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• Four vaccines were tested for efficacy against clade 2.3.4.4b in chickens. • All four vaccines protected against morbidity and mortality. • All four vaccines reduced virus shed compared to sham vaccinates. • Antibodies to the challenge virus could be detected at 7 days post challenge. • These licensed vaccines are efficacious for current epornitic H5 avian influenza. Highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAIV) has caused widespread outbreaks in poultry in the Americas. Because of the duration and extent of these outbreaks, vaccine use may be an additional tool to limit virus spread. Three vaccines were evaluated for efficacy in chickens against a current North American clade 2.3.4.4b H5 HPAIV isolate, A/turkey/Indiana/3703-003/2022 H5N1. The vaccines included: 1) a commercial inactivated reverse genetics (rg) generated H5N1 product with a clade 2.3.4.4c H5 hemagglutinin (HA) (rgH5N1); 2) a commercial alphavirus RNA particle (RP) vaccine with the TK/IN/22 HA; and 3) an in-house inactivated rg produced vaccine with the TK/IN/22 HA and a North American lineage N9 neuraminidase (NA) (SEP-22-N9). Both inactivated vaccines were produced with HA genes that were modified to be low pathogenic and with the remaining genes from the PR8 influenza strain. All vaccines provided 100% protection against mortality and morbidity and all vaccines reduced virus shed by the oropharyngeal and cloacal routes significantly compared to sham vaccinates. However, differences were observed among the vaccines in quantities of virus shed at two- and four-days post challenge (DPC). To determine if infected birds could be identified after vaccination to aid surveillance programs, serum was collected from the RP and SEP-22-N9 vaccine groups at 7, 10, and 14 DPC to detect antibody to the NA and nucleoprotein (NP) of the challenge virus by enzyme linked lectin assay (ELLA) and ELISA. As early as 7DPC ELLA detected antibody in sera from 100% of the chickens in the RP vaccinated group and 70% of the chickens in the SEP-22-N9 vaccinated group. Antibody to the NP was detected by commercial ELISA in more than 50% of the birds in the RP vaccinated group at each time point. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research on the human rights movement emphasizes direct changes in nation-states, focusing on the efficacy of treaties and the role of advocacy in mitigating immediate violations. However, more than 140 universities in 59 countries established academic chairs, research centers, and programs for human rights from 1968-2000, a development that highlights the diffuse penetration of the social movement into core domains of society. We investigate this process with event history models, finding that countries embedded in the human rights regime and countries with dense civil society linkages to the human rights movement are particularly likely to develop a university human rights program. We also find that the structuration of the global human rights regime has an independent positive influence on the rate of country adoption, but national human rights violations, social unrest, and indicators of modernization or development are less salient. (Contains 13 notes, 1 figure, and 4 tables.)

The UNESCO Associated Schools Project emphasizes world community, human rights, and international understanding. This article investigates the emergence and global diffusion of the project from 1953 to 2001, estimating the influence of national, regional, and world characteristics on the likelihood of a country adopting a UNESCO school. It also addresses the effects of national linkages to the international human rights regime. The results reveal that adoption rates are positively influenced by stronger national links to the human rights regime throughout the period and that various measures of the density of global society influence adoption, particularly "after" the institutionalization of human rights. Finally, the results demonstrate that democratic countries and nations with more expanded educational systems tend to adopt a UNESCO school "before" the period of human rights institutionalization. The implications of these findings are discussed in relation to the literature on the global environment and the diffusion of innovations in education. (Contains 1 figure, 4 tables and 11 notes.)

To what degree are nations "rewriting" citizenship by expanding discussions of human rights, diversity and cultural pluralism in modern civic education, and what explains variation between countries? This study addresses these issues by analysing the intended content of civic education in Costa Rica and Argentina. Over time, civic education in both countries has become more focused on rights and the empowerment of individuals. In addition, both countries embrace aspects of global citizenship through an affirmation of human rights. Citizenship thus expands outward and upward, incorporating more groups and people into the national polity while also broadening the concept of citizenship beyond the nation-state. Nevertheless, Costa Rica and Argentina vary in the intensity of the adoption of global citizenship, most likely a result of divergent historical experiences with state sponsored violence. (Contains 2 tables and 7 notes.)

Human rights have become increasingly salient for nations, organizations, and individuals since the end of World War II (Lauren 2003). Discussions of human rights now are common in formal education, including in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). A variety of indicators suggest that countries in Latin America have integrated human rights into the curriculum more rapidly than countries in the Caribbean. In this study, the author addresses why human rights education emerges in the LAC region and why human rights education expands more rapidly in Latin America than in the Caribbean. The author briefly discusses the development of human rights education in LAC. He then compares three theoretical perspectives on this development: (1) world-polity theory; (2) policy borrowing; and (3) historical institutionalism. To test alternative and complementary explanations for the emergence and development of human rights education in LAC, he next analyzes quantitative panel data on national government adoption of human rights education from 1980 to 1990 and from 1990 to 2005. Using the three conceptual frames, his findings suggest two explanations for the expansion and variation of human rights education. First, human rights education emerges as a result of global changes in education, linkages to the human rights movement, and domestic human rights advocacy. Second, the curricular reform develops faster in Latin America than in the Caribbean due to regional historical legacies and sustained efforts to preserve historical memory of state terror. (Contains 6 tables.)

This article builds on previous comparative education research by analyzing the current discourse surrounding this emerging education model--human rights education. The first section provides a brief history of human rights education in formal education. The second section reviews research on international reforms, emphasizing analyses of processes in global diffusion and variation at national or local levels. Closely related, the third section discusses linkages and relational and associational processes that spread ideas and construct new models such as human rights education. The fourth section focuses on the current state of human rights education, exploring the creation of an epistemic community of human rights educators and the theorization of human rights education within the community. Specifically, the section analyzes discussions among members of the epistemic community about why to teach human rights education, how to teach human rights education, and how to assess the reform. (Contains 1 figure, 3 tables and 16 footnotes.)