense of the influential theories that could result from bridging sociological and psychological approaches to inequality. (Contains 8 footnotes.)

This inquiry interrogates the experiences of local implementation actors of the Philippine Department of Education as they navigate through reform efforts within systemic corruption. Departing from dominant analytical paradigms centred on patron-client frameworks, the article introduces the typology of complex linkages where local actors play their roles as they find themselves trapped in between the powerful discourse of reform on the one hand and corruption on the other. Empirical findings of how local actors make sense of the challenges of reform amidst corruption as well as reflections towards greater analytical clarity are proposed. (Contains 2 figures, 2 tables, and 5 notes.)

This article discusses conceptual considerations for social capital research in education from a social network perspective. Specifically, the article raises three key conceptual issues that call for further elaboration of concepts of social capital: redefining potential resources as accessible but un-utilized sources of social capital; differentiating social capital itself from the process of social capital formation; and investigating both network orientation of resource-seekers and willingness of resource-givers. Based on these three conceptual issues, the article suggests conceptual considerations relevant to each issue for social capital research in education. (Contains 2 figures and 5 notes.)

This article introduces a theory describing the relationship between factors that increase social isolation and deviance. The theory is examined in the context of virtual visitation. We integrate social exchange, anomie, and strain theories to argue that as communication is impeded between two actors, the less satisfied either will be with the communication and thus, the more alienated they may become. Social alienation, in turn, may make actors more inclined to commit deviance. Findings have important implications for a broad set of applied settings including correctional facilities that have replaced in-person contact visits with virtual visits.

Since 2006 students have been paying top-up tuition fees and there has been much discussion in the sector about their impact on higher education institutions (HEIs). One of the main effects has been the frequently cited notion of the student as a fee-paying customer, seeking greater value for money not only for their fees but also for their overall student experience. This article assesses the impact of top-up tuition fees on HEIs from the perspective of a growing consumer culture in the sector and the response of HEIs to managing students' expectations.

Since the wave of school reform decentralization, schools now maintain a more dynamic and diverse relationship with their environment than they did in the past. School principals' relationships with the local educational authority (LEA) are a prominent example of this change in Israel. LEAs try to gain more pedagogic influence over schools while school principals become dependent on the LEA for financial and educational resources. This study examines school principals' attitudes toward the proactive role of the LEAs in localities that have adopted the school based management (SBM) reform, in comparison with localities that have not. The sample includes 165 school principals, of which 47.6 per cent adopted the SBM reform. Based on a discriminant analysis, school principals in localities that adopted the SBM reform, reported that LEAs increased their pedagogic influence on schools in return for providing financial resources. In contrast, in localities that have not adopted the SBM reform, schools principals' reported being empowered at the local level, with the LEA perceived as advising schools. The implications of this study for school-LEA power relations are discussed based on the social exchange theory. (Contains 4 tables and 8 notes.)

The globalization of educational services and the increasing competition coming from the private sector have forced higher education institutions to market their programs more aggressively and to look at student loyalty as the key for future success. Student loyalty to higher education institutions represents not only a more stable financial basis for such institutions but also continuing support for them after graduation. The present research examines the relational exchange process between higher education institutions and their students. Specifically, it explores the process by which trust is first developed and then translated into students' perceived value of the higher education institutions, ultimately leading to the development of student loyalty toward those institutions. The identification of the components and the outcomes of student trust are presented on the basis of Sirdeshmukh, Singh, and Sabol's trust-value-loyalty framework. (Contains 1 figure and 3 tables.)

Despite the maturation of welfare states, family solidarity continues to be strong and a growing body of research has shown that substantial financial transfers are passed from older to younger generations within the family. At the same time, family solidarity in terms of instrumental and social support is found to be mutual. This study examines eventual reciprocity in time-for-money exchanges, by combining two large-scale Swedish representative longitudinal studies. It analyzes how earlier social contacts (time) are related to financial transfers (money) and to what extent social class and gender differentials are visible. The findings indicate that parents provide economic transfers if they have more frequent social contact with any of their children, and that these time investments pay off for children who were of higher social class origins. In contrast, no support for gender-specific patterns is found. In conclusion, family solidarity seems to have different bases in different social strata. (Contains 4 tables.)

In this study, we investigate the relationship between uncertainty and trust in exogenous shifts in modes of social exchange (i.e., those that are not initiated by the individuals in a given exchange system). We explore how transitions from a high uncertainty environment (reciprocal exchange) to lower-uncertainty environments (nonbinding or binding negotiated exchange) affect the level of trust among exchange partners. Our results show that if cooperation rates are high before and after a change in mode of exchange, trust declines when the uncertainty created by the mode of exchange decreases. Furthermore, we find that trust depends on both the amount of uncertainty inherent in the form of the exchange and the level of cooperation before and after the transition. (Contains 2 figures, 3 tables and 17 footnotes.)

Reciprocity is one of the defining features of social exchange and social life, yet exchange theorists have tended to take it for granted. Drawing on work from a decade-long theoretical research program, I argue that reciprocity is structured and variable across different forms of exchange, that these variations in the structure of reciprocity have profound effects on the emergence of integrative bonds of trust and solidarity, and that these effects are explained and mediated by a set of risk- and conflict-based processes. I discuss the consequences of this work for organizational theories of embeddedness and the production of social capital through network ties. Finally, I ask how the structure of networks and the structure of reciprocity are related to one another, and explore possible implications of the structure of reciprocity for exchange theorists' assumptions about actor motivations. (Contains 3 figures and 5 footnotes.)

Teachers might be working significantly more with one another, but principals are not. Superintendents might bring principals together for district meetings or even to expose their performance results to colleagues in public, but principal collaboration is too often trumped by district control. Even worse, more and more schools and their principals are now in direct competition. Schools compete with their neighbors for the most marketable families and their children and for the best teachers and staff. Charter schools compete with all their surrounding public schools for human as well as financial resources. There is an aspect of hypocrisy in school leadership: Teachers collaborate, but principals compete. This is morally and professionally inconsistent. It prevents schools from learning from one another and has a negative effect on student achievement results. It doesn't have to be this way. Schools and their principals should collaborate together--many principals in other high-performing countries already do, and more U.S. principals must follow suit. The authors have been recently studying high-performing systems in education across the world and outside education, too. What they are learning is that one reason organizations perform far above what one might expect is that they have a collaborative edge. They use collaboration to gain extra advantage: an additional push in performance and results. They are also on the leading edge of what actually counts as collaborative practice. In this article, the authors look at four examples. (Contains 1 online resource.)

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to examine the moderating role of mentoring on the relationships between perceived organizational support, supervisor support, and job fit on turnover intentions. Design/methodology/approach: The paper explains the topics, provides background and discussion of the main concepts. The study uses regression analyses to test the moderating relationships using a total sample of 610 employees split among three separate organizations. Findings: The results suggest that mentoring becomes more effective in reducing turnover intentions as employees experience increasing levels of perceived organizational support, supervisor support, and job fit. Practical implications: The results suggest mentoring can be beneficial to both organizations and individuals. Organizations benefit by improving employee retention. Likewise, individuals benefit through strengthened relationships provided by mentoring and the associated positive outcomes. Originality/value: The paper makes a contribution to the literature by being among the first to examine mentoring as a potential moderator in the context of perceived organizational support, supervisor support, job fit, and turnover intentions. (Contains 7 tables and 9 figures.)