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A hybrid technique is proposed for electric vehicles (EVs) or hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) with a battery thermal management system (BTMS). The proposed hybrid method is the combined execution of the Pelican Optimization Algorithm (POA) and Firebug Swarm Optimization (FSO). The hunting behavior of pelicans is improved with the help of the FSO technique; hence, it is named the POA-FSO strategy. Here, a battery of 36 lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells is considered. The proposed method of analyzing battery thermal performance analyzed factors like heat flux from the battery cell to the passage spacing size, cooling air and the cooling air's mass flow rate (MFR). The BTMS performance is studied under maximum battery unit temperature, pressure drop and temperature uniformity. The proposed method enhances the coolant passage spacing and decreases the temperature difference in the battery cells. The proposed approach is executed on the MATLAB platform, and its performance is compared with existing approaches. From the results, it is concluded that the MFR maximizes, and a nonuniform distribution of the MFR of the passage occurs. By using the proposed approach, the maximal temperature change of cooling air among the passages is 2.0 K, the maximal temperature change between the battery cells is 7.5 K and a pressure drop of 228.03 Pa is obtained. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the plateau environment is characterized by low air pressure and low density, it greatly limits the heat dissipation performance of high-power electromechanical equipment. Especially for new military combat equipment in China, such as hybrid armored vehicles, effective heat dissipation of power batteries is essential for their operational viability in intricate plateau terrains. This paper focuses on the thermal management and heat dissipation attributes of a lithium-ion battery assembly within a military hybrid armored vehicle stationed at an altitude of 4000 m. Firstly, a comprehensive three-dimensional thermal model was constructed for the battery unit to establish an air-cooled dissipation framework. Secondly, the effect of structural parameters of the battery pack, specifically inlet and outlet sizes, quantity, and layouts, on heat dissipation was investigated. The results indicate that larger air inlet and outlet sizes contribute to better battery pack heat dissipation. And using two air inlets and outlets not only leads to lower maximum temperatures but also enhances overall temperature uniformity and cell module temperature consistency. Additionally, the forced convective heat transfer was analyzed by investigating the influence of inlet velocity. It was observed that forced air-cooled is suitable for battery packs with discharge rates below 1.6 C. Strategic optimization of battery pack structural parameters and the adoption of the carrier air-cooled approach can notably enhance battery cooling efficacy in plateau environments. These insights serve as a blueprint for refining battery pack designs to bolster heat dissipation performance, ultimately bolstering stability and reliability in plateau environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Battery voltage plateau characteristics are crucial for designing and controlling battery management systems. Utilising the plateau period attributes to their fullest extent can enable optimal battery control, enhance battery performance, and prolong battery lifespan. This research aimed to investigate the performance of cylindrical ternary lithium batteries at various discharge rates, focusing on the variations in terminal voltage, capacity, and temperature. The battery performance at different discharge rates was meticulously examined through cyclic charge/discharge experiments. The convexity of the voltage curve was used to analyse the voltage plateau characteristics at different rates. The findings revealed significant differences in battery performance under varying discharge rates. Higher discharge rates resulted in shorter discharge times and lower battery voltages at corresponding residual capacities. The discharge time, capacity, and voltage during the plateau phase decreased as the discharge rate increased. At discharge rates of 1 C, 3 C, 5 C, 7 C, 9 C, and 11 C, the proportion of discharged battery capacity ranged from 86.45% to 78.42%. At the same time, voltage and temperature variations during the plateau period decreased significantly compared to those before and after discharge. This research provides a crucial reference point for advancing battery design and thermal management systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lithium-ion battery pack performance, safety, and lifespan are significantly influenced by temperature, yet little research has focused on the specific effects of temperature during the drying phase in paint booths. This study aims to analyse how drying temperatures affect battery modules compared to operational conditions (e.g., driving, charging) and to analyse the influence of the battery state of charge on the temperature reached by the traction battery during the drying phase. Various temperature measurement methods, including diagnostic equipment and thermocouples, were employed to conduct tests. Results indicate that the battery pack temperature during the drying phase remains below 60 °C. Comparisons with temperature measurements in other scenarios (e.g., charging, high-temperature parking) show significantly higher temperatures, highlighting the relatively low impact of paint booth drying temperatures on battery thermal management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Yttria‐stabilized zirconia (YSZ) powder is widely used in battery and thermal barrier coatings. This article reports a method of preparing YSZ powder using plasma in air atmosphere at room temperature in 0.34 M ZrO(NO3)2–0.06 M Y(NO3)3 solution. Diverse characterization techniques are utilized to examine the morphology and composition of synthesized powders. Electrolytic green powder consists mainly of hydroxide, which is annealed to form a well‐crystallized YSZ oxide powder with coexisting tetragonal and cubic phases. The green powder is composed of micrometer‐sized particles, with a particle size distribution (D50) of 51.90 μm. The molar ratio of Y to Zr is 2.84:1. The YSZ powder is finer (D50 is 5.80 μm) with irregular nanoparticles aggregating together, and the molar ratio of Y to Zr is 2.57:1. Hydroxyl radicals (OH·) and hydrogen radicals (H·) are found in the flame during discharge electrolysis, and the main formation reactions of the powders by this process are H2O + 2e− → H2↑ + 2OH−; Zr4+ + 4OH− + nH2O → Zr(OH)4·nH2O↓; and Y3+ + 3OH− + nH2O → Y(OH)3·nH2O↓. The conductivity of electrolyte sintered by YSZ powders increases with rising temperature, reaching 0.038S cm−1 at 1000 °C. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

