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This review considers interactive management of wild and zoo populations as a stratesy to support habitat preservation, help sustain key endangered species, and hasten the evolution of zoos and aquaria as proactive conservation organizations. Interactive management supports key species' subpopulations in an integrated fashion, using their study in nature as a way to understand wildlife habitats, ecological processes and conservation threats. In the face of human increase and habitat destruction, the survival of much wildlife will depend upon the utility of fragments of habitat and the survival of relatively small populations whose habitats are reduced or altered and whose numbers are capped. Under such conditions, interactive wild-captive metapopulation strategies may increase the security of key species. Captive propagation skills and urban locations pre-adapt zoos as headquarters for nature preservation. Thus, a key objective in zoo evolution is to focus upon the species and its habitat as the unit of conservation, not the species alone.

Animals in unfamiliar environments may increase exploratory movements, which may result in predation mortalities (the site familiarity hypothesis). Furthermore, increases in resource dispersion may reduce animal foraging time in small patches, and increase movements and home ranges of animals to acquire sufficient resources (the resource dispersion hypothesis). Little is known regarding effects of site familiarity on translocated birds in fragmented landscapes. We translocated 130 eastern wild turkeys (Meleagris gallapovo silvestris) in a sex ratio of one male to 4 females to 2 study sites that differed in forest fragmentation in MS, USA. Turkeys were captured from sites throughout Mississippi during springs 2009 and 2010. We monitored movements of translocated wild turkeys using radio telemetry. Movement distances and home ranges in 2010 did not differ among birds released in different years, inconsistent with the site familiarity hypothesis. However, movement distances and home ranges of translocated turkeys were greater at the more fragmented site than at the less fragmented site, supporting the resource dispersion hypothesis. Moreover, home range sizes were related positively to within-home-range variability in vegetative greenness measured by the normalized difference vegetation index. Effects of resource dispersion may override effects of site familiarity concerning translocated wild turkeys.

With emphasis on practical application and quantitative skill development, this, the third edition of Wildlife Ecology, Conservation and Management, weaves together three disparate elements in a si...

We take issue with these statements for a number of reasons. First, the authors fail to cite much of the relevant literature on species translocations in general and for amphibians in particular. Second, to those unfamiliar with current research in amphibian conservation biology, these comments might suggest that translocations are a proven management method. This is not the case, at least in most instances where translocations have been evaluated for an appropriate period of time. Finally, the authors fail to point out some of the negative aspects of species translocation as a management method. We realize that Marsh and Trenham’s paper was not concerned primarily with translocations. However, because Marsh and Trenham (2001) made specific recommendations for conservation planners and managers (many of whom are not herpetologists or may not be familiar with the pertinent literature on amphibians), we believe that it is essential to point out that not all amphibian biologists are as comfortable with translocations as these authors appear to be. We especially urge caution about advocating potentially unproven techniques without a thorough review of available options. Literature Review

Sacred groves and community forests are common ways for local rural African people to conserve natural resources. The importance of traditional approach in wildlife conservation was evaluated with line transect method utilized to assess five community forests. Comparable species richness with similar size protected forests of the same regions were reported. However, fauna composition in community forests was dominated by animals that can inhabit anthropogenic habitats like rodents, primates and small antelopes. We concluded the necessity to accompany such local initiatives mainly in regions lacking protected areas in order to give more chance to protect wildlife for present and future generation. © 2010 International Formulae Group. All rights reserved. Keywords: Community forest, wildlife, conservation, Benin.

Invasive species can threaten the conservation of biodiversity and natural resources and incur considerable economic losses. Invasive species management programs therefore aim to reverse or mitigate the impacts of invasion, but these programs can have severe negative impacts on native species and ecosystems ( 1 , 2 ), because invasive species integrate into their new ecosystems and can assume ecological functions previously carried out by native species. Indirect effects of management are likely to become more common as existing invaders form new interactions and new species continue to be introduced. On page 1028 of this issue, Lampert et al. report an optimal management model that shows how invasive species control can be combined with other ecosystem goals ( 3 ).

