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To determine hepatitis C virus (HCV) genotypes and explore the associated risk factors in chronic HCV patients.A total of 116 patients with chronic hepatitis C were subjected to polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based detection out of which 112 chronic HCV patients [53 male (47.32%), 59 female (52.68%); mean age (43.76±16.40) years; mean BMI (23.8±3.9) kg] were enrolled in this study. The frequency of 6 HCV genotypes and associated risk factors were evaluated from five districts of North West Frontier Province (NWFP).Genotype 3 was the most prevalent in 73 samples (65.17%) followed by genotype 1 in 24 (21.42%) and genotype 2 in 13 (11.60%) samples. Genotype 3 had significantly high prevalence (P=0.000 2). The results showed that 48 (42.85%) samples were infected with HCV 3a; 25 (22.32%) with 3b; 14 (12.50%) with 1a; 10 (8.92%) with 1b; 11 (9.82%) with 2a; 2 (1.78%) with 2b; and 2 were untypable. The distribution of HCV genotypes in Mardan, Charsadda, Peshawar, Sawabi and Nowshehra districts was different. Use of unsterile equipment for medication, barbers and previous history of hospitalization were the main risk factors for HCV transmission.Genotype 3a and 3b, 1a, 1b and 2a are the common genotypes in NWFP. Genotype 4, 5, and 6 can not be found in a single sample. The level of awareness about various modes of transmission of HCV among the population is found to be very low.

Pakistan is a developing country that has a population of 190 million people and faces a huge burden of viral diseases. Every year during monsoon season heavy rain fall and lack of disaster management skills potentially increase the transmission of waterborne diseases, vector borne diseases and viral outbreaks. Due to severe flooding, thousands of people lose their lives and millions are displaced each year. In most of the cases the children who lose their family members are forced into illegal professions of begging, child labor and prostitution which make them prone to sexually transmitted infections. Up to date, no scientific study has been conducted nationwide to illustrate epidemiological patterns of waterborne diseases, vector borne diseases and viral epidemics during flash flood. Mosquito sprays would not be a sufficient approach for dengue eradication; mass awareness, larvicide and biological control by Guppy fishes are also effective strategies to overcome dengue problem. International health bodies and non-governmental organizations must take note of this alerting situation and take adequate steps such as financial/medical aid in order to defeat the after-effects of flood.

This paper present, results of the study on noninvasive stress measurement using EEG signals recorded with a single electrode device. The process involves EEG data acquisition, feature extraction, and stress level classification. Psychologists have developed over a period of time, questionnaires that cover a wide range of symptoms associated with stress. In the first step, stress level of each participant was assessed using the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) questionnaire. EEG signals of twenty eight participants were recorded using a single channel EEG headset for duration of three minutes. Feature vector based on frequency sub bands is used to train three different machine learning algorithms, to classify the stress level of participants. It is evident from results that psychological stress level can be measured by single channel EEG headset using machine learning algorithms with considerable accuracy. Moreover, increased Beta activity of subjects with high stress has been observed as compared to the subjects with no stress. This fact can be used as a key factor in classifying psychological stress with single channel EEG headset.

Hepatitis B and C are serious public health problems worldwide. Thalassemia patients are dependent on blood transfusions throughout their life and are at high risk of viral infections. The aim of this study was to estimate the prevalence of hepatitis B/C infections and different clinical parameters in multitransfused thalassemia population. In this study, 262 multitransfused β-thalassemia patients were enrolled from the capital twin cities of Pakistan. The presence of hepatitis B virus (HBV)/hepatitis C virus (HCV), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) level, serum creatinine, serum ferritin, hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, and splenectomy were analyzed. The overall prevalence of HBV and HCV was 3.08% and 55.73%, respectively, with 100% of patients older than 20 years had HCV infection. The ALT levels among HBV- and HCV-positive thalassemia patients were 92.62 ± 41.57 U/L and 98 ± 63.65 U/L, respectively; creatinine values observed were 0.4 ± 0.35 mg/dL (for HBV) and 0.39 ± 0.24 mg/dL (for HCV), while serum ferritin levels were 6865.87 ± 1649.13 ng/dL (for HBV) and 5445.95 ± 3059.28 ng/dL (for HCV). A total of 74.8% and 82.20% of HBV- and HCV-positive patients had hepatomegaly with an average increase in liver size of 4.17 and 4.33 cm, respectively. Splenomegaly was observed in 64.9% and 67.12% of HBV- and HCV-positive patients with an average increase in spleen size of 4 and 4.46 cm, respectively. Splenectomy was observed among 14.50% and 15.75% of HBV- and HCV-infected thalassemia patients. There is a strong need to properly screen blood before transfusions to reduce the future load of viral hepatitis from Pakistan.