All-solid-state lithium batteries (ASSLBs) are increasingly regarded as one of the next-generation energy storage technologies, offering good abuse tolerance, a wide operating temperature range, and a simplified battery system suitable for automotive applications. In the pursuit of cost-effectiveness and battery thermal stability, LiFePO4 (LFP) has recently attracted widespread attention in both industry and academia as a cathode active material for ASSLBs. However, the poor interfacial compatibility between the electrode and electrolytes has significantly hindered the development of LFP-based ASSLBs. In this study, an advanced Li2ZrCl6 (LZC) – Li9.54Si1.74P1.4S11.7Cl0.3 (LiSiPSCl) bilayer electrolyte is rationally designed for LFP-based ASSLBs, aiming to simultaneously achieve favorable interfacial compatibilities with both the LFP cathode layer and alloy anode layer. As a result, the developed LFP-LZC/LZC/LiSiPSCl/Li–In ASSLB can not only deliver a high initial discharge capacity of 144.9 mA h g−1, but also manifest a high-capacity retention up to 89% after 400 cycles at the current density of 1C. The strategy used in this work sheds light on a promising method to engineer stabilized interfaces for LFP-based ASSLBs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the paper, a model of a heated building using a PEM (proton exchange membrane) fuel cell is presented. This work introduces a novel and more comprehensive depiction of the thermal processes occurring within a fuel cell under transient conditions. The developed PEM fuel cell model was synergistically incorporated with a thermodynamic model of a building. The resulting mathematical framework provides insights into the building's performance concerning fluctuating ambient temperatures and the heating system powered by the PEM cell. The developed mathematical model delineates the interplay between the building's thermodynamics and the fuel cell in the context of the devised heating control system featuring an indirect heat distribution mechanism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cargo e-bikes are expected to convey heavy loads in all aspects of daily life. Also, these vehicles are expected to maintain a consistent speed to meet mobility needs while optimizing the battery design. In this paper, a control model is developed to improve rotational speed motor control via the battery model predictive controller (MPC) thermal model designed based on experimental field test data. Experimental field tests are performed to provide the relation between battery surface and ambient temperatures in different road types and weight conditions. For this purpose, in different slope ranges, the pedal load/activity and voltage-current data are logged to use as experimental input in an MPCintegrated 1D model. To obtain the desired thermal conditions in the Li-Ion battery, the MPC battery thermal model is defined based on the thermal lumped model approach. In the next step, the generated MPC model is used as a function for longitudinal speed control in the MPC motor torque control model subjected to uncertain road disturbances. Then, the outputs of the control models are compared using the MPC parameters oc weight factors and prediction horizon. Thus, the speed control model for cargo e-bikes is presented with increased robustness using the MPC battery thermal lumped model approach considering energy and Li-Ion battery life-cycle efficiency methods regardless of driving performance needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Under appropriate parameters, medical ultrasound can induce immunogenic cell death via thermal and/or nonthermal effects, activating a certain degree of antitumor immunity in cancer mouse models. Different types of sono-responsive biomaterials have been coupled to immunomodulators, which can be released into the tumor microenvironment under ultrasonic irradiation. Systems that integrate sonosensitizers and immunologically active agents generating reactive oxygen species can result in a combined therapeutic effect upon ultrasound exposure in certain cancer mouse models. Following ultrasound treatment, certain engineered bacterial or cellular approaches can trigger antitumor immune responses in certain cancer mouse models. Current cancer immunotherapy suffers from limited response rates, variable efficacies, and immune-related adverse events. One alternative strategy is to use emerging sono-immunotherapeutic approaches via biomedical ultrasound, which can serve as a switch to induce direct therapy as well as further antitumor immune responses. Understanding the process of sono-immunomodulation and the potencies of several novel strategies based on sono-immunomodulatory agents can accelerate the development and transformation of immunotherapy for certain cancers and, ideally, for other diseases. Owing to its remarkable ease of use, ultrasound has recently been explored for stimulating or amplifying immune responses during cancer therapy, termed 'sono-immunotherapy'. Ultrasound can cause immunogenic cell death in cancer cells via thermal and nonthermal effects to regulate the tumor microenvironment, thereby priming anticancer immunity; by integrating well-designed biomaterials, novel sono-immunotherapy approaches with augmented efficacy can also be developed. Here, we review the advances in sono-immunotherapy for cancer treatment and summarize existing limitations along with potential trends. We offer emerging insights into this realm, which might prompt breakthroughs and expand its potential applications to other diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The frequent occurrence of thermal runaway accidents of lithium-ion batteries has seriously hindered their large-scale application in new energy vehicles and energy storage power plants. Careful analysis of lithium-ion batteries can essentially determine the cause of the accident and then reduce the likelihood of lithium-ion battery thermal runaway accidents. However, there are few current studies on lithium-ion battery accident investigation, and the destruction of traces due to the violent reaction of the battery's thermal runaway increases the difficulty of battery accident investigation. The thermal runaway accident scenarios of lithium-ion batteries with different states of charge will show different regular characteristics of the thermal runaway properties and trace characteristics of lithium-ion batteries. Establishing the relationship between the thermal runaway characteristics of lithium-ion batteries, the trace law and the state of charge can effectively improve the technology of in-depth battery accident investigation. This study investigated the thermal runaway and trace characteristics of lithium-ion batteries triggered by nail penetrating at different states of charge using 8 Ah soft pack lithium iron phosphate batteries as the research object. The results show that lithium iron phosphate Li-ion batteries do not trigger thermal runaway under nail penetrating conditions when the state of charge is less than 20%, with no obvious phenomena and slight changes in the voltage and surface temperature of the battery, with the temperature only rising by 5 ℃. Both the 60% and 100% SOC LiFePO4 batteries underwent thermal runaway within a few seconds after the needle puncture and produced a large amount of white smoke, with the voltage rapidly dropping to 0 V and the maximum temperature on the front of the battery reached 93 ℃ and 125 ℃, respectively, and the rate of temperature rise was significantly higher in the latter than in the former, with both reaching temperatures above 200 ℃ at the penetration point and higher than at the entry point, while the 100% SOC battery showed electrical sparks and more smoke after the puncture due to a more violent internal short-circuit. The state of charge affects the cracks and particle spacing on the surface of the anode electrode and the smoothness of the surface. The results of this paper provide ideas for qualitative and quantitative analysis of lithium-ion battery accident causation, which can provide guidance for effectively improving the ability to investigate lithium-ion battery accidents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the growing demand for new energy batteries and the increasing need for battery thermal management, the heat dissipation performance requirements of water coolers are also becoming more stringent. This research paper concentrates on the study of high energy efficiency of the water chiller system. Based on two aspects of structure and algorithm, refined calculation and selection are carried out.It introduces a linkage control logic based on three adjustable main components (water pump, fan, and compressor). The findings demonstrate that the water chiller with a refined design offers a safer and more stable water cooling system with reduced power