Genetics is an increasingly important tool in conservation biology with growing applications to assist in managing species of conservation concern (Dudgeon et al., 2012; Frankham, 2010). Mitochondr...

Duvaucel geckos (Hoplodactylus duvaucelii) are large endemic lizards that have been extirpated from the New Zealand mainland due to introduced mammalian predators. This species has subsequently become the subject of species translocation conservation management in an endeavour to increase the number of populations and as a part of island ecological restoration. Blood sampling of a captive adult male after tail autotomy led to the discovery of a Rickettsia-like organism within this gecko's erythrocytes. We conclude that this infection was acquired at the gecko's source location, a remote island closed to the general public and lacking potential invasive parasite reservoir reptiles. The likely vector is the native mite Geckobia naultina. This finding represents valuable new baseline information about the health parameters of this threatened species. Particularly in the light of the paucity of reported blood parasitism in New Zealand reptiles, the conservation management of this species through relocation and captive-breeding, and the on-going concerns regarding the introduction of novel parasites to New Zealand.

1. Environmental History 2. Variation, Natural Selection, and Evolution 3. Species: The Basic Unit of Conservation 4. Climate and Global Patterns of Distribution 5. Ecology: Individuals and Populations 6. Ecology: Communities and Ecosystems 7. Biodiversity and Extinction 8. Value, Economics, and the Tragedy of the Commons 9. Conservation Science 10. Conservation and the American Legal System 11. Invasive Species and Conservation 12. Restoration Ecology 13. Conservation in Action

Throughout the latter part of the nineteenth century and early portion of the twentieth century, there were widespread declines in wildlife species in North America due to unregulated harvest for commercial, regulatory, and private uses as well as dramatic changes in land-use practices (Moulton & Sanderson 1999). Despite recognition of the grave situation facing many of the most popular and common wildlife species, resulting in the initiation of continent-wide conservation and management programs for both game and nongame species, many of these species were critically imperiled by the time such programs were initiated (Mackie 2000). The history of wildlife management and conservation programs in the United States is intrinsically tied to this point in time, in that many of the practices and values that are in existence today stem from the recognition that wildlife resources are not inexhaustible and that active management and protection efforts must be implemented to offset the negative impacts that our species exerts on natural resources. One of the most effective and widely used tools employed by wildlife management and conservation organizations to recover and redistribute wildlife species within suitable habitats is the practice of species translocation (International Union for Conservation of Nature [IUCN] 1987). Indeed, species-translocation programs targeted at reintroducing or introducing wildlife species to areas of suitable or reclaimed habitat were used extensively in attempts to recover decimated species across North America beginning in the early portion of the twentieth century (Griffith et al. 1989; Fischer & Lindenmayer 2000). Early in the development of these translocation programs, most emphasis was placed on elucidating the ecology of species targeted for recovery; locating potential source populations from which to draw individuals for translocation; identifying areas of habitat suitable for population establishment; and developing viable capture, handling, and veterinary protocols for species targeted for translocation (IUCN 1998). As the logistical considerations of translocation have been optimized for growing numbers of species, the utilization of this tool has grown to encompass not only species recovery and reintroduction programs but also numerous additional applications, including population supplementation, population expansion, and nuisance-animal management (Griffith et al. 1989; Linnell et al. 1997).

