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In this paper we discuss the extent of influence that Richard Owen’s thinking had on Charles Darwin’s thinking. In addition, we will try to show the heterogeneousness of this influence, which goes from specific theories to rhetorical turns. This influence is in many cases underestimated, giving the impression that the Darwinian novelty consisted solely in looking with unprejudiced eyes at what others had not seen. This vision is unfair to Owen, and to the conceptual effort carried out by Darwin with the pieces offered by his predecessors. Finally, this is an interesting case to understand the kind of novelty brought by scientific revolutions and the sophisticated way in which such novelty is based on the work of previous approaches., En este trabajo discutimos la extensión de la influencia que el pensamiento de Richard Owen tuvo sobre el de Charles Darwin. Además, se intentará mostrar lo heterogéneo de tal influencia, que va desde teorías específicas a giros retóricos. Esta influencia es en muchos casos subestimada, dando la sensación de que la novedad darwiniana consistió únicamente en mirar con ojos desprejuiciados lo que los otros no habían visto. Esta visión resulta injusta con Owen, y también con el esfuerzo conceptual llevado adelante por Darwin con las piezas brindadas por sus precursores. Finalmente, este es un caso interesante para entender el tipo de novedad aportada por las revoluciones científicas y el modo sofisticado en que tal novedad se sustenta sobre el trabajo de los enfoques previos.

This article analyses the State’s first attempt to implement public assistance in Puerto Rico. It is argued that liberals fought to advance their policies in order to favor the underprivileged population, but that their actions were limited by the diffi­culties encountered in the island, the lack of charities being one of them. During the first two constitutional periods (1812-1814 and 1820-1823,) an attempt was made to assist all of the underprivileged people, but only the sick at hospitals in the city of San Juan, were able to receive assistance. Throughout the article, it is demonstrated that during the XIX Century, gender played an important role when being admitted to a hospital: during the first constitutional period, only males received assistance at the Military Hospital; women received assistance during the second constitutional period, once the State was able to oversee the Hospital for the Underprivileged. In spite of the intermittence between the liberal and conservative political policies, the first steps to begin assisting sick and underprivileged Puerto Ricans in the city’s hospitals were given. En este artículo se analizan los primeros intentos realizados por el Estado para implementar la beneficencia pública en Puerto Rico. Se argumenta que los liberales lucharon por adelantar sus políticas en favor de la población desposeída, pero que sus acciones se vieron limitadas por las dificultades que encontraron en la Isla, entre ellas la falta de las instituciones de caridad. En los dos primeros periodos constitucionales (1812-1814 y 1820-1823) se intentó actuar en favor de todos los pobres, pero solo se logró atender a los enfermos pobres en los hospitales de la ciudad de San Juan. En el desarrollo del artículo se muestra que du­rante el siglo XIX importó mucho el género para ingresar a los hospitales: en el primer periodo constitucional solamente se asis­tieron a los hombres en el Hospital Militar; las mujeres fueron atendidas en el segundo periodo constitucional, cuando el Estado consiguió administrar el Hospital de Pobres. A pesar de la intermitencia entre los proyectos políticos liberales y conservadores, se dieron los primeros pasos para comenzar a asistir a los enfermos puertorriqueños pobres en los hospitales de la ciudad.

Through a cultural analysis in long-term, the author tries to analyze the influence of the idea of the specificity of the human being in the construction of Western natural history. The aim is to show how this concept of human being influenced the construction of the different scientific reasoning about the relationship between variety, difference and inequality, and how that conditioned the construction of a biological identity marked by the appropriation of the value of an essential physical and moral superiority attributed to the first man. This leads to a reflection on the way in which the relationship between science and power, imposed limits on the process of Western secularization

This paper examines the trends and prospects of medical history in Japan. The study of medical history in Japan has developed in various periods and themes. In particular, many studies period have actively made full use of old documents and materials that have been well-preserved. This paper introduces the research trends of medical history in Japan, while discussing the issues surrounding the concept and designation of medical history in present day Japan. This can be seen as an inevitable phenomenon that emerged as methods of medical history research have become diversified, and there are many suggestions related to the future direction of this study. Based on this, this paper points out the characteristics of medical history research conducted in each period since the first half of the twentieth century. In particular, this investigation confirmed that the subjects and research methods of medical history became diversified under the influence of the nation state theory. Furthermore, this study also found that the major topics of medical history research are analysis of medical books, doctors and medical personnel, the starting point of modern medicine, the establishment and change of the medical system, the social impact of infectious diseases, and the discipline and management of the national body. In addition, studies are being conducted to compare how the regulations and operations of medicine and medical and hygiene systems are being developed in the context of “East Asia.”

North Korea's health care system during the Korean War has a significant meaning in North Korean medical history and is also an appropriate research topic for understanding North Korea's wartime system. However, previous studies on North Korean medical history has been focused on before and after the war. This study traces the formation and operation of North Korea's wartime health system to fill the gap in the literature, aiming to identify that the support of the North Korean community in China's Yanbian community was key to North Korea's wartime health system. North Korea reorganized its health care system, centered on the military, such as establishing field hospitals concurrently with the outbreak of the war. However, as time went on, the North Korean health care project began to put an emphasis on protecting the lives and health of the civilians behind the frontline. In addition to the primary need to prevent infectious diseases, the hygiene and prevention project functioned as a means to control and mobilize the public by emphasizing broad public participation. Although North Korea tried to meet the demand for a large medical personnel through short-term training, medical personnel were always in short supply during the war. During the war, it was the Korean society in Yanbian that replenished medical personnel in North Korea and provided a space for a relatively stable hospital operation. Numerous Koreans in Yanbian participated in the Korean War as nurses, paramedic staff, transfusion donors, and army surgeons for North Korea. Such large-scale participation of medical personnel in Yanbian was based on the long-established medical exchanges between Yanbian and North Korea. Koreans in Yanbian also accommodated North Korean wounded, refugees, and war orphans and provided various medical assistance to them. During the war, Yanbian was a “secure rear” capable of performing medical actions that could not be done in North Korea. This study has confirmed that North Korea's current participation in public health projects, which is a characteristic of its health care sector, has its origins in the Korean War. Moreover, it demonstrates that North Korea's medical history needs to be viewed from an East Asian perspective, including the Korean society in Yanbian, rather than a national-only perspective. The application of this view to the analysis of North Korean’s health care system in other historical periods would facilitate richer discussions.