consumption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: In this study, it is aimed to develop cooling models for the efficient use of batteries and to show how important the busbar material is. Batteries, which are indispensable energy sources of electric aircraft, automobiles and portable devices, may eventually run out. Battery life decreases over time; the most critical factor is temperature. The temperature of batteries should not exceed the safe operating temperature of 313 K and it is recommended to have a balanced temperature distribution through the battery. Design/methodology/approach: In this study, the effect on the battery temperature caused by using different busbar materials to connect batteries together was investigated. Gold, copper and titanium were chosen as the different busbar material. The Air velocities used were 1 m/s and 2 m/s, the air inlet temperatures were 295 and 300 K and the discharge rates 1.0–1.5–2.0–2.5C were chosen for cooling the batteries. Findings: The best busbar material was identified as copper. Because these studies are long-term studies, it is also suggested to estimate the data obtained with ANN (Artificial Neural Networks). The purpose of ANN is to enable the solution of many different complex problems by creating systems that do not require human intelligence. Four different program (BR-LM-CGP-SCG) were used to estimate the data obtained with ANN. It was found that the most reliable algorithm was BR18. The R2 size of the BR18 algorithm in the test phase was 0.999552, the CoV size was 0.007697 and the RMSE size was 0.005076. Originality/value: When the literature is considered, the cooling part of the battery modules has been taken into consideration during the temperature observation of the battery modules, but busbar materials connecting the batteries have always been ignored. In this study, various busbar materials were used and it was noticed how the temperature of the battery model changed under the same working conditions. These studies are very time-consuming and costly studies. Therefore, an estimation of the data obtained with artificial neural networks (ANN) was also evaluated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The power battery is a key component of electric vehicles and its performance is greatly affected by temperature. Battery thermal management systems based on phase change materials can effectively control the battery temperature and at the same time have the advantages of simple structures, energy savings, and good temperature uniformity, and has broad development prospects. In this paper, expanded graphite–paraffin composite phase change materials were prepared, phase change material cooling experiments were carried out, and a phase change material cooling simulation model was also established using the Fluent software to study the influence of phase change material thermophysical parameters on thermal management performance. The results show that the phase change material thermal management method has excellent cooling performance. The best thermal management performance is achieved at the 3C discharge rate, with a phase change material filling thickness of 4 mm, a melting point of 40 °C above ambient temperature, and a thermal conductivity of 3 W/(m·K). When the phase change latent heat was increased from 150 J/g to 250 J/g, the liquid phase ratio decreased from 0.84 to 0.51, and the subsequent cooling performance was greatly improved, so the phase change latent heat should be increased as much as possible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electric vehicles can reduce the dependence on limited resources such as oil, which is conducive to the development of clean energy. An accurate battery state of health (SOH) is beneficial for the safety of electric vehicles. A multi-feature and Convolutional Neural Network–Bidirectional Long Short-Term Memory–Multi-head Attention (CNN-BiLSTM-MHA)-based lithium-ion battery SOH estimation method is proposed in this paper. First, the voltage, energy, and temperature data of the battery in the constant current charging phase are measured. Then, based on the voltage and energy data, the incremental energy analysis (IEA) is performed to calculate the incremental energy (IE) curve. The IE curve features including IE, peak value, average value, and standard deviation are extracted and combined with the thermal features of the battery to form a complete multi-feature sequence. A CNN-BiLSTM-MHA model is set up to map the features to the battery SOH. Experiments were conducted using batteries with different charging currents, and the results showed that even if the nonlinearity of battery SOH degradation is significant, this method can still achieve a fast and accurate estimation of the battery SOH. The Mean Absolute Error (MAE) is 0.1982%, 0.1873%, 0.1652%, and 0.1968%, and the Root-Mean-Square Error (RMSE) is 0.2921%, 0.2997%, 0.2130%, and 0.2625%, respectively. The average Coefficient of Determination (R2) is above 96%. Compared to the BiLSTM model, the training time is reduced by an average of about 36%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Manufacturing thin‐film components is crucial for achieving high‐efficiency and high‐power thermal batteries (TBs). However, developing binders with low‐gas production at the operating temperature range of TBs (400–550 °C) has proven to be a significant challenge. Here, we report the use of acrylic acid derivative terpolymer (LA136D) as a low‐volatile binder for thin‐film cathode fabrication and studied the chain scission and chemical bond‐breaking mechanisms in pyrolysis. It is shown LA136D defers to random‐chain scission and cross‐linking chain scission mechanisms, which gifts it with a low proportion of volatile products (ψ, ψ = 39.2 wt%) at even up to 550 °C, well below those of the conventional PVDF (77.6 wt%) and SBR (99.2 wt%) binders. Surprisingly, LA136D contributes to constructing a thermal shock‐resistant cathode due to the step‐by‐step bond‐breaking process. This is beneficial for the overall performance of TBs. In discharging test, the thin‐film cathodes exhibited a remarkable 440% reduction in polarization and 300% enhancement in the utilization efficiency of cathode materials, while with just a slight increase of 0.05 MPa in gas pressure compared with traditional "thick‐film" cathode. Our work highlights the potential of LA136D as a low‐volatile binder for thin‐film cathodes and shows the feasibility of manufacturing high‐efficiency and high‐power TBs through polymer molecule engineering. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Semitransparent organic solar cells show attractive potential in the application of building‐integrated photovoltaics, agrivoltaics, floating photovoltaics, and wearable electronics, as their multiple functionalities of electric power generation, photopermeability, and color tunability. Design and exploration of semitransparent organic solar cells with optimal and balanced efficiency and average visible light transmittance and simultaneously high stability are in great demand. In this work, based on a layer‐by‐layer‐processed active layer and an ultrathin metal electrode, inverted semitransparent organic solar cells (ITO/AZO/PM6/BTP‐eC9/MoO3/Au/Ag) were fabricated. Optimal and balanced efficiency and average visible light transmittance were demonstrated, and simultaneously promising thermal and light stability were achieved for the obtained devices. The power conversion efficiency of 13.78–12.29% and corresponding average visible light transmittance of 14.58–25.80% were recorded for the ST‐OSC devices with 25–15 nm thick Ag electrodes, respectively. Superior thermal and light stability with ~90% and ~85% of initial efficiency retained in 400 h under 85 °C thermal stress and AM1.5 solar illumination were demonstrated, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study experimentally investigates the effects of different heating powers