The study of invasion ecology usually focuses on the negative impacts of alien species, while potential positive impacts are often overlooked. Understanding of biotic interactions may thus be skewed towards the negative, which could have important implications for ecological management and conservation. This article provides a comprehensive review of all types of impacts, both beneficial and detrimental, that can result from species translocation. An extensive review of literature on species introductions to terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems and involving a wide range of taxa (including microorganisms, parasites, plants, insects, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals, fish and Crustacea) showed that, despite limited research into facilitative alien-native interactions, such interactions occur surprisingly frequently. Examples were found of introduced species acting as hosts, food sources, pollinators or seed dispersers for native species, as well as providing herbivory, predatory or parasite release. However, research showed that numerous negative interactions also occurred and combination impacts (when an alien benefits some natives but disadvantages others) were common. In many cases, the traditional view that biological invasions constitute a significant threat to native biota is both accurate and appropriate. Efforts to prevent translocation and control non-native species can be vital. However, the “native good, alien bad” maxim does not convey the complexity of invasion ecology: alien species do not axiomatically pose a threat to native biota. In order to move understanding of invasion ecology forward and to develop maximally-effective management strategies, facilitative alien-native interactions need to be added into the alien species debate.

The reintroduction of plants will become an increasingly utilized strategy in plant conservation and protected area management. Reintroduction is the deliberate establishment of individuals of a species into an area and/or habitat where it has become extirpated with the specific aim of establishing a viable self-sustaining population for conservation purposes. Plant reintroduction can involve the establishment of an extirpated species into a relatively intact habitat or it can be part of the restoration of a degraded habitat. This will be performed as species become extinct for a number of reasons, such as collecting, introduced herbivores or pathogens and potentially climate change. Although plant reintroductions have the potential to play an important role in species' conservation the long term viability of many reintroductions has yet to be assessed. For the technique to reach it's full potential it requires greater integration with habitat management, restoration and increased international coordination between both theex situ andin situ agencies. In addition the value of introducing stocks of endangered species lacking viable sites for reintroduction to non native sites is discussed.

The scientific literature contains numerous descriptions of observed and potential effects of global climate change on species and ecosystems. In response to anticipated effects of climate change, conservation organizations and government agencies are developing "adaptation strategies" to facilitate the adjustment of human society and ecological systems to altered climate regimes. We reviewed the literature and climate-change adaptation plans that have been developed in United States, Canada, England, Mexico, and South Africa and found 16 general adaptation strategies that relate directly to the conservation of biological diversity. These strategies can be grouped into four broad categories: land and water protection and management; direct species management; monitoring and planning; and law and policy. Tools for implementing these strategies are similar or identical to those already in use by conservationists worldwide (land and water conservation, ecological restoration, agrienvironment schemes, species translocation, captive propagation, monitoring, natural resource planning, and legislation/regulation). Although our review indicates natural resource managers already have many tools that can be used to address climate-change effects, managers will likely need to apply these tools in novel and innovative ways to meet the unprecedented challenges posed by climate change.

This chapter discusses three trends in people–wildlife interactions. First is direct interaction with wildlife through consumptive and nonconsumptive uses that is largely recreational in nature. Second trend is the restoration of landscapes and the wildlife, which depends on them. Third is indirect impact on wildlife caused by “amenity migration” where people are increasingly purchasing and building seasonal or permanent homes on forested and other natural lands because of their amenity values. Landscape restoration is becoming a major means of land management as people increasingly value the existence of native species and an understanding of ecological principles. Landscape restoration involves the re-establishment of vegetation structure, native plant species, and natural disturbance processes such as fire that maintain plant communities; and the removal of roads, invasive species, and human activities such as cattle grazing or off-road recreation that are incompatible with the native ecosystem. Reserve selection models are based on information about the distribution of species or other conservation features among sites and targets for protecting those features. Each site is described by a list of species that it contains, and a species is covered or represented if at least one site that contains the species is selected for protection.