There are several instruments and methods to retrieve the atmospheric Mixing Layer Height (MLH). However, none of these instruments or methods can measure the development of the MLH under all atmospheric conditions. For example, aerosol signatures measured by backscatter lidars can be used to determine the MLH but this approach is reasonable only when the atmosphere is well-mixed. Microwave Radiometer (MWR) derived pro les have low vertical resolution and cannot resolve ne structures in the boundary layer, especially, at higher altitudes. Here we propose a method which combines data from a ground-based lidar and a MWR, in simulated as well as real measurements scenarios, to overcome these limitations. The method works by tting an erf-like transition model function to the section of range-corrected lidar backscatter signal. The section of the lidar backscatter signal for tting the model function is obtained by incorporating the MWR estimates of MLH along with their uncertainties. The tting is achieved by using an extended Kalman lter (EKF). The proposed approach, by exploiting the synergy between the two instruments, enables to detect MLH with original vertical and temporal resolutions. Test cases combining simulated data for a co-located lidar-ceilometer and a MWR are presented. The simulated data is obtained from the Dutch Atmospheric Large Eddy Simulation (DALES) model for boundarylayer studies. Doppler wind lidar along with radiosondes (whenever available) data is used to assess the quality of the synergetic MLH estimates. Data from the HD(CP)2 Observational Prototype Experiment (HOPE) campaign at J ulich, Germany is used to test the proposed method.

A method for the estimation of Stable Boundary Layer Height (SBLH) using curvature of the potential temperature profiles retrieved by a Microwave Radiometer (MWR) is presented. The vertical resolution of the MWR-derived temperature profile decreases with the height. A spline interpolation is carried-out to obtain a uniformly discretized temperature profile. The curvature parameter is calculated from the first and second order derivatives of the interpolated potential temperature profile. The first minima of the curvature parameter signifies the point where the temperature profile starts changing from the stable to the residual conditions. The performance of the method is analyzed by comparing it against physically idealized models of the stable boundary-layer temperature profile available in the literature. There are five models which include stable-mixed, mixed-linear, linear, polynomial and exponential. For a given temperature profile these five models are fitted using the non-linear least-squares approach. The best fitting model is chosen as the one which fits with the minimum root-mean-square error. Comparison of the SBLH estimates from curvature-based method with the physically idealized models shows that the method works qualitatively and quantitatively well with lower variation. Potential application of this approach is the situation where given temperature profiles are significantly deviant from the idealized models. The method is applied to data from a Humidity-and-Temperature Profiler (HATPRO) MWR collected during the HD(CP)2 Observational Prototype Experiment (HOPE) campaign at Jülich, Germany. Radiosonde data, whenever available, is used as the ground-truth.

Background: Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play a major role in innate immunity, since they detect conserved pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) on a range of microbes, including viruses, leading to innate immune activation and orchestration of the adaptive immune response. Objectives: The current study aimed to discuss earlier evidence implicating TLRs I and II in the innate immune response to viruses, in the light of more recent clinical data demonstrating that TLRs are important for anti-viral immunity in humans. Materials and Methods: A literature search was performed via accessing research articles from PakMediNet, Pubmed and Google Scholar with key words of Toll-like receptors I and II Regarding human viral pathogenesis. The valued information on the recent scientific horizons was subjected to critical analysis. Results: Comprehensive literature review illustrates important signaling pathways involved in TLR1/TLR2 mediated regulation of viral pathogenesis. TLRs mediated activation of apoptosis tends to contribute towards defense strategies utilized by innate immune response. Activation of antiviral TLR1-dependent signaling cascade would ultimately lead to activation of NF-kappa B which promotes antiviral responses via induction of specific genes. TLR1/TLR2 dimer generates intracellular signaling via IRAK4 mediated activation of IRAK1/2 which results in activation of NF-kappa B, p38 and JNK proteins in cytoplasm. NF- kappa B, p38 and JNK enter the nucleus thereby causing activation of various pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1 beta, TNF-alpha, IL-6, IL-8 and IL-18. Among the chronic HCV infection, the HCV core protein induces TNF-α and IL-10 from the macrophages thereby causing reduction in release of interferon alpha. Abnormal TLR1/TLR2 signaling may contribute to the enhancement of infection-related morbidity and mortality. Conclusions: To date, a large number of viruses are proved to trigger innate immunity via TLRs, suggesting that these receptors are likely to be important in the outcome of viral infection. This suggestion is supported by the observation that many viruses have evolved mechanisms not only to evade the innate immune system, but also to subvert it for the benefit of the virus.

A solution based on a Kalman filter to trace the evolution of the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) sensed by a ground-based elastic-backscatter tropospheric lidar is presented. An erf-like profile is used to model the mixing-layer top and the entrainment-zone thickness. The extended Kalman filter (EKF) enables to retrieve and track the ABL parameters based on simplified statistics of the ABL dynamics and of the observation noise present in the lidar signal. This adaptive feature permits to analyze atmospheric scenes with low signal-to-noise ratios (SNRs) without the need to resort to long-time averages or range-smoothing techniques, as well as to pave the way for future automated detection solutions. First, EKF results based on oversimplified synthetic and experimental lidar profiles are presented and compared with classic ABL estimation quantifiers for a case study with different SNR scenarios.

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is rapidly increasing in both high risk groups and the general population. In this study, silent routes of propagation in teenaged Pakistanis are discussed. In order to promote sexual activity in youths, regular clients write contact details of sex workers on the doors of public washrooms. HIV prevalence is much higher among Hijra sex workers. Hijra sex workers have apparently stepped into the profession of begging at public places, where they earn money by both begging and distributing visiting cards offering unsafe sex. In many educational institutes, sex education is lacking or absent; if delivered via teachers, government agencies and nongovernmental organizations this could prevent a future epidemic of sexually transmitted infections in Pakistan.

Background Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a plus stranded RNA virus which encodes 10 different genes. The HCV NS5B gene encodes a polymerase, which is responsible for the replication of the virus and is a potential target for the development of antiviral agents. HCV has a high mutation rate and is classified into six major genotypes.

Background Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a plus stranded RNA virus which encodes 10 different genes. The HCV NS5B gene encodes a polymerase, which is responsible for the replication of the virus and is a potential target for the development of antiviral agents. HCV has a high mutation rate and is classified into six major genotypes. Objectives The aim of this study was to draw a representing consensus sequence of each HCV genotype, align all six consensus sequences to draw a global consensus sequence and also study the highly conserved residues. Materials and Methods 236 HCV NS5B sequences, belonging to all six genotypes, reported from all over the world were aligned then a representing phylogenetic tree wasdrawn. Results The active site residues D220, D225, D318 and D319, which bind the divalent cations, are highly conserved among all the HCV genotypes. The other catalytic pocket residues, R158, S367, R386, and T390 and R394, which interact with the triphosphate of NTPs, are also highly conserved while T390 is mutated to valine in the genotype 5. The motif B residues G283, T286, T287 and N291, which take part in sugar selection by RdRp, are also highly conserved except for T286 which is mutated to proline in the genotypes 3 and 6. The residues E18, Y191, C274, Y276 and H502, which take part in primer/template interaction, are also high conserved except for H502 which is mutated to serine in genotype 2. High variation in all the six consensus sequences was observed in a 12 amino acid beta hairpin loop, which interacts with the double stranded RNA. Nine different peptides from the highly conserved regions of HCV NS5B protein were drawn which can be used as a peptide vaccine. The HCV NS5B phylogenetic tree shows the clusters of different genotypes and their evolutionary association. Conclusions In spite of a high mutation rate in HCV, the residues which are present in the catalytic pocket, sugar selection and template/primer interaction are highly conserved. These are target sites for the development of antiviral agents or peptide vaccines. The phylogenetic analysis suggests that different HCV genotypes have been evolved from the genotype 1a.

Protein kinase C beta is involved in apoptosis, transcription regulation, B-cell activation, regulation of the B-cell receptor signalosome and B-cell survival by regulating BCR-induced NF-kappa-B activation. Increased activation of PKC-βI along with overproduction of diacylglycerol (DAG) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) participate in pathogenesis of various aliments like asthma, cancer propagation, cardiovascular disorders, diabetes, tumor formation, AIDS and neurological disturbances. Inhibiting elevated activation of PKC-βI, after identification of most appropriate inhibitor, could serve as a potential therapeutic option for the treatment of several diseases. Its computational modeling is important to study interactions with various other signaling proteins. The aim of study was to investigate computational model of protein kinase C- βI and inhibitory potential of BIM-1 (2-methyl-1H-indol-3-yl), balanol-1 and staurosporine-1 to protein kinase C- βI. Model of protein kinase C - βI was built with the assistance of Modeller software. Known structure of PKC-βII was compared with modeled protein. Template (PDB ID: 2I0E) was searched from PSI Blast and structural analysis was performed by using 3D Coffee. Quality of model was dependent on template and sequence alignment. Amidst the five generated models, quality factor of best selected model via ERRAT was obtained as 88.923. Using Auto Dock Tools, selected values were docked individually. After analysis of results in PyMOL 1.3 and SPDBV v4.02 viewer; on the basis of highest value of affinity (-8.6 kcal/mol), lower distance from root-mean-square deviation (RMSD) l.b (1.379) along-with four polar contacts with PKC-bI that is, [Glu101 (O-H=2.1 A), Val103 (O-N=2.9 A, O-O=3.3 A) and Thr84 (O-O=3.1 A)], BIM-1 was selected to the best inhibitor. This approach holds a great promise for understanding of PKC- βI inhibitors and consequently its role in therapeutics. Key words: Protein kinase C, protein kinase C beta, in silico, therapeutic agent, PRKCB1, PRKCB2, BIM-1 (2-methyl-1H-indol-3-yl), balanol-1 and staurosporine-1.

Bystander effects (BSEs) have been investigated for a long time but without much deliberation as to the cause in targeted cells and the subsequent effect in naïve cells. BSEs have traditionally been associated with radiation. Currently, this phenomenon is at a juncture where nuclear DNA damage is being debated as either essential or nonessential. If DNA damage is essential for the bystander signal (BSS) production then, this raises a number of questions about, radiotherapy and chemotherapy of cancer patients. This review presents a detailed analysis of the work done to investigate nuclear DNA damage versus exclusively cytoplasmic targeting with ionizing radiations and measurement of bystander end-points in naïve cells. The review also analyzes some of the research work done to investigate cell models that were developed specifically to study and track radiation-induced DNA damage to construct mutation spectra. Production of reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species as possible candidates of the elusive BSS are also discussed besides the signal transduction pathways implicated in reception of a BSS by the naïve cell.

Background: The sustainable development goals (SDGs) aim to end HIV/AIDS as a public health threat by 2030. Understanding the current state of the HIV epidemic and its change over time is essential to this effort. This study assesses the current sex-specific HIV burden in 204 countries and territories and measures progress in the control of the epidemic. Methods: To estimate age-specific and sex-specific trends in 48 of 204 countries, we extended the Estimation and Projection Package Age-Sex Model to also implement the spectrum paediatric model. We used this model in cases where age and sex specific HIV-seroprevalence surveys and antenatal care-clinic sentinel surveillance data were available. For the remaining 156 of 204 locations, we developed a cohort-incidence bias adjustment to derive incidence as a function of cause-of-death data from vital registration systems. The incidence was input to a custom Spectrum model. To assess progress, we measured the percentage change in incident cases and deaths between 2010 and 2019 (threshold >75% decline), the ratio of incident cases to number of people living with HIV (incidence-to-prevalence ratio threshold

A synergetic approach for estimation of the nocturnal stable boundarylayer (SBL) height is presented. Aerosol backscatter from a lidar ceilometer and potential temperature from a microwave radiometer (MWR) are combined by using an extended Kalman filter (EKF). While height-resolved spatial-variance from the ceilometer backscatter signal provides a signature for the stratification of aerosols in the SBL, temperature data from the MWR helps to correctly incorporate information about the thermodynamic stability of atmosphere. The method is applied to data from a Vaisala CT25K ceilometer and a Humidity-and-Temperature Profiler (HATPRO) MWR collected during the HD(CP)2 Observational Prototype Experiment (HOPE) campaign at Julich, Germany.

Background: In Pakistan, most patients with Hepatitis B and C have history of facial and armpit shaving from barbers. Objective: Evaluate the awareness and risk factors associated with barbers in transmission of Hepatitis B and C. Subjects and methods: A cross sectional survey was conducted in Rawalpindi and Islamabad, the twin capital cities of Pakistan between January and July 2009. Five hundred and eight barbershops were surveyed. Results: Out of 508 barber shops, 99.8% and 98.2% were washing their razor with water and water plus antiseptic solution, respectively, while 99.8% were using new blades. Only 39.6% knew that hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) were viral diseases, 26.6% knew that it can lead to cancer, 90.7% thought that hepatitis could be transferred by blade sharing, 47.8% knew that a vaccine for HBV was available, and 43.0% had education beyond the primary level. None of the barbers used a new or washed apron/towel on every customer. Conclusion: In Pakistan, a small number of barbers are shaving clients with an old style razor with a permanent blade. There is moderate awareness about the various modes of transmission of hepatitis among the barbers, and most of them don’t know about vaccination. A predominant number of them are considering interferon treatment as a vaccine for hepatitis B and C. Keywords: Awareness, barbers, hepatitis, razor