and areas on the jet behavior and thermal runaway (TR) of 75 Ah LiNi0.8Co0.1Mn0.1O2 pouch lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in an open environment. TR, a critical safety concern for LIBs, can occur under overheating conditions. The TR behavior of LIBs was characterized by flame behavior, temperature characteristics, mass variation, jet dynamics, and residue formations. The results reveal that the heating power density primarily influences the time to initiate TR. Lower power densities extend the heating time and require higher energy to induce TR, thereby exerting a more considerable impact on the battery. The heating area predominantly affects the input energy and the extent of damage. Larger areas lead to more stable jet flames, consistent peak temperatures ranging between 1000 °C and 1300 °C, and mass loss ratios ranging from 44% to 53% compared to 43% to 47% for small-area heaters. These findings provide references for the safety design of battery assemblies and the prevention of TR propagation, contributing to the safer monitoring of LIBs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, a flower-like Au/CeO2 supported catalyst composite anode was prepared to explore its impact on thermal runaway triggered by overcharging and flame. Through structural and performance characterization, it was found that the catalyst has a high specific surface area and good CO catalytic oxidation capability, with a CO removal rate higher than 99.97% at room temperature. Through electrical performance testing, it was discovered that, compared to batteries without the catalyst, batteries using the composite anode did not exhibit significant capacity degradation. In overcharge testing, the catalyst prolonged the voltage rise time and peak voltage occurrence time of the battery. In thermal runaway testing, the addition of the catalyst delayed the detection time of CO and significantly reduced the concentration of thermal runaway products, especially the peak concentration and integrated concentration of CO, demonstrating its effectiveness in reducing thermal runaway products. Therefore, this study provides a new approach for improving the safety of lithium-ion batteries. The catalyst exhibits good performance in reducing toxic gases generated after thermal runaway and delaying the occurrence of thermal runaway, providing strong support for the safe application of lithium-ion batteries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thermal runaway (TR) is a serious thermal disaster that occurs in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) under extreme conditions and has long been an obstacle to their further development. Water mist (WM) is considered to have excellent cooling capacity and is widely used in the field of fire protection. When used in TR suppression, WM also exhibits strong fire-extinguishing and anti-re-ignition abilities. Therefore, it has received widespread attention and research interest among scholars. However, most studies have focused on the cooling rate and suppression effect of TR propagation, and few have mentioned the effect of WM on flame heat transfer, which is a significant index in TR propagation suppression. This study has explored the suppression effect of WM released at different TR stages and has analyzed flame temperature, heat release, and heat radiation under WM conditions. Results show that the flame extinguishing duration for WM under different TR stages was different. WM could directly put out the flame within several seconds of being released when SV opened, 3 min after SV opening and when TR ended, and 3 min for WM when TR was triggered. Moreover, the heat radiation of the flame in relation to the battery QE could be calculated, and the case of WM released 3 min after SV opening exhibited the greatest proportion of heat radiation cooling η (with a value of 88.4%), which was same for the specific cooling capacity of WM Qm with a value of 1.7 × 10−3 kJ/kg. This is expected to provide a novel focus for TR suppression in LIBs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The integration of renewable energy sources necessitates effective thermal management of Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) to maintain grid stability. This study aims to address this need by examining various thermal management approaches for BESS, specifically within the context of Virtual Power Plants (VPP). It evaluates the effectiveness, safety features, reliability, cost-efficiency, and appropriateness of these systems for VPP applications. Among the various hybrid cooling options, two notably promising combinations are highlighted. First, the integration of heat pipes with phase change materials, which effectively conduct heat away from sources with minimal temperature differences, enabling swift heat transfer. Second, the combination of heat pipes with liquid passive cooling, which utilizes the efficient heat transfer properties of heat pipes and the steady cooling offered by liquid systems. This study offers recommendations for choosing the best thermal management system based on climate conditions and geographic location, thereby enhancing BESS performance and sustainability within VPPs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Eco-driving aims to enhance vehicle efficiency by optimizing speed profiles and driving patterns. However, ensuring safe following distances during eco-driving can lead to excessive use of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), causing accelerated battery wear and potential safety concerns. This study addresses this issue by proposing a novel, multi-physics-constrained cruise control strategy for intelligently connected electric vehicles (EVs) using deep reinforcement learning (DRL). Integrating a DRL framework with an electrothermal model to estimate unmeasurable states, this strategy simultaneously manages battery degradation and thermal safety while maintaining safe following distances. Results from hardware-in-the-loop simulation testing demonstrated that this approach reduced overall driving costs by 18.72%, decreased battery temperatures by 4 °C to 8 °C in high-temperature environments, and reduced state-of-health (SOH) degradation by up to 46.43%. These findings highlight the strategy's superiority in convergence efficiency, battery thermal safety, and cost reduction compared to existing methods. This research contributes to the advancement of eco-driving practices, ensuring both vehicle efficiency and battery longevity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

NiS/Ni@HCNF electrode enable the cell with excellent storage capacity and superior thermal safety performance. [Display omitted] • Catalytic chemistry inspired hollow carbon nanofibers loaded with NiS/Ni is designed. • Such delicate structure shows superior cycling and rate property than many TMSs. • The favorable Li+ storage actions and related reaction kinetics are discovered. • Using the designed structure markedly promotes the thermal safety of LIBs. Transition metal sulfides (TMSs) based anodes hold a very broad application prospect in lithium ion batteries (LIBs). In this work, the catalytic effect of metallic nickel at high temperature was used to generate hollow carbon nanofibers loaded with NiS and Ni (denoted as NiS/Ni@HCNF). The heteroatoms doped carbon fibers buffer the huge volumetric change of NiS during the discharge/charge process, and enhance the ion transport efficiency and electrical conductivity. In addition, the high specific surface area brought by the hollow carbon nanofibers can accelerate the electrolyte penetration and speed up the transport of ions as well as electrons. When used as anode of half cell, this electrode gives 958.5 and 612.9 mAh/g after running 1000 cycles under 1 and 2 A/g, showing the extremely-low attenuation rates of 0.0483 % per cycle and 0.0643 % per cycle, respectively. Impressively, NCM//NiS/Ni@HCNF battery shows the discharge