The expansion of non-indigenous crayfish in Europe and the damage caused by them on indigenous species and habitats is a cause for increasing concern. Yet there is a great deal of variation in the measures put in place to control introductions of crayfish in different countries in Europe and indeed within countries. Recommendations from a conference on the future of native crayfish in Europe were that there is a need for much tighter regulation on the sale of non-indigenous crayfish within Europe, including a need to prevent the introduction of more species via the aquarium trade. There is a clear need to identify the threats to remaining populations of indigenous crayfish regionally and nationally and to provide well-enforced biosecurity measures to help protect these populations. It was recognised that this can only be done with concerted efforts on education and information sharing, because without public cooperation, the on-going trend of decline in indigenous crayfish will continue.

The dependency of highly endemic island floras on few potential pollinators in depauperate island faunas suggests that pollinators and seed dispersers may be crucial in the preservation of biodiversity in isolated oceanic islands. We discuss the hypothesis that flying foxes are “strong interactors” in South Pacific islands where they setwe as the principal pollinators and seed dispersers, This suggests that the ongoing decline and ultimate extinction of flying fox species on Pacific islands may lead to a cascade of linked plant extinctions. We propose an empirical test of this hypothesis: comparisons of plant reproductive success in Guam, which has virtually lost its flying fox populations, and Samoa, where signifcant populations remain. Resumen: La dependencia de floras islenas altamente endemicas en algunos polinizadores potenciales en faunas islenas depauperizadas sugiere que 10s polinizadores y 10s dispersadores de semillas pueden ser cruciales en la conservacion de la diversidad biologica en islas oceanicas aisladas. Discutimos la hipotesis de que 10s murcielagos fncgiwros (Pteropus sp.) son fuertes interactores en las islas del Pacico sur, en donde funcionan como 10s principales agentes de polinizacion y de dispersion de semillas Esto sugiere que la continua disminucion y futura extincion de las especies de murcielagos fncgivoros podri'an llevara una extincion de plani2i.s en cadena Hemos propuesto una pwb a empinca de esta hipotesis, mediante la comparacidn del exito reproductivo de lasplantas en Guam, quepracticamente ha perdido sus poblaciones de murcielagos fncgiwros, con el de Samoa, donde persisten poblaciones impmtantes.

The populations of many species are declining worldwide, and conservation efforts struggle to keep pace with extinction rates. Conservation biologists commonly employ strategies such as translocation and reintroduction, which move individuals of endangered species from one part of their range to another. Because individuals from endangered populations are nonexpendable, identifying any potential barriers to the establishment of viable populations prior to release of individuals should be a priority. This study evaluates the potential for learned communication signals to constrain conservation strategies such as reintroduction in an endangered species, the Thick-billed Parrot (Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha). We conducted vocal surveys at three geographically distinct breeding populations in the Sierra Madre Occidental of Chihuahua, Mexico. Acoustic analyses utilizing both spectrogram cross-correlations and parameter measurements from spectrograms revealed no significant differences among the three sites in two common call types. Calls did vary among individuals within a site. The apparent lack of significant geographic variation across sampled sites suggests that differences in learned communication signals are unlikely to pose a barrier to the integration of translocated individuals from different populations into newly established populations.

We investigate the challenges of using payments for environmental services (PES) to protect endangered species given habitat fragmentation in conjunction with disease risks from neighboring livestock. Using a bioeconomic model, we show how greater connectivity of habitat creates an endogenous trade-off. More connectedness both (1) increases growth of endangered species populations, while (2) simultaneously increasing the likelihood diseases will spread more quickly. We examine payments for habitat connectedness, livestock vaccination, and reduced movement of infected livestock. We find the cost-effective policy to first use subsidies to promote habitat contiguousness. Once habitat is sufficiently connected, disease risks increase to the point where disease-related subsidies become worthwhile. Highly connected habitat requires nearly all the government budget be devoted to disease prevention and control. The conservation payments result in significantly increased wildlife abundance, increased livestock health and abundance, and increased development opportunities.