In 1886, cholera was prevalent nationwide in Joseon. This year was not yet the time when the Joseon government officially overhauled quarantine rules to go into effect. Thus, quarantine efforts to prevent cholera varied depending on each of the three opening ports in the Joseon Dynasty. In Wonsan, officials of the three countries(Joseon, Japan and Qing) discussed ways to deal with cholera, and quarantine activities were carried out smoothly. On the other hand, Busan underwent friction and conflict between the parties over the implementation of quarantine rules within the region. When the Japanese consulate said that it would establish quarantine rules first and implement them, officials from various countries, including the Joseon Dynasty, strongly protested against the movement, saying that they did not reach prior consent. On top of that, economic interests were also affecting circumstances of port trade. In Incheon, there were differences between the home country and the local consulate over the urgent issue to be dealt with locally and the legal principles of applying the treaty. Since consular officials were not authorized to establish quarantine rules, the situation was settled into cancellation of the rules already issued there. The Japanese consul working at each port in the Joseon Dynasty suggested specific rules to develop quarantine activities. At this point, we can read Japan's intention to preempt the standard of future quarantine inspections. The enforcement of quarantine rules, however, was a matter that required consent from the Joseon official Gamri, the Acting Commissioner of the Joseon Maritime Customs and diplomats from each country. Furthermore, they had to go through the process of obtaining review and approval from their home countries if there were any problems in the operation of the treaty. The establishment and implementation of quarantine rules were complicated by interests of various players in each country concerning protection of their own citizens. Even though it was timely and the purpose of implementation was good, it could not follow through the quarantine rules as proposed by the Japanese consul at the opening port. The accumulation of quarantine experience and information at each port of Joseon in 1886 provided the foundation for the Joseon government to move toward to establish quarantine rules and implement them with the consent of each country in the following year.

This paper analyzes the research process of Kim Chung Yong (henceforth referred to as KIM), who presented the hepatitis B vaccine in South Korea. In South Korea, which had been called the Hepatitis Kingdom, KIM developed a vaccine material for hepatitis B. Through his research achievements, South Korea, emerged from a country ignorant of hepatitis to a country with a hepatitis B vaccine. It is not easy to achieve remarkable results in developing countries where scientific development is lagging. This environment, however, helped KIM achieve his research. This article explains that the two circumstances affected his achievement in his research. First, KIM got a chance to study in the U.S. when he was his starting as a researcher. In the 1960s, the scientific and medical education environment in Korea was still poor. KIM left for Harvard University with the support of CMB, where he was able to advance his studies. This experience was an opportunity to further enhance his research skills. Second, Korea's poor health and hygiene environment in the 1970s worked in favor of verifying the effectiveness of vaccine materials he developed. South Korea, where hepatitis B was prevalent, became a good research site to secure enough test subjects. KIM also used blood sellers to find out the effects of the vaccine material he developed. Blood sellers are people who earn their living by selling their own blood and were commonly found in Korea at that time. The situation in Korea in the 1970s with prevailing hepatitis and the presence of blood sellers played an important role in KIM's research. His research on vaccine development for hepatitis B was hard to imagine in the scientific research environment of South Korea at the time. However, it was also this context and environment of South Korea at the time that enabled his achievement of developing a hepatitis B vaccine.

In modern Shanghai, smallpox was one of the most threatening diseases with its mortality rate going up to 30 percent. In response to the disease, Dr. William Lockhart, a medical missionary of the London Missionary Society, introduced vaccination(牛痘) to the Chinese people in Shanghai. He built the first western style hospital in Shanghai, Renji Hospital, in 1843. At this time, native doctors also played a very important role. For example, Huang Chun-pu was in charge of the dispensary in the Chinese City in Shanghai, and he was the one who introduced vaccination under Dr. Lockhart’s direction. In 1868, the Health Office of Shanghai Municipal Council began to implement a vaccination program. Around the turn of the 20th century, the Health Office of Shanghai Municipal Council managed several sub-district offices, hospitals, dispensaries, gaol, and even the traditional place like simiao for the free vaccinations. Urban residents benefited from a sanitary system, such as wide and free vaccination, compared to people who lived in rural areas. Moreover, Shanghai possessed the advantage of having the vaccine as a staple product of the Municipal Laboratory. The number of units of the vaccine issued from the Laboratory in sequence of years from 1898 to 1920 has been 115,351 on average. Unlike the International Settlement, where systematic inoculation was conducted under the leadership of the Municipal Council, the Chinese City was still reliant on charity organizations in the early 1900s. The foreign residence in the International Settlement had a strong influence from the foreign governments, and foreign doctors were well-aware of the need for the vaccination. However, the Chinese City was a Chinese enclave that was still under the traditional rule of the Qing Dynasty. In addition, the people of Shanghai had different perceptions of the smallpox vaccination, and this became an obstacle to the establishment of urban sanitation systems. Some Chinese people still relied on the traditional Chinese variolation and Chinese custom. For example, Chinese people still applied for inoculation in the spring and avoided summer and fall following traditional Chinese variolation, even though the best time to get vaccinated was in early winter before the spread of smallpox. In addition, foreigners were often more problematic than Chinese because they often overlooked the importance of vaccines and relied on drugs instead. The municipal authority, therefore, provided a wide range of free vaccinations for the poor and needy people regardless of their nationalities, and with such measures, sought to establish a stable urban sanitation system. This had been the key to the success of hygiene policies.

This article reviews the competition of two natural family planning methods in the mid-1970s when the Catholic Natural Family Planning program was underway in Korea. The Catholic Church, emphasizing the natural law, has recommended Natural Family Planning (NFP), a method of regulating childbirth by abstinence during the fertile period, since the mid-twentieth century. However, a group of gynecologists working at St. Mary's Hospital, a Catholic general hospital in Korea, questioned the utility of NFP. As an alternative, they proposed the method of Ovulation Regulation (OR), which regulates the menstrual cycle by inducing ovulation with steroids agents. This seemed to be no different than contraception with oral contraceptives disapproved of by the Catholic Church, but many doctors who advocated OR thought that this could be a new 'natural' family planning method to replace NFP. What is noteworthy here is the fact that not only NFP advocates, but also OR advocates attempted to justify their methods based on the authority of the 'nature.' In the debate over natural family planning methods, nature's legitimacy was given premise, not the object of doubt. Rather, the issue was the definition of nature. First, 'nature' in NFP signifies 'innate nature,' which excludes human intervention. According to this point of view, OR with steroids agents could not be natural. On the contrary, a group of doctors who advocated OR considered nature 'primal completeness.' If the natural order of the menstrual cycle could be restored, the artificial intervention of the administration of steroids was not a problem. Thus, both groups defended their arguments by redefining nature, rather than raising an issue of nature itself. The competition between 'innate nature' and 'complete nature,' a proxy war between NFP and OR, resulted in the victory of the former as the meaning of nature became fixed. Advocates of NFP pointed out that OR inhibits other physiological functions in the process of inducing ovulation, suggesting that the idea of 'complete nature' could never be achieved. The meaning of nature could no longer be controversial. Since the intervention was unnatural, nature meant innateness, the absence of intervention. Accordingly, the Catholic Bishops of Korea approved the Billings Method, a kind of the NFP, as the official family planning method, and gynecologists at St. Mary's Hospital of Korea also focused on the development and supplementation of the Billings Method. In short, the debate over the methods of natural family planning in mid1970s Korea was a clash of 'innate nature' and 'complete nature.' As a result, this confirmed the limitations of medical practice and reconfirmed the power of magisterium, the church's authority over medical practice.