capacity of 187.6 mAh/g at 1st cycle. Regarding the next 100 cycles, the relatively-high discharge capacities (>110 mAh/g) and coulombic efficiency (CE) values (>96 %) are discerned. It is noted that the usage of NiS/Ni@HCNF electrode improves the activation energy for thermal runaway, corroborating the elevated thermal safety of battery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The semiconductor-sensitized thermal cell (STC) is a new thermoelectric conversion technology. The development of nonliquid electrolytes is the top priority for the practical application of the STC. In this study, a novel gel polymer electrolyte (PH-based GPE) composed of poly(vinylidenefluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene) (PH), 1-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP), and Cu ions was synthesized and applied to the STC system. The PH-based GPE synthesized at 45 °C showed higher open-circuit voltage (−0.3 V), short-circuit current density (59 μA cm−2) and diffusion coefficient (7.82 × 10−12 m2 s−1), indicating that a well-balanced structure among the NMP molecules was formed to generate a high-efficiency conduction path of the Cu ions. Moreover, the ion diffusion lengths decreased with decreasing content rates of NMP for the PH-based GPEs, indicating that the NMP plays an important role in the diffusion of Cu ions. Furthermore, the activation energy was calculated to be 107 kJ mol−1, and that was smaller compared to 150 kJ mol−1 for the poly(ethylene glycol)-based liquid electrolyte. These results play an important reference role in the development of electrolytes for STC systems. At the same time, they also provide a new avenue and reference indicator for the synthesis of high-performance and safe GPEs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The activation of thermal batteries requires plentiful heat to melt the ambient solid electrolyte into an ionic conductor with high ionic conductivity for large current discharge. The process necessitates massive heating powder to provide heat, severely reducing the effective specific energy of the thermal battery. To decrease energy consumption, we developed the LiCl–LiBr–KBr–CsBr molten salt with low melting point of 239 °C, fusion enthalpy at 59.08 J/g, specific heat capacity of 0.38 J/K·g and 0.88 J/K·g in the solid and liquid states, correspondingly, which takes 44% less heat to reach the operating temperature (generally 500 °C) compared to the commonly used LiF–LiCl–LiBr electrolyte. These reductions not only enable the battery to discharge across a broad temperature range, but also lessens the quantity of pyrotechnic heating pellets and enhances the thermal battery's overall specific energy and safety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Modern concepts in irreversible thermodynamics are applied to system transformation and degradation analyses. Phenomenological entropy generation (PEG) theorem is combined with the Degradation-Entropy Generation (DEG) theorem for instantaneous multi-disciplinary, multi-scale, multi-component system characterization. A transformation-PEG theorem and space materialize with system and process defining elements and dimensions. The near-100% accurate, consistent results and features in recent publications demonstrating and applying the new TPEG methods to frictional wear, grease aging, electrochemical power system cycling—including lithium-ion battery thermal runaway—metal fatigue loading and pump flow are collated herein, demonstrating the practicality of the new and universal PEG theorem and the predictive power of models that combine and utilize both theorems. The methodology is useful for design, analysis, prognostics, diagnostics, maintenance and optimization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The concept of e-mobility is gaining the utmost importance owing to stringent emission norms. However, the safety issues associated with propulsion batteries are posing a major threat to their success. The occurrences of accidents caused due to thermal runaway in electric two-wheelers grabbed global attention. In this research work, an effort is being taken to address this concern, by arranging the battery cells in a pentagonal arrangement and employing forced air convection. The influence of air velocity (0.15, 0.30, and 0.45 m/s) and air inlet position (60, 75, and 90 mm) and intermediate cell distance (4, 6, and 8 mm) on the thermal performance of the battery is investigated using a numerical approach. Maximum cell temperature, pressure drop across the channel, maximum air velocity, maximum turbulent kinetic energy, and maximum turbulence intensity are considered output responses. A grey relational analysis (GRA) is used to identify the optimum level for all input parameters considering all output responses. The optimal forced convection parameters for the proposed pentagonal cell arrangement are the intermediate cell distance of 6 mm, air velocity of 0.45 m/s, and air inlet position of 90 mm from the center of the cell arrangement. With this arrangement, the peak cell temperature is reduced from 48.32 to 36.83 °C (8%). The study is extended with an airflow improviser to examine the influence of its geometrical parameters (improviser angle, fillet angle, and its distance from the center of the battery module) on the battery cell temperature. At the optimal conditions, the presence of an airflow improviser increases the air velocity from 1.76 to 2.302 m/s (19%) and turbulence intensity from 196 to 0.350 m2/s2 (33%). Thus, the cell temperature could be reduced to the extent of 8.6% by adopting the pentagonal cell arrangement with airflow improviser and optimal operating parameters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bone drilling is a common procedure used to create pilot holes for inserting screws to secure implants for fracture fixation. However, this process can increase bone temperature and the excessive heat can lead to cell death and thermal osteonecrosis, potentially causing early fixation failure or complications. We applied a three-dimensional dynamic elastoplastic finite element model to evaluate the propagation and distribution of heat during bone drilling and assess the thermally affected zone (TAZ) that may lead to thermal necrosis. This model investigates the parameters influencing bone temperature during bone drilling, including drill diameter, rotational speed, feed force, and predrilled hole. The results indicate that our FE model is sufficiently accurate in predicting the temperature rise effect during bone drilling. The maximum temperature decreases exponentially with radial distance. When the feed forces are 40 and 60 N, the maximum temperature does not exceed 45 °C. However, with feed forces of 10 and 20 N, both the maximum temperatures exceed 45 °C within a radial distance of 0.2 mm, indicating a high-risk zone for potential thermal osteonecrosis. With the two-stage drilling procedure, where a 2.5 mm pilot hole is predrilled, the maximum temperature can be reduced by 14 °C. This suggests that higher feed force and rotational speed and/or using a two-stage drilling process could mitigate bone temperature elevation and reduce the risk of thermal osteonecrosis during bone drilling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electric mobility decarbonizes the transportation sector and effectively addresses sustainable development goals. A good battery thermal management system (BTMS) is essential for the safe working of electric vehicles with lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs) to address thermal runaway and associated catastrophic hazards effectively. However, PCMs suffer from low thermal conductivity issues, and hence, enhancement techniques include the use of fins, nano‐additives, extended graphite powder, and so forth. The use of composite phase change materials effectively addresses LIB thermal management widely used in electric vehicles while mitigating