Forest management practices, particularly timber harvesting activities, affect the habitats of a large number of wildlife species found in southwestern ponderosa pine forests of the United States. Timber harvesting activities and other vegetative treatments often change the relative abundances of food and cover. Wildlife habitats for some wildlife species are benefited, while the habitats for other wildlife species are detrimentally impacted. The guidelines presented in this paper should be helpful to foresters, wildlife managers, and other interested in maintaining or increasing wildlife habitat qualities in the forest ecosystems investigated. While the wildlife species considered are indigenous to the southwestern ponderosa pine forests, many of the wildlife management principles implied in the guidelines are likely to have applications in other ecosystems throughout the world.

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The popular strategy of connecting patches of otherwise isolated habitat is at the center of a major conservation debate. Many ecologists and conservation activists argue that such corridors are critical to maintaining biodiversity and could save many endangered species. But others counter that there is little evidence that animals need these corridors and that buying corridor land precludes spending money on more scientifically certain conservation efforts.

The numerous reports on declining amphibian populations throughout the world led to the creation in December 1990 of the Declining Amphibian Populations Task Force (DAPTF), activated by the Species Survival Commission of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, one of whose main goals is "the identification of target populations, species, and regions which merit immediate attention." We want to highlight one such target region, the Iberian peninsula, and a particular species, Rana perezi. Despite major efforts on behalf of the Spanish conservation authorities to preserve local and endemic species and the fact that the Iberian peninsula is considered one of the redoubts of biodiversity in Europe, locally adapted populations are menaced by the potentially fatal effects of events such as species translocations (Dodd & Seigel 1991; Reinert 1991). If a unique reproductive mode such as hybridogenesis is added to the problem of species translocation, the difficulties of preserving local species increase. Hybridogenesis is widely prevalent in European water frogs, having originated in the Rana esculenta complex, which includes seven species, and a series of hybridogenetic lineages stemming from interspecific hybridizations. Several systems, consisting of a host species (or parental species) and a hybridogenetic lineage in each, are found throughout Europe (Graf & Polls-Pelaz 1989). During gametogenesis in such systems the hybrid premeiotically excludes one of its parental genomes by producing only gametes containing the other parental genome. This remaining genome is transmitted clonally because premeiotic exclusion implies prevention of recombination through crossing over. In most cases the genome of one of the species, generally R ridibunda, is clonally transmitted, whereas the other parental genome is excluded. In general, the lost genome corresponds to that of the species living in sympatry with the hybrid. Because of its special way of reproduction, hybridogenesis may present new problems for the conservation of natural populations. The voluntary or fortuitous introduction of samples from other species of Rana capable of provoking hybridogenesis can cause alterations that can modify the genetic structure of local parental populations. The hybrids may act as transmitters of allelic variants that could profoundly modify the gene frequencies in the original populations. A highly successful hybrid is expected because survival of hybrids has been demonstrated to be superior to that of parentals in experimental nonhybridogenetic hybrid populations of other animal species (Howard et al. 1993). Hybrid individuals also tend to have other advantages, such as higher growth rates, lower metabolic demand, and resistance to diseases. In addition, their developmental periods are often faster and more stable (Mitton & Grant 1984; Mitton et al 1986; Allendorf & Leary 1986; Ledig 1986). Nevertheless, due to sterility, these hybrids would present a reduced fitness compared with hybridogenetic populations. One of these hybridogenetic systems corresponds to the hybridization between R perezi and R ridibunda, found in southern France and northeastern Spain. The distribution of hybrid populations in strictly delimited, and, in recent studies on the genetic variability of the parental syntopical species R perezi (262 individuals, 29 populations), we found significant differences in the rate of polymorphism between those populations where hybridization occurs and the remaining ones in central and western Spain where hybridogenetic hybrids were not originally found (Mann-Whitney U-test, U = 0.014, p < 0.02). During the course of our study, an introduction of the bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) and of water frogs from northern Italy occurred in the Sierra de Gata (western Spain) from a nearby, unsuccessful frog farm (GarciaPaper submitted February 28, 1994; revised manuscript accepted June 2, 1994.