This paper analyses a public controversy about the state of the main instruments at the National Astronomical Observa­tory of Chile at the end of the 19th century, the repair and the maintenance work of these tools and the scientific production of this institution. The controversy involved a wide range of actors, including members of the National Congress, ministers of State, astron­omers, mechanics and architects. This case examines the close link between the political and the techno-scientific spheres, evidenced in the administration, financing, evaluation and oversight of the work of the observatory. We can observe how the questioning of scientific quality, such as the state of the instruments of the institution, faced not only the judgments, but also the authority of those who issued. Also, this controversy allows us to observe how the need to create associated technologies and adapt astronomical in­struments gave prominence to mechanics, engineers and architects, actors often invisible in comparison to astronomers. El artículo analiza una controversia pública sobre el estado de los principales instrumentos del Observatorio Astronó­mico Nacional de Chile a fines del siglo XIX, las labores de reparación y mantención de estos y la producción científica de la institución. En la controversia participaron una amplia gama de actores, entre los que se encuentran miembros del Congreso Nacional, ministros de Estado, astrónomos, mecánicos y arquitectos. Este caso permite examinar la estrecha vinculación entre la esfera política y la tecnocientífica, evidenciándose en la administración, financiamiento, evaluación y fiscalización del quehacer del obser­vatorio astronómico. Acá podemos observar cómo el cuestionamiento sobre la calidad científica, como el estado de los instrumen­tos de la institución, enfrentó no solo los juicios, sino la autoridad de quienes los emitían. Por otro lado, esta controversia permi­te observar cómo la necesidad de crear tecnologías asociadas y adaptar los instrumentos astronómicos dio un protagonismo a mecánicos, ingenieros y arquitectos, actores muchas veces invisibles en comparación con los astrónomos.

When we read the encyclopaedic work of Isidore of Seville, we may get the feeling that classical medicine had reached the Visigoth world in a state of full rationality, as an erudite and well established knowledge. However, evidence of medical prac­tice is more difficult to be found. The doctor is shown as an exceptional figure, and medical care is available only for a privileged minority. When Isidore faces the disease in his monastic work it seems clear that the monks’ health is an object of his concern, but we immediately notice that his own idea of disease and its causes has taken a different course. The disease is no longer only an alteration of the balance of the body, the disease may become a proof of God’s disfavour. Among the healing options proposed by Isidore in his Etymologies, we can found diet, medicines and surgery, but only the first one seems to apply in the monastic context. This option, which is common to the rest of the ascetic literature and the rules of the surrounding areas, becomes a vehicle of disease prevention as well as an object of moral discipline and control of the will of the monks. Cuando leemos la obra enciclopédica de Isidoro de Sevilla da la sensación de que la medicina clásica había llegado al mundo visigodo plena de racionalidad, como un conocimiento erudito y bien asentado. Sin embargo, cuando se buscan las evi­dencias de la práctica médica esta resulta más difícil de atestiguar. El médico se presenta como una figura excepcional y sus cui­dados dirigidos a una minoría privilegiada. Cuando Isidoro enfrenta la enfermedad en su obra monástica parece claro que la salud del monje es objeto de su preocupación, pero enseguida apreciamos que su propio concepto de la enfermedad y sus causas ha tomado otros derroteros. La enfermedad ya no es solo una alteración del equilibrio del cuerpo, la enfermedad puede convertirse en una prueba de la desaprobación de Dios. Dentro de las opciones curativas propuestas por Isidoro en sus Etimologías: la dieta, el uso de medicamentos y la cirugía, solo la primera parece aplicarse en el contexto monástico. Esta opción, que es común al resto de la literatura ascética y de las reglas del entorno, deviene tanto en un vehículo de prevención de enfermedades, como en un objeto de disciplina moral y de control de la voluntad de los monjes.

Objective: To understand the semiotics of mystical-religious delirium and the incidence of sociocultural content in the configuration of symptoms in modern psychiatry in Colombia, 1920-1960. Methodology: hermeneutic historical, research by analysis of a series of case histories of the old Madhouse Department of Antioquia and the Psychiatric Asylum San Isidro del Valle del Cauca. Results: Among the most frequent psychopathologies in which delusions demonstrated is the group of hobbies, mainly intermittent, manic depression and melancholy; followed by paranoid schizophrenia, and was also common in puerperal or postpartum psychosis; He also appeared in general paresis (neurosyphilis) and acute brain syndrome or acute confusional state, delirium given modern nosography. According to medical records, the exaltation of religious ideas comes together in a polymorph delirium. The most frequent symptoms were visual and auditory hallucinations, logorrea or talkativeness, insomnia, accompanied food negativism fear of being poisoned, psychomotor or hyperkinetic excitement, fits of rage controlled straitjacket and other means of containment, attempted suicide and trend the escape of the house, therefore it was considered dangerous to themselves and others. Objetivo: comprender la semiología del delirio místico-religioso y la incidencia del contenido sociocultural en la confi­guración de los síntomas en la psicopatología moderna en Colombia, 1920-1960. Metodología: investigación histórico-hermenéu­tica, mediante análisis de una serie de historias clínicas del antiguo Manicomio Departamental de Antioquia y del Asilo Psiquiátri­co San Isidro del Valle del Cauca. Resultados: entre las psicopatologías más recurrentes en las que se manifestaron los delirios se encuentra el grupo de las manías, principalmente la intermitente, psicosis maniaco-depresiva y melancolía; seguido por la esqui­zofrenia paranoide, y también fue frecuente en la psicosis puerperal o posparto; asimismo, se presentó en la parálisis general progresiva (neurosífilis) y en el síndrome cerebral agudo o estado de confusión agudo, nosografía moderna dada al delirio. Según las historias clínicas, la exaltación de ideas religiosas confluye en un delirio polimorfo. Los síntomas más recurrentes fueron las alucinaciones visuales y auditivas, logorrea o locuacidad, insomnio, negativismo alimentario acompañado de miedo a ser envene­nado, excitación psicomotora o hiperquinética, accesos de furia controlados con camisa de fuerza y otros medios de contención, intento de suicidio y tendencia a la fuga de la casa, por lo tanto, se consideraba de peligrosidad para sí mismos y para los demás.