thermal runaway, besides providing flame retardancy, thermal/mechanical stability, and electrical insulation, and preventing leakage. It is noted that no single strategy of BTMS is brought down to a safe zone of temperature, and hybrid BTMSs are being employed, invariably involve phase change materials (PCMs) to a large extent. It is essential to utilize CPCMs to address the effects of low‐temperature environments and vibrations considering vehicle driving cycles and operating conditions. It is observed from the review that ultrasonic monitoring and early detection of internal short circuits are the steps towards mitigation of thermal runaway propagation. It is required to utilize optimization methods, machine learning and IoT tools for a feasible PCM based BTMS work. Present review briefly describes potential methods for effective utilization of PCMs, comparison among different methods, challenges associated and potential solutions. It is highly essential to develop compact and economical BTMS with effective CPCMs for better and safer LIB operation to attract large‐scale commercialization of electric vehicles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the coking behaviors has been considered to be really essential for developing better vacuum residue processing technologies. A battery of thermal cracking tests of typical vacuum residue at 410 °C with various reaction time were performed to evaluate the coke formation process. The total yields of ideal components including naphtha, atmospheric gas oil (AGO) and vacuum gas oil (VGO) of thermal cracking reactions increased from 10.89% to 40.81%, and the conversion ratios increased from 8.05% to 43.33% with increasing the reaction time from 10 to 70 min. The asphaltene content increased from 12.14% to a maximum of 22.39% and then decreased, and this maximum of asphaltene content occurred at the end of the coking induction period. The asphaltenes during the coking induction period, at the end and after coking induction period of those tested thermal cracking reactions were characterized to disclose the structure changing rules for coke formation process, and the coke formation pathways were discussed to reveal the coke formation process at molecular level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study proposes a probabilistic quantification technique that applies an expert inference method to warn of the risk of a fire developing into a thermal runaway when a lithium-ion battery fire occurs. Existing methods have the shortcomings of low prediction accuracy and delayed responses because they determine a fire only by detecting the temperature rise and smoke in a lithium-ion battery to initiate extinguishing activities. To overcome such shortcomings, this study proposes a method to probabilistically calculate the risk of thermal runaway in advance by detecting the amount of off-gases generated in the venting stage before thermal runaway begins. This method has the advantage of quantifying the probability of a fire in advance by applying an expert inference method based on a combination of off-gas amounts, while maintaining high reliability even when the sensor fails. To verify the validity of the risk probability design, problems with the temperature and off-gas increase/decrease data were derived under four SOC conditions in actual lithium-ion batteries. Through the foregoing, it was confirmed that the risk probability can be accurately presented even in situations where the detection sensor malfunctions by applying an expert inference method to calculate the risk probability complexly. Additionally, it was confirmed that the proposed method is a method that can lead to quicker responses to thermal runaway fires. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the stage of aircraft development and airworthiness verification, it is necessary to master the influence of lithium-ion battery (LIB) thermal runaway (TR) propagation. In this paper, the battery TR propagation behavior under different trigger positions and modes is studied experimentally, and the calculation and comparison are carried out from the parameters of real-time temperature, voltage, propagation speed, total energy released, and solid ejecta. When the two adjacent cells at the top corner, side, and center of the module are overheated, TR occurs at about 1000 s for the triggered cells, while the whole-overheating trigger mode takes a longer time. The latter's transmission speed is extremely fast, spreading 2.67 cells per second on average. The heat generated by the solid ejecta of the whole-overheating trigger mode is 82,437 J, which is more destructive. The voltage of the triggered cell fluctuates abnormally in a precursor manner when the internal active substances in the cell undergo a self-generated thermal reaction. This work can provide a reference for the safety and economical design of system installations and the correct setting of airworthiness verification Method of Compliance (MoC) experiments to verify whether the aircraft can bear and contain the adverse effects caused by LIB TR. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Photothermolysis is the process that converts radiation energy into thermal energy, which results in the destruction of surrounding tissues or cells through thermal diffusion. Laser therapy that is based on photothermolysis has been a widely used treatment for various skin diseases such as skin cancers and port-wine stains. It offers several benefits such as non-invasiveness and selective treatment. However, the use of light, e.g., laser, for safe and effective photothermolysis becomes challenging due to the limited penetration of light into skin tissue as well as the presence of melanin, which absorbs this light. To solve the current issues, we propose an optical microneedle–lens array (OMLA) coated with gold in this work to directly deliver light to targeted skin layers without being absorbed by surrounding tissues as well as melanin, which results in the improvement of the efficiency of photothermal therapy. We developed a novel fabrication method, frame-guided micromolding, to prepare the OMLA by assembling two negative molds with simultaneous alignment. In addition, evaluations of the optical and heat transfer characteristics of the OMLA were performed. We expect our developed OMLA to play a crucial role in realizing more effective laser therapy by allowing the precise delivery of photons to the target area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the challenges related to voltage and power management in automated intelligent photovoltaic (PV) systems. It suggests that Fractional Order Proportional Integral Derivative (FOPID) controllers can help address these challenges effectively. The research aims to create a highly adaptable and precise automated intelligent PV system that focuses on managing voltage and power issues. It introduces a novel approach using the Black Hole Optimization (BHO) algorithm and leverages the advantages of FOPID controllers for automation. The study also considers thermal models for batteries within the automated intelligent PV system and explores different options to handle voltage and power issues stemming from PV panels. It involves fine-tuning 15 parameters using the BHO algorithm and concludes that one configuration (Instance 1) is preferable due to its superior accuracy and scalability. This choice is supported by objective validation. In essence, your abstract is about improving the performance and automation of PV systems, particularly in dealing with voltage and power challenges, through the application of FOPID controllers and the innovative BHO algorithm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fuel cells have been studied for use in stationary power generation and vehicle propulsion systems. The fuel cell thermal management subsystem is coupled and nonlinear, posing challenges for modeling and temperature control. This