An important question that arises is what to do when an invasive exotic is a species threatened with extinction within its original distribution and there are few cases in the world illustrating this situation. These species potentially compete with local species for resources and may displace native species or, may in some cases, weaken the gene pool of the native species. The simple eradication of the invasive population could reduce the species′ gene pool, and the eradication process might affect local sympatric species. We recommend a program including identification of areas within the natural range where the species is extinct, removal of the causes of extinction in those areas, then gradual removal of the species from its introduced range and release in the relocation areas following proper guidelines for reintroduction of species.

Despite the volume of the academic conservation biology literature, there is little evidence as to what effect this work is having on endangered species recovery efforts. Using data collected from a national review of 136 endangered and threatened species recovery plans, we evaluated whether recovery plans were changing in response to publication trends in four areas of the academic conservation biology literature: metapopulation dynamics, population viability analysis, conservation corridors, and conservation genetics. We detected several changes in recovery plans in apparent response to publication trends in these areas (e.g., the number of tasks designed to promote the recovery of an endangered species shifted, although these tasks were rarely assigned a high priority). Our results indicate that, although the content of endangered species recovery plans changes in response to the literature, results are not uniform across all topics. We suggest that academic conservation biologists need to address the relative importance of each topic for conservation practice in different settings. [See Erratum]

The concept of saving large numbers of endangered species is commonly used to “sell” priority landscapes or regions for conservation NGOs (e.g., Conservation International’s Biodiversity Hotspots, Myers et al. 2000; Alliance for Zero Extinction sites, Ricketts et al. 2005). Yet, the example that we present here illustrates a method for proving clear and fully costed opportunities to raise funds for priority actions that will result in the recovery of threatened species specifically.

Among conservation biologists there is little argument that habitat loss and fragmentation are the greatest threats to future biodiversity. We know from elementary population ecology that, if isolated, even large populations will ultimately be driven to extinction by demographic stochasticity, and that this will occur more rapidly for small populations in small fragments. Theory and observations also show that post-fragmentation species losses can occur slowly, sometimes requiring more than a century for the total ‘extinction debt’ to be realized (Tilman et al., 1994; Vellend et al., 2006). For long-lived animals, such as ambystomatid salamanders, isolated populations doomed to demographic irrelevance and ultimate extinction may persist for decades or longer (Greenwald, 2010). I think of the animals occupying these isolated habitats with little chance of long-term survival as ‘zombie’ populations. As imperfect as our population models are, they represent our best chance for understanding the threats to populations at risk and possibly recovering them from zombie status. Population and metapopulation viability analyses are valuable tools for illustrating, in an understandable way, the risk of extinctions, and for exploring probabilities of local and regional persistence under different scenarios (Morris & Doak, 2002; Marsh, 2008). I see the greatest value of these modeling exercises in their ability to help land managers to evaluate alternative management actions and appreciate their relative costs and likely benefits. As Greenwald (2010) shows, actions to promote connectivity can enhance population viability. Restoring connectivity to fragmented landscapes is often extremely costly (think wildlife overpasses), and avoiding fragmentation completely may be even more controversial (think not building the freeway at all). So, models evaluating the importance of habitat connectivity must be convincing to those people on the hook for making big decisions. The greatest barrier to constructing convincing models is obtaining parameter estimates in which we have confidence, which traditionally means laborand time-intensive mark–recapture studies. Fortunately, the recent work of Greenwald (2010) in addition to others indicates that molecular tools may be surprisingly robust to the challenge of more rapidly and painlessly estimating at least some demographic parameters needed for landscape-scale population modeling. As someone who has invested years in the field marking and recapturing animals, I am optimistic at the promise these methods potentially hold (Trenham et al., 2000; Trenham, Koenig & Shaffer, 2001). The ability of genetic assignment tests to accurately reveal residents and immigrants in samples could change the study of dispersal. My caution in getting too excited about the current abilities of these methods stems from my understanding of several issues that can substantially bias the results. The author addressed the issue of unsampled ‘ghost’ populations. This is a real issue for animals like ambystomatid salamanders where large fractions of the adult population commonly skip breeding and are completely undetectable, thus samples from a single year are unlikely to accurately represent the standing genetic variation present in a population. Despite these issues, one recent study is very encouraging. A detailed study with marked skinks, occupying and dispersing among patches of rocky habitat, showed that assignment tests usually recognized immigrants with high confidence. And further, using skink tissues collected over 3months, the assignment tests yielded estimates of interpatch dispersal rates essentially identical to those estimated over 7 years of mark–recapture efforts (Berry, Tocher & Sarre et al., 2004). At this point, I think there is still need for more cross validation of these methods with mark–recapture studies in other taxa and landscapes, especially if we are to use these data predicting metapopulation viability. If these methods produce robust predictions they have the potential to greatly assist conservation planners. For example, the California tiger salamander Ambystoma californiense is the species about which I know the most, and one whose management would benefit greatly from the types of genetic data and the coupled modeling approach explored