Par pavērsiena punktu speciālās izglītības un sociālās aprūpes vēsturē Latvijā ir uzskatāms 1854. gads, kad Rīgā tika dibināta pirmā iestāde bērniem ar garīgās attīstības traucējumiem. Nozīmīgi tās darbības izpētes avoti ir 1862. gadā izdotais fotogrāfiju albums “Idioten-Anstalt von Fr. Platz: Riga d. 9. Juli” 1862 un ziņojumi par iestādes darbību. Rakstā ir sniegts izklāsts par speciālās izglītības un sociālās aprūpes aizsākumu 19. gadsimtā Latvijas teritorijā (toreizējā Krievijas Impērijā, Vidzemes guberņā) personām ar garīgās attīstības traucējumiem un par to reprezentāciju, pievēršot uzmanību priekšstata radīšanai par sociālo grupu medicīniskā diskursā un medicīnisko tekstu un fotogrāfijas izplatībai informatīvajā telpā ētikas un konfidencialitātes kontekstā. Raksta mērķis ir raksturot nozares institucionālās attīstības aizsākumus un noskaidrot, kā Rīgā pirmās speciālās izglītības un aprūpes iestādes tekstuālā un fotogrāfiskā dokumentācija ir izmantota garīgo traucējumu reprezentācijai no 19. gadsimta otrās puses publicitātes un mūsdienu medicīniskās informācijas konfidencialitātes perspektīvām. Rakstam izvirzītie uzdevumi: 1) apzināt un raksturot Frīdriha un Terēzes Placu darbību speciālās izglītības un sociālās aprūpes institucionalizācijas kontekstā, 2) noskaidrot institucionālās prakses garīgās nespējas diskursu un fotogrāfijas nozīmi garīgās nespējas dokumentācijā un reprezentācijā un 3) salīdzināt medicīniska satura tekstu un fotogrāfiju izplatību informatīvajā telpā ētikas un konfidencialitātes kontekstā no 19. gadsimta otrās puses un mūsdienu skatpunkta, pretstatot pacientu anonimitāti un privātumu ar publisku reprezentāciju. Pētījums ir veikts valsts pētījumu programmas “Latvijas mantojums un nākotnes izaicinājumi valsts ilgtspējai” projekta “Dokumentārā mantojuma izpētes nozīme, veidojot sinerģijas starp pētniecību un sabiedrību” (Nr. VPP-IZM-2018/1-0022) ietvaros.

The three most important processes in psychiatric hospitals of the Lithuanian SSR (1944–1990) have been analysed in terms of the centre-periphery relation. Two of them are named “power unto sickness”, that is, the Soviet state’s efforts to influence people with deviant behaviours who were considered to have “mental diseases”. The first process could be considered external: institutionalisation of psychiatric system in the Lithuanian SSR that was meant to create the conditions, forms and means to exercise the said influence. The main outcome of the process is said to be the so-called “institution addiction” where problems arising from institutionalisation are tackled with more institutionalisation. The second process in the “power unto sickness” category is internal. The Soviet psychiatric model used in the Lithuanian SSR has been analysed and the question whether there has ever been a homogenous and unique model of Soviet psychiatry has been raised. The third process is the symbolic inverse of the “power unto sickness” processes, but determined by them – “sickness unto power”. It shows the “power” itself to be deviant, transgressing formal limits, exposes the consequences and cracks of its exercise. The third process in psychiatric hospitals of the Lithuanian SSR, “parallelisation”, in which the modern hospital, alongside its formal therapeutic function, acquired parallel, non-formal functions, has been described.

Serological surveys, which acquired considerable importance in the mid twentieth century, are still a key tool to address infectious diseases. This article, using archival and printed sources from the WHO and the medical and general press, analyses the role of doctors and scientists, government, and the WHO in the implementation of serological surveys to evaluate the situation of poliomyelitis, measles and rubella in Spain and to set up a plan of action against them. The paper shows the role of Florencio Pérez Gallardo and his group at the National School of Health, favoured by the Franco regime to receive the support of WHO collaborative programmes after Spain joined in 1951, and the impact of these programmes on the scientific and professional transformation of the virological nucleus of Madrid, together with the establishment of new institutions enabling the modernisation of virology, in parallel with the development and execution of the serological surveys. The study also reveals the parallel development of Catalan scientific groups, who enjoyed international recognition and boosted the fight against the diseases studied, as well as the key role of the cir­culation of WHO experts and Spanish researchers in the spreading of scientific knowledge and practices. Las encuestas serológicas, que adquirieron gran relevancia a mediados del siglo XX, siguen siendo herramienta clave para abordar las enfermedades infecciosas. El artículo, utilizando fuentes archivísticas e impresas de la OMS, prensa médica y general, analiza el papel de médicos y científicos, gobierno y la OMS en la implementación de los estudios serológicos para evaluar la situación de la poliomielitis, sarampión y rubeola en España y establecer un plan de actuación contra ellas. El trabajo muestra el protagonismo de Florencio Pérez Gallardo y su grupo de la Escuela Nacional de Sanidad, privilegiado por el régimen franquista para recibir el apoyo de los programas colaborativos de la OMS, tras la entrada de España en ella en 1951, y el impacto de dichos programas en la transformación científico-profesional del núcleo virológico de Madrid, acompañado del establecimiento de nuevas instituciones, que permitieron modernizar la virología, paralelamente al desarrollo y ejecución de las encuestas serológicas men­cionadas. El estudio revela igualmente el desarrollo paralelo de grupos científicos catalanes, que gozaron de reconocimiento inter­nacional y dinamizaron la lucha contra las enfermedades estudiadas, pero también el papel clave de la circulación de los expertos de la OMS y los investigadores españoles para vehicular conocimiento científico y prácticas.

Small-scale analysis is a path of historiographical approach that opened, at the time, new paths in research. The prox­imity of the study object allows us to delve into our own and specific determinants and the realities and practices of, for example, mass immunization campaigns against polio, designed at the national level but implemented locally, as in the case study that we discuss. Using as a model the provincial sanitary area of Alicante, the work adds data to complete the proximity information on these campaigns and thus, complete an overview and a comparative analysis both in an external and in an internal interterritori­al, national scope and provincial level as well as the follow-up of the guidelines given by the national and international organisms. Secondly, to give meaning to the set of activities carried out by different actors, institutions and media, involved in the process of implementation, coverage and follow-up of polio vaccination campaigns in the province of Alicante. The use of narratives of peo­ple affected by the disease allows to add relevant elements about personal experiences in the context of the vaccine campaigns. El análisis a pequeña escala es una vía de abordaje historiográfico que abrió, en su momento, nuevos caminos en la investigación. La proximidad del objeto de estudio, permite profundizar en los determinantes propios y específicos y en las reali­dades y prácticas, por ejemplo, de las campañas de inmunización masiva contra la poliomielitis diseñada a nivel nacional pero implementadas localmente, como en el estudio de caso que abordamos. Utilizando como modelo el ámbito sanitario provincial de Alicante, el trabajo añade datos para completar la información de proximidad sobre estas campañas y de ese modo, completar una visión de conjunto y un análisis comparado tanto en un ámbito externo como en un ámbito interno interterritorial, nacional y provincial, así como el seguimiento de las directrices dadas por los organismos nacionales e internacionales. En segundo término, dotar de significado al conjunto de actividades llevadas a cabo por diferentes actores, instituciones y medios de comunicación, implicados en el proceso de implantación, cobertura y seguimiento de las campañas de vacunación contra la polio en el ámbito provincial alicantino. El uso de narrativas de personas afectadas por la enfermedad permite añadir elementos relevantes sobre experiencias personales en el contexto de las campañas vacunales.

The objective of present article is to discuss the conventional dichotomous view which distinguishes between tradi­tional knowledge and scientific knowledge by providing a comprehensive picture of the complex techniques used to sail the rivers in the Andean world. The materials, fools and navigation practices used by indigenous are described right away, and the author tries to make the tacit knowledge rooted in this technical culture visible. Afterward, it works explains how the early Spanish tech­nologies was adapted in the American context and shows that the use of the indigenous navigation techniques was a crucial factor for the success of the European domination project. It argues that when considering the mutual flows of knowledge and the technological hybridizations arising from the encounter between both civilizations, it cannot be justified the inferiorization of traditional knowledge with respect to scientific knowledge. Este artículo presenta una mirada panorámica de las técnicas de navegación fluvial desarrolladas por la población in­dígena en el mundo andino, con el propósito de discutir la visión dicotómica que convencionalmente distingue entre los saberes tradicionales y los conocimientos científicos. Se describen los materiales, utensilios y prácticas de navegación utilizadas por los indígenas y se intenta visibilizar el conocimiento tácito arraigado en esta cultura técnica. Se explica cómo fueron adaptadas al contexto americano las tecnologías traídas por los españoles y se muestra que los conocimientos técnicos tradicionales fueron un factor útil incluso para el éxito del propio proyecto de dominación europeo. Se argumenta que el flujo mutuo de conocimientos y las hibridaciones tecnológicas surgidas a partir del encuentro entre ambas civilizaciones cuestiona la común inferiorización del saber tradicional con respecto al conocimiento científico.

The aim of this paper is to compare “Zapiski Vracha” (“Confessions of a Physician”, first published in 1901) by Vikenty Veresaev to “Aerztliche Ethik” (“Doctors’ Ethics”, first published in 1902; two Russian editions were published in 1903 and 1904) by Albert Moll. It starts with an overview of medical ethics in Russia at the turn of the 20th century in relation to zemstvo medicine, followed by reception of Veresaev’s “Confessions of a Physician” by Russian and German physicians, and of Moll’s “Doctors’ Ethics” in Russia. Comparison of these two books may serve as a good example of a search for common philosophical foundations of medical ethics as well as the impact of national cultural traditions.

Since the end of the 19th century, it has been possible to fight against several viral diseases (smallpox, rabies, influenza, polio, measles, rubella and mumps) that, during the 20th century, had a massive effect on the adult and child population through vaccination programmes established when safe vaccines were available to prevent such diseases. Spain progressively incorporated these preventive measures, especially after its incorporation into the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1951. By the time the General Health Law was enacted in 1986, it had been possible to control and/or eliminate some of these diseases through systematic vaccination. The treatment and monitoring that the Spanish national press has given to the implementation of the vaccination campaigns against these diseases has been little studied. Therefore, the objectives of this paper are to analyse the repercussions in the national press of the vac­cination campaigns against these viral diseases between 1951 and 1986 and to check whether the written media reflected the global epidemiological measures adopted by WHO to combat them. Besides, to study its possible influence both in the development of public policies of vaccination and in the way how this information was transmitted to the population during the different socio-political and scientific contexts in the studied period. Desde finales del siglo XIX, fue posible luchar contra varias de las enfermedades víricas (rabia, viruela, gripe, polio, sarampión, rubéola y parotiditis), que, a lo largo del siglo XX, afectaron masivamente a la población adulta e infantil, a través de programas de vacu­nación que se establecieron una vez que estuvieron disponibles vacunas seguras para prevenirlas. España fue adoptando estas medidas preventivas progresivamente, especialmente a partir de su incorporación a la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) en 1951. Cuando se promulgó la Ley General de Sanidad, en 1986, algunas de estas enfermedades habían podido controlarse y/o eliminarse mediante la vacunación sistemática. El tratamiento que ha realizado la prensa nacional de estos hechos ha sido escasamente estudiado. Este artículo tiene como objetivo analizar la repercusión en la prensa nacional de las campañas de vacunación contra estas enfermedades víricas hasta el año 1986 y comprobar si los medios de comunicación escritos reflejaron las medidas epidemiológicas globales adoptadas por la OMS para combatirlas. Junto a ello, estudiar su posible influencia, tanto en la puesta en marcha de políticas públicas de vacunación, como en el modo de transmitir dicha información a la población en los diferentes contextos sociopolíticos y científico-sanitarios cambiantes del periodo estudiado.

Based on two essential texts by Chilean doctor Augusto Orrego Luco – La cuestión social (The Social Question, 1897) and his Discurso de toma de posesión de su cargo de presidente de la Sociedad Médica (Speech on taking up his position as pres­ident of the Medical Society, 1895) – we analyse this author’s proposals regarding the role of science in governing populations. The analysis focuses on concepts such as the vagabond race in relation to the social and racial question in late-19th-century Chile, and identifies scientific influences such as biological determinism and the theory of degeneracy. Partiendo de dos textos fundamentales del médico chileno Augusto Orrego Luco: La cuestión social (1897) y su Discur­so de toma de posesión de su cargo de presidente de la Sociedad Médica (1895), se analiza las propuestas que este autor desa­rrollo sobre el papel de la ciencia en el gobierno de las poblaciones. Se presta atención a conceptos, como el de raza vagabunda en relación con la cuestión social, y racial, en el Chile de finales del siglo XIX y se identifican influencias científicas como el deter­minismo biológico y la teoría de la degeneración.

[EN] The focus of this work is surgeon Pedro López de León and the contribution of his manual of medicine and surgery, which he wrote in Cartagena de Indias in the early seventeenth century. Through the reconstruction of his life, and the analysis of his work and bibliographical references, we highlight the transatlantic notoriety of the effort to develop the scientific knowledge of modern medicine in a central port of the Caribbean in the Atlantic Trade., [ES] La pregunta de quién fue el cirujano sevillano Pedro López de León y qué significó el manual de medicina y cirugía que escribió en Cartagena de Indias a comienzos del siglo XVII, es el objetivo central que persigue nuestro trabajo. A través de la re-construcción de su vida, de las reflexiones en torno a su obra y de un análisis de los referentes bibliográficos que usó, resaltaremos la notoriedad trasatlántica que alcanzó en el esfuerzo por desarrollar el conocimiento científico de la medicina moderna en un puerto central del Caribe en el comercio Atlántico en la Edad Moderna., Esta investigación forma parte del Proyecto Connected Worlds: The Caribbean, Origin of Modern World”. This project has received funding from the European Union ́s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Sklodowska Curie grant agreement Nº 823846. Dirigido por Consuelo Naranjo Orovio desde el Instituto de Historia-CSIC.

The epidemics of smallpox lashed Cuba since 1522, producing high morbidity and mortality which with different ups and downs in its development, had as central figure Tomas Romay. The main aim of this paper is to analyze the results of the vaccination strategy performed in Cuba for the elimination of smallpox in Cuba and how the institutions were transformed in re­lation to the advances and production of the vaccine. The primary sources used have been diverse: epidemiological and statistical sources, documents related to organisms set up for to the spread and production of the vaccine, institutional reports and local scientific journalism. The work reconstructs the role played by the Central Vaccine Board (1804) emerged to plan, execute and expand this strategy in the territory, the Animal Vaccination Institute (1873) and the General Vaccine Center (1883) to produce it. In the twentieth century, it became mandatory by law and together with strict isolation measures taken on cases and spot checks, led to the elimination of the disease in 1923. Las epidemias de viruela azotaron a Cuba desde 1522, produciendo elevada morbilidad y mortalidad. En 1804, se inició la estrategia de vacunación contra esta enfermedad que, con distintos avatares y fases en su desarrollo, tuvo como figura central a Tomas Romay. El objetivo del trabajo fue analizar los resultados de la estrategia de vacunación llevada a cabo en la eliminación de la viruela en Cuba y como se transformaron las instituciones en relación a los avances y producción de la vacuna en función del contexto científico, social y político del periodo estudiado. Las fuentes primarias utilizadas han sido diversas: fuentes de tipo epidemiológico y estadístico, documentos relacionados con los organismos puestos en marcha para la propagación y producción de la vacuna, informes institucionales y periodismo científico local. El trabajo reconstruye el papel jugado por la Junta Central de la Vacuna (1804), para planificar, ejecutar y expandir esta estrategia en el territorio, el Instituto de Vacunación Animal (1873) y el Centro General de la Vacuna (1883) en la producción de la misma. En el siglo XX, se convirtió en obligatoria por ley y junto a las estrictas medidas de aislamiento tomadas sobre los casos y los controles de focos, llevaron a la eliminación de la enfermedad a partir de 1923.

This paper intends to examine the realities of modern hygiene and medical institutions making their appearance in the rural Honam Plain (often called the “rice basket”) of colonial Korea in terms of organizing local units and spreading colonial ‘sanitary discipline’ throughout the region. In the Honam area, modern medical staff and facilities tended to concentrate on the cities in plain region (Kunsan, Jeonju, and Iri), while in the counties in mountainous region they were placed in the township where head office of each county was located. The case of Iksan County in plain region represented this pattern, which was closely associated with the behavior pattern of local Japanese immigrants as well as population growth (i.e., urbanization). The colonial city of Iri in Iksan County with burgeoning population of Japanese immigrants witnessed an early case of hygiene association right after Japan’s annexation of Korea in 1910. The Iri hygiene association was a product of organizational restructuring of the pre- annexation Japanese resident association into the school association after the annexation, under which it was subordinated. It stands as an interesting contrast to the Jeonju hygiene association organized ‘autonomously’ under the official (police) auspices in the mid-1930s, which did not undergo the stage of school association. Yet, both cases represented the urban ‘autonomous’ (civil) organizations’ effort to transplant colonial ‘sanitary discipline’ into the colonial local societies without recourse to the hygiene police apparatus. On the other hand, the sanitary project in rural areas was carried out on the basis of model hygiene village, with the identical purpose of raising awareness of hygiene and prohibiting epidemics just as the hygiene association in cities. However, considering the low level of epidemic inspection of Korean patients, the effect of the Japanese colonial sanitary project in Korean local societies was disappointing. There was an ever-widening gap in the colonial hygiene and medical services between Koreans and their colonizers as well as between urban and rural areas.

In the 15th century, Joseon dynasty’s goal for the stabilization of the ruling system, the ideological freedom of the era, and the necessity of medicine due to the introduction of Jin and Yuan dynasty’s medicine led to the increased interest in medicine by the nobility along with tolerant practice. The practice of reading medical books is a good example of this institutional demonstration. However, by the end of the 15th century, a noticeable change had taken place. Within the nobility, there was an ideological rigidity regarding technology other than those of Confucianism, as the nobility became concentrated on the principles of Neo-Confucianism. In addition, as the publication of large-scale editions such as Ŭibangyuch'wi (the Classified Collection of Medical Prescriptions) came to an end, they have become less inclined to nurture talent at the level of the central government as in the previous period. In addition, as the discrimination against illegitimate children became stronger, technical bureaucrats such as medical officials, which were open to illegitimate children, came to be seen in increasingly disdainful and differentiated manners. From the late Sejong period to the early Seongjong period, the entrance of illegitimate sons into the medical bureaucracy solidified the negligence of medicine by the nobility. After then, the medical bureaucracy came to be monopolized by illegitimate sons. As for illegitimate sons, they were not allowed to enter society through Confucian practices, and as such, the only way for them to enter the government was by continuing to gain experience as technical bureaucrats. Technical posts that became dominated by illegitimate sons became an object of contempt by the nobility, and the cycle reproduced itself with the social perception that legitimate sons of the nobility could not become a medical official. Medical officials from the Yi clan of Yangseong had been legitimate sons and passers of the civil service examination in the 15th century. However, in the 16th century, only illegitimate sons became medical officials. The formation of Jungin (middleclass) in technical posts since the middle of the Joseon period is also related to this phenomenon. The Yi clan of Yangseong that produced medical officials for 130years over four generations since Yi Hyoji, a medical book reading official, is an exemplary case of the change in the social perception in the early Joseon period regarding medical bureaucrats.

Historians of science have noted that modern nation-states and capitalism necessitated the systematic creation and implementation of a wide array of knowledge and technologies to produce a more productive and robust population. Commonly labeled as biopolitical practices in Foucauldian sense, such endeavors have often been discussed in the realms of public hygiene, housing, birth control, and child mortality, among others. This article is an attempt to extend the scope of the discussion by exploring a relatively understudied domain of nutrition science as a critical case of social engineering and intervention, specifically during and after World War I in the case of Japan. Research and dissemination of knowledge on food and health in Japan, like other industrializing nation-states, centered on new public hygiene initiatives since the late nineteenth-century. However, in the aftermath of WWI, or more precisely, after the Rice Riots of 1918, a new trend began to dominate the discourse of nutrition and health. In the face of wartime inflation and the resultant nation-wide riots, physicians and social scientists alike began to view the food choice and budget issue as a solution to the middle class crisis. This new perception drew on the conceptual framework to understand food, metabolism, and cost in the language of quantifiable nutrition vis-à-vis monetary values. By analyzing how specific nutritional knowledge was translated into the tenets for public campaigns to reform everyday life, this paper ultimately sheds light on the institutionalization of a new area of research, nutrition (eiyō) in Japan.

Resumo Este artigo se insere no debate sobre a medicalização do parto no Brasil, a partir do levantamento de fontes realizado em bases de dados de bibliotecas brasileiras, e apresenta como objetivo principal a disponibilização sistematizada dos títulos das publicações científicas especializadas existentes nas áreas de ginecologia e obstetrícia no século XX, especialmente na primeira metade desse século. Considerando a relevância da análise de periódicos na construção do conhecimento científico no Brasil, assim como a importância das revistas especializadas na constituição e no desenvolvimento de especialidades médicas, apresentou-se um detalhamento desses acervos, considerando localização, período de publicação e local de produção, apresentando mais detidamente o acervo situado na biblioteca da Maternidade-Escola da Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro. Abstract This article contributes to the debate about the medicalization of childbirth in Brazil through a literature review of databases of Brazilian libraries. Its main goal is to enable the systematized availability of specialized scientific publications in gynecology and obstetrics in the twentieth century, especially 1900 to 1950. In view of the importance of the analysis of journals in the development of scientific knowledge in Brazil and the importance of specialized journals in constituting and developing medical specializations, details of these archives are presented, including their location, when they were published, and where they were produced, paying particular attention to the archive in the library of the Teaching Maternity Hospital (Maternidade-Escola) of the Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro.

Целью статьи является установление роли Оре- ста Зыбачинского в украинском освободительном движении. Методологическую основу исследования составляют принципы историзма и объективности. Научная новизна статьи заключается в раскрытии ранее неизвестных страниц жизни Ореста Зыбачинского и уточнении уже известных. Выводы. Доказано, что он основывал первые ячейки ОУН на Буковине и Донбассе, «Зарубежный центр» в Бухаресте и Интернационал Свободы в Мюнхене. Выяснено, что Орест Зыбачинский не создавал Буковинский курень. Развивая подпольную сеть на Донбассе, он опирался на украинскую ин- теллигенцию.

В статье проведен обзор специфической сферы деятельности сотрудников и выпускников Черно- вицкого медицинского института – их участие в оказании помощи странам «третьего мира» на начальном этапе сущест- вования учебного заведения. Среди медиков, которые были командированы за границу, упомянуты Осипов Б.К., Кантор О.А., Закрывидорога С.П., Петросян Н.Г., Мохунь І.К., Липковский В.П., Черевко С.А., Анипко А.П., Шкварюк М.С., Ходоровский Г.І., Синчук О.М., Гайдичук С.Т., Трефаненко А.Г., Трефаненко С.П., Щербак В.В., Гайко Г.В., Заболотный М.С., Васильева О.Г., Кравец А.А. и др. Целью исследования является освещение этой страницы в истории БГМУ в хро- нологических рамках первого 30-летия его деятельности. Актуальность работы продиктована приближением 75-летия БГМУ, где главная роль принадлежит ее сотрудникам разных поколений. А выбор хронологических рамок находится в канве предыдущих статей авторов, в которых они попытались осветить наименее изученный период истории университе- та. Методика работы основана на анализе архивных, библиографических материалов, мемуарной литературы, синтезе разрозненных данных из разных источников. Выводы. В русле внешней политики СССР, которая предполагала одновре- менно с другими видами помощи развивающимся странам и помощь высококвалифицированными медицинскими кадра- ми, ряд сотрудников и выпускников Черновицкого медицинского института были командированы за границу. Все они были специалистами высокого класса в своей отрасли медицины, в большинстве случаев имели ученую степень кандида- та медицинских наук, владели иностранными языками. Они показали себя настоящими врачами и преподавателями, ко- торые честно выполняли клятву Гиппократа в сложных для европейцев климатических условиях работы. Они продолжа- ли свою исследовательскую работу, консультировали и лечили людей, принимали участие в подготовке местных кадров, пропагандировали медицинские знания, публиковали результаты своих научных поисков в зарубежных изданиях. Подоб- ная деятельность содействовала интеллектуальному самообогащению, повышению профессионального мастерства и педагогических навыков. Наши специалисты достойно представляли Родину за рубежом.The article reviews the specific field of activity of the staff and graduat- es of the Chernivtsi Medical Institute and their participation in helping the countries of the "third world" at the initial stage of the existence of an educational institution. Among the doctors who had been sent abroad were mentioned Osipov B.K., Kantor O.A., Zakr- yvydoroga S.P., Petrosyan N.G., Mokhun I.K., Lipkovsky V.P., Cherevko S.A. , Anipko AP, Shkvaruk MS, Khodorovsky G.I., Sinchuk O.M., Haidychuk S.T., Trefanenko AG, Trefanenko SP, Shcherbak V.V., Hayko GV, Zabolotniy MS, Vasiliev O.G., Krav- ets AA etc. The purpose of the study is to integrate the descripti- on of this historical period of BSMI in the chronological framewo- rk of the first 30th anniversary of its activities. Its relevance is dictated by the approaching 75th anniversary of the BSMU, in which the main role belongs to its employees of different generat- ions. And the choice of the chronological framework of the article was made by the previous articles basis of the authors, in which they tried to highlight the least studied period of the existence of the CHESMI. In addition, the authors of the article suppose that the intellectual potential of Ukraine is one of the country's greatest wealth. The method of work is based on the analysis of archival, bibliographic materials, memoirs, synthesis of data from various sources. Conclusions. In line with the foreign policy of the USSR, which included, along with other forms of assistance to the "Third World" countries and assistance to highly qualified medical stuff, a number of staff and graduates of the Chernivtsi Medical Institute were sent abroad. All of them were specialists of high quality in their medical areas, most of them had scientific degrees of candida- tes of medical sciences, they possessed foreign languages. They also became selfmade doctors and teachers, who honestly perform- ed the Hippocratic oath in the extreme weather conditions for Euro- peans. They continued research work, counseled and treated peop- le, participated in the training of local staff, in advocating for medi- cal knowledge among the population of the "Third World" countri- es. The results of research conducted in the countries of their busi- ness trip, were published materials in foreign publications. This activity promoted intellectual self-enrichment, increased professio- nal skills and pedagogical skills. They duly represented their homeland abroad.

Resumo O texto pretende construir uma análise inicial sobre a forma como obstetras ativistas da humanização do parto e do nascimento no Brasil entendem e analisam a prática da episiotomia, intervenção técnica convencional nos protocolos obstétricos que aprenderam durante suas formações médicas e a qual posteriormente abandonaram. Apresentamos uma construção analítica inicial pela ótica dos estudos sociais da ciência e tecnologia e levantamos questionamentos sobre os conceitos de neutralidade da ciência e das tecnologias e imparcialidade do profissional especialista/cientista. Buscamos, ainda, apontar as relações que parecem se estabelecer entre atuação política, produção de conhecimento científico e atuação técnica na prática profissional dos referidos obstetras.

У матеріалі-спогаді висвітлено віхи життя й діяльності видатного лікаря Ювеналія Семеновича Каська. Автор спогадів, як учениця Ю.С. Каська, подає не тільки факти біографії визначного лікаря, викладача і громадського діяча, але й вибудовує історико-біографічний пор- трет непересічної особистості та приділяє значну увагу його рокам роботи у Чернівцях та Чернівецькому державному медичному інституті. Автор приносить вдячність Г.П. Касько за люб'язно надані архівні матеріали сім'ї Касько.

В ста- тье анализируется роль культурной памяти и ее сакральное значение в образце проповеднической литературы ХVII столетия – «Руне орошенном» Димитрия Туптала (св. Димитрия Ростовского). Данное произведение посвящено описанию известных к тому времени чудес от иконы Божьей Матери, находившейся в Ильинской обители города Чернигова. Образ чудотворной ико- ны Ильинской Богоматери имеет сразу две функции: практическую (средства хранения и передачи культурной памяти Черни- говщины) и сакральную (объект излучения божественной помощи). Методы исследования. В статье были использованы опи- сательно-аналитический, структурно-семиотический и культурологический методы. Научная новизна. Впервые анализируется явление культурной памяти в творчестве Димитрия Туптало, в частности в произведении «Руно орошенное», а также показаны основные способы ее сохранения. Выводы. Культурная память транспортируется через символы. В данном случае можно рас- сматривать передачу библейского сюжета через символы. Информация, заложенная в них, передается через текст проповеди читателям, подвергаясь своеобразной интерпретации. Исследовательница приходит к выводу, что в этой книге Димитрий Туптало показывает одновременно два пласта инфор- мации – прошлое и настоящее, включив в состав повествования как современные ему события – хроники чудес, случившихся за последние несколько лет, так и цитаты авторов прошлого времени. Автор рассматривает текст как средство хранения культур- ной памяти и передачи ее последующим поколениям.

This article attempts to review the reality of rural health care in Korea from the 1960s to the 1980s by analyzing the Daegok Diary. There has been two myths about rural healthcare. One is that the absence of institutional medicine was replaced by folk medicine, which could be identified with folk remedies or shamanic healing distinguished from Western medicine. This is a frame that understands institutional and Western medicine as a pair and folk medicine and traditional medicine as another. Another popular belief is that rural healthcare had remained almost nonexistent, and only dramatically improved after the Regional Health Insurance was implemented. Of course, some claim that the Regional Health Insurance was disadvantageous to farmers, but it is generally understood that there was an absence of government policy regarding medical care. The Daegok Diary, telling many aspects of rural life, is a good source to reflect on these common notions. Unlike other farmers’ diaries, the diary of Shin Kwonsik contains a wealth of medical culture records because he chose unique ways to cure his and neighbors’ illnesses by himself. It can be summarized as the life of “quasi-doctor”. Shin was distinguished from quacks in that he practiced as an intellectual in the village rather than as a profession, and that he learned official medical knowledge and recognized the difference between a licensed physician and himself. Also, he was different from doctors because of the lack of a medical license and the limited range of diseases that he could treat. The life of quasi-doctor shows the social structure of rural areas in Korea from the 1960s to the 1980s. The reality of rural healthcare can be summarized in two ways. First, the medical vacuum was filled by civilian efforts. There was virtually no institutional healthcare in rural areas, but the government did little to improve the situation . The policy of sending doctors to the countryside proved to be ineffective, and the community doctor system did not work properly. Health Insurance was also a system for city workers rather than farmers. In the late 1970s, the situation only slightly improved due to reasons unrelated to the government policy regarding rural healthcare. These were improvements in traffic conditions and the increasing popularity of private insurance, which improved the physical and economic accessibility to medical institutions. Second, Western medicine had become a part of folk medicine. Those who could not go to a hospital utilized Western medicine, which had penetrated the folk medical culture. When people were sick, they bought Western drugs from pharmacies, drug dealers, and sometimes quacks. The knowledge of Western medicine also spread widely, with family medical books such as Million People’s Medicine as the medium. These two characteristics show that the existing myths that regard the absence of government policy as that of medical care and interpret the medical vacuum as the prevalence of folk remedies and shamanic healing are far from the truth. From the 1960s to