paper aims to integrate the physical models of the fuel cell stack, pump, thermostat, and other components combined with intelligent algorithms into an efficient system-level thermal management model framework and develop a model predictive controller to solve the temperature control problem. First, a physics-based nonlinear model of the fuel cell system is developed and used as a basis to identify the linearized model for different operating points. Then, the global model is obtained by fusing the local models with Gaussian validity functions using the local linear model tree method. Third, a multi-step prediction model is derived based on the local model networks, and a parameterized linear state space form is obtained and used for controller design. Furthermore, an online correction method is developed to reduce the model discrepancy. Finally, the accuracy of the system model and the performance of the proposed controller are verified by open-loop experimental data and a series of closed-loop simulation cases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Equivalent circuit modelling (ECM) is a powerful tool to study the dynamic and non-linear characteristics of Li-ion cells and is widely used for the development of the battery management system (BMS) of electric vehicles. The dynamic parameters described by the ECM are used by the BMS to estimate the battery state of charge (SOC), which is crucial for efficient charging/discharging, range calculations, and the overall safe operation of electric vehicles. Typically, the ECM approach represents the dynamic characteristics of the battery in a mathematical form with a limited number of unknown parameters. Then, the parameters are calculated from voltage and current information of the lithium-ion cell obtained from controlled experiments. In the current work, a faster and simplified first-order resistance–capacitance (RC) equivalent circuit model was developed for a commercial cylindrical cell (LGM50 21700). An analytical solution was developed for the equivalent circuit model incorporating SOC and temperature-dependent RC parameters. The solution to the RC circuit model was derived using multiple expressions for different components like open circuit voltage (OCV), instantaneous resistance (R0), and diffusional parameters (R1 and C1) as a function of the SOC and operating temperature. The derived parameters were validated against the virtual HPPC test results of a validated physics-based electrochemical model for the voltage behavior. Using the developed RC circuit model, a polynomial expression is derived to estimate the temperature increase of the cell including both irreversible and reversible heat generation components. The temperature predicted by the proposed RC circuit model at different battery operating temperatures is in good agreement with the values obtained from the validated physics model. The developed method can find applications in (i) onboard energy management by the BMS and (ii) quicker evaluation of cell performance early in the product development cycle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The release of flammable gases during battery thermal runaway poses a risk of combustion and explosion, endangering personnel safety. The convective and diffusive properties of the gas make it challenging to accurately measure gas state, complicating the assessment of the battery pack exhaust design. In this paper, a thermal resistance network model is established, which is used to calculate the battery thermal runaway propagation. Gas accumulation after thermal runaway venting of a LiFeO4 module is studied using ANSYS Fluent under different venting schemes. The results show that the scheme of battery inversion and simultaneous exhaust from the side and bottom of the module is optimal. The methods and results presented can guide the design of LiFeO4 cell pack runners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the widespread adoption of battery technology in electric vehicles, there has been significant attention drawn to the increasing frequency of battery fire incidents. However, the jetting behavior and expansion force during the thermal runaway (TR) of batteries represent highly dynamic phenomena, which lack comprehensive quantitative description. This study addresses this gap by employing an enhanced experimental setup that synchronizes the video timing of cameras with a signal acquisition system, enabling the multidimensional quantification of signals, such as images, temperature, voltage, and pressure. It also provides a detailed description of the jetting behavior and expansion force characteristics over time for Li(Ni0.8Co0.1Mn0.1)O2 batteries undergoing thermal runaway in an open environment. The results from three experiments effectively identify key temporal features, including the timing of the initial jetting spark, maximum jetting velocity, jetting duration, explosion duration, and patterns of flame volume variation. This quantitative analytical approach proves effective across various battery types and conditions. The findings could offer scientific foundations and experimental strategies for parameter identification in fire prevention and thermal runaway model development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, a novel experimental setup to quantify the particle deposition during a lithium-ion battery thermal runaway (TR) is proposed. The setup integrates a single prismatic battery cell into an environment representing similar conditions as found for battery modules in battery packs of electric vehicles. In total, 86 weighing plates, positioned within the flow path of the vented gas and particles, can be individually removed from the setup in order to determine the spatial mass distribution of the deposited particles. Two proof-of-concept experiments with different distances between cell vent and module cover are performed. The particle deposition on the weighing plates as well as the particle size distribution of the deposited particles are found to be dependent on the distance between cell vent and cover. In addition, the specific heat capacity of the deposited particles as well as the jelly roll remains are analyzed. Its temperature dependency is found to be comparable for both ejected particles and jelly roll remains. The results of this study help researches and engineers to gain further insights into the particle ejection process during TR. By implementing certain suggested improvements, the proposed experimental setup may be used in the future to provide necessary data for simulation model validation. Therefore, this study contributes to the improvement of battery pack design and safety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We explore anisotropic properties in the thermal expansivities of hydrogen-ordered ice IX and its hydrogen-disordered counterpart, ice III. The free energies of these ice forms are calculated to obtain the lattice constants for the tetragonal unit cell and the thermal expansivities at various thermodynamic conditions in the framework of quasi-harmonic approximation, taking account of their anisotropic nature. The thermal expansivities are also examined by applying a thermodynamic relation that connects them with the Grüneisen parameters and the elastic compliances. Both calculations suggest that ice III and IX exhibit a negative thermal expansion along the a-axis but have a positive one along the c-axis at low temperatures. It is found that nonaffine deformation in the variation of the lattice constant beyond affine transformation (the Born approximation) is essential in the theoretical calculation of the thermal properties of ice III and IX. We also find that the nonaffine deformation is described by the shift of the minimum energy positions in the potential manifold of hydrogen-ordered ice along a limited number of the normal mode coordinates, which is irrelevant to the system size. These modes become unstable against an applied strain, so that the potential minimum moves along those normal coordinates away from that of the affine-transformed structure. The unstable modes are all symmetry-preserving modes, and the space-group symmetry is an invariant under displacement along either of those normal coordinates. The number of the unstable modes in ice IX is 8 while it is 1 in another hydrogen-ordered ice VIII. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A distributed circuit approach is used to simulate the development of electric potentials across a cell membrane and the resulting poration dynamics for ∼700 ns duration voltage pulses. Besides electric field effects, temperature increases from a pulse train are included on an equal footing to probe heating effects. The results show (i) strong heating and power dissipation at the membrane in keeping with previous simpler models, (ii) an initial spike in the membrane temperature within 100 ns timescales, (iii) a monotonic increase in membrane temperature with successive pulses to about 8 K over twelve pulses within roughly 10 μs, and (iv) large temperature gradients in excess of 2 × 107 K/m at the polar membrane region indicative of a strong source for thermo-diffusive transport. Our results suggest that inherent heating during repeated pulse application may be used to tailor excitation sequences for maximal cellular transport, broaden the permeabilization beyond the polar regions for greater transmembrane conduction, and lower the electric field thresholds for greater efficiency in longer duration irreversible electroporation protocols. More generally, the present analysis represents an initial step toward a comprehensive analysis-based optimization for tumor treatment that could select waveforms for tissues, factor in heating effects (whether for synergistic action or to ascertain safe operating limits), and engineer temporal manipulation of wavetrains to synchronize with timescales of selective bio-processes of interest for desired transient responses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Efficient heat transfer control is highly demanded for dynamic thermal management of equipment and buildings especially when the environmental temperature dramatically changes. Thermal switches, the current approach of heat transfer control, suffer from the issues of low switching ratios below eight and sharp state transition between "on" and "off". Herein, a continuously‐tuned thermal regulator with an ultrahigh thermal‐conductivity change ratio of 43 based on superaligned carbon nanotube aerogel is reported, which works on the regulation of both thermal interfacial resistance and conduction pathways by compressive deformation‐induced microstructure evolution. This thermal regulator can stabilize the device temperature at 25 °C when the environmental temperature varies by 7 and 11 °C under the natural convection and forced convection conditions, respectively. Toward practical application, the thermal regulator with flexibility is wrapped around a cylindrical lithium‐ion battery to control the operation temperature within the optimal range of 20–40 °C for enhanced discharging performance even at an environmental temperature of −20 °C. Besides, by combining the thermal regulator with radiative cooling film, the house model temperature can be lowered by 2.7 °C during daytime and raised by 1.1 °C during nighttime compared with the bare one. This efficient thermal regulation approach offers an effective solution for practical thermal management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • A new application scenario of carbon quantum dots for precise tumor ablation was estabished. • The carbon quantum dots act as a photothermal medium as well as a fluorescence probe in this two-photon fluorescence-guided precise photothermal therapy. • A single human malignant melanoma (A375) cancer cell can be precisely located and swiftly destroyed in five seconds. • A balanced two-photon fluorescence and photothermal performance of the carbon quantum dots enabled the precise and swift ablation. The utilization of carbon quantum dots (CQDs) for photothermal therapy has emerged as a hot research topic. However, there has been limited research on killing one single cancer cell which is critical in reducing unnecessary damage to the surrounding healthy tissues. In this work, we developed a two-photon fluorescence-guided precise photothermal therapy in a single human malignant melanoma (A375) cancer cell utilizing bifunctional N -doped CQDs. Resulting from the two-photon fluorescence of the CQDs, one single cancer cell can be located and simultaneously destroyed by the photothermal effect of the same CQDs. Specifically, the balanced two-photon absorption cross-section (7000 GM) and photoluminescence quantum yield (8.4%) of the CQDs enable the fluorescence-guided photothermal treatment to be achieved in only 5 s under the irradiation of 800 nm laser of 27.5 mW, much faster than the control experiment without the guidance of fluorescence. The heat generated by the aggregated CQDs is in sufficient amounts while being confined in a small area, as evidenced by the numerical simulations and photothermal experiments, to limit the range of thermal treatment in the cells. This work provides a new approach for realizing photothermal therapy with minimal damage and establishes a new application scenario of CQDs for precise tumor ablation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have emerged as the most commercialized rechargeable battery technology. However, their inherent property, called thermal runaway, poses a high risk of fire. This article introduces the "Battery Immersed in Fire Prevention Material (BIF)", the immersion-type battery in which all of the LIB cells are surrounded by a liquid agent. This structure and the agent enable active battery fire suppression under abusive conditions while facilitating improved thermal management during normal operation. Abuse tests involving a battery revealed that the LIB module experienced fire, explosions, and burnouts with the target cell reaching temperatures of 1405 °C and the side reaching 796 °C. Conversely, the BIF module exhibited a complete lack of fire propagation, with temperatures lower than those of LIBs, particularly 285 and 17 °C, respectively. Under normal operating conditions, the BIF module exhibited an average temperature rise ~8.6 times lower than that of a normal LIB. Furthermore, it reduced the uneven thermal deviation between the cells by ~5.3 times more than LIB. This study provides a detailed exploration of the BIF and covers everything from components to practical applications. With further improvements, this technology can significantly enhance fire safety and prevent the thermal degradation of batteries in the real world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides insights into the four key behaviors and mechanisms of the aging to failure of batteries in micro-overcharge cycles at different temperatures, as well as the changes in thermal stability. The test results from a scanning electron microscope (SEM) and an energy-dispersive spectrometer (EDS) indicate that battery failure is primarily associated with the rupture of cathode materials, the fracturing and pulverization of electrode materials on the anode current collector, and the formation of lithium dendrites. Additionally, battery safety is influenced by environmental temperatures and the battery's state of health (SOH), with failed batteries exhibiting the poorest stability and the highest mass loss rates. Under isothermal conditions, micro-overcharge leads to battery failure without thermal runaway. Thus, temperature stands out as the most influential factor in battery safety. These insights hold significant theoretical and practical value for the development of more precise and secure battery management systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]