In this chapter we shall first look at some general ethical problems which underlie conservation law. These are the question of its purposes and of how far we are entitled to manipulate nature. We shall then discuss the attitude of the law to these matters in connection with the topics of animal welfare and nature conservation.

Habitats in and around Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 1 (NPR-1) support populations of various vertebrates and plants, including a number of threatened and endangered species. Adequate conservation of habitats and species, particularly protected species, can be facilitated through development and implementation of management plans. This document provides a comprehensive plan for the conservation of protected species on NPR-1, through compliance with terms and conditions expressed in Biological Opinions rendered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for NPR-1 activities. Six conservation strategies by which threatened and endangered species have been, and will be, protected are described: population monitoring, mitigation strategies, special studies, operating guidelines and policies, information transfer and outreach, and the endangered species conservation area. Population monitoring programs are essential for determining population densities and for assessing the effects of oil field developments and environmental factors on protected species. Mitigation strategies (preactivity surveys and habitat reclamation) are employed to minimize the loss of important habitats components and to restore previously disturbed lands to conditions more suitable for species` use. A number of special studies were undertaken between 1985 and 1995 to investigate the effectiveness of a variety of population and habitat management techniques with the goal of increasing the density of protected species. Operating guidelines and policies governing routine oil field activities continue to be implemented to minimize the potential for the incidental take of protected species and minimize damage to wildlife habitats. Information transfer and outreach activities are important means by which technical and nontechnical information concerning protected species conservation on NPR-1 is shared with both the scientific and non-scientific public.

There is currently worldwide concern regarding the invasion of natural areas by non-indigenous species. Several recently published books have addressed this issue in terms of ecological interactions (Mooney and Drake 1986), resource management problems (McKnight 1993), and regulatory impact (OTA 1993). Furthermore, specific regions of the United States have been analyzed relative to invasion pressure and the threat that non-indigenous species pose to biological communities [e.g., the Pacific Northwest (Mack 1986), California (Rejmdnek and Randall 1994), and Hawaii (Stone et al. 1992)]. Relatively little effort has been devoted to understanding biological invasions of natural areas in the midwestern United States.

Environmental enrichment is an increasingly popular method for improving the well-being of animals in zoos. Research has shown that simple and eminently practical changes to the way zoo animals are kept can have highly beneficial effects on their behaviour and physiology. Carlstead, Seidensticker and Baldwin (1991), for example, found that providing bears with hidden food and manipulable objects greatly increased activity and exploration at the expense of repetitive stereotyped behaviours. Similarly Kastelein and Wiepkema (1989) observed that a walrus provided with realistic foraging opportunities, namely searching for food items amongst concrete blocks, greatly reduced the amount of stereotyped swimming. Providing a kinkajou with food that required exploratory and manipulatory behaviour, by hanging whole fruit from branches as an alternative to chopped fruit in a bowl, resulted in greatly increased rates of locomotion, exploration and foraging behaviour which corresponded with reductions in the levels of stereo-typed behaviour (Shepherdson, Brownback and Tinkler, 1990). These and other successful techniques share an important characteristic: they restore to the captive animal the contingency between the performance of behaviour (foraging for example) and the appropriate consequences (such as finding food).

The stated purpose of the Endangered Species Act is to provide a means whereby the ecosystem upon which endangered species and threatened species depend may be conserved. Conservation of the Columbia River ecosystem and the diversity of gene pools, life histories, species, and communities that comprise it, should become a major objective of species recovery and fish and wildlife management programs in the Columbia River Basin. Biodiversity is important to both species and ecosystem health, and is a prerequisite to long-term sustainability of biological resources. In this paper, I provide an overview of various approaches to defining, measuring, monitoring, and protecting biodiversity. A holistic approach is stressed that simultaneously considers diverse species and resource management needs. Emphasis is on threatened and endangered species of salmon and their associated habitat.

Context. There are few cases where a species has been removed from a list of threatened species as a result of conservation efforts. One such example is the woylie (also known as the brush-tailed bettong), Bettongia penicillata ogilbyi, which was removed from state (Western Australian), national (Australian) and international lists in 1996, following the successful implementation of the species’ recovery plan. Since downgrading of its conservation status, the woylie has been considered conservation dependent. Conservation efforts continued in the form of toxic baiting to control the species’ principal predator, monitoring to identify trends in distribution and abundance, and translocation to help restore ecosystem function and further secure the conservation status of the species. Recent observations of a decline in abundance of the species have prompted a review of its conservation status. Aims. To assess the conservation status of the woylie in 2006 against IUCN criteria and to investigate the value of continued conservation efforts following the delisting of the species. Methods. Monitoring data were collated and parameters required to assess the conservation status of the woylie against IUCN criteria were investigated. The various processes associated with conserving the species, such as translocation and monitoring, were also assessed. Key results. The species underwent a rapid decline between 2001 and 2006, reducing the population by ~75% to an estimated 10 000 individuals. The decline has not been consistent across occurrences and of particular concern are the declines observed at Perup/Lake Muir, Dryandra and Batalling, which were previously considered amongst the largest and most stable occurrences. In 2006, the species qualified for listing as Endangered using IUCN criteria. The resources allocated to translocation and monitoring the delisted woylie have ultimately resulted in managers being in a much better position to understand and act when an unforeseeable population decline occurred. Conclusion. Conservation efforts and population monitoring of delisted species must continue at a level where changes in distribution or abundance, which are significant enough to support relisting, can be detected. Implications. Threatened species lists should not be the primary consideration in allocation of resources to conservation efforts.

This chapter explores linkages between studies of the biology of rare plants and strategies for their conservation. Because of their low numbers and consequent vulnerability to destruction, rare plant species provide an important test of the current state of the art in conservation, particularly important in an era of biological management. The primary threats and patterns of endangerment to the flora of the United States are summarized, with special reference to causes of decline beyond outright destruction of habitat. The chapter addresses the major biological considerations in rare plant conservation and management, including endemism and narrow distribution, and demographic or genetic effects in small populations. Finally, integrated strategies for rare plant conservation are discussed, emphasizing the interactions among land conservation, biological management, offsite research and propagation, and introduction and habitat restoration. A bibliography on rare plant biology and conservation is also provided.

Nest surveys are widely employed to assess the population density of orang-utans (Pongo spp.) and evaluate alternative management scenarios relevant to the protection of these threatened great apes. However, this method is less accurate and prone to much greater error than is generally acknowledged. Here we highlight the limitations of orang-utan nest surveys, discuss the risks of ignoring these limitations, and note conditions under which standard nest survey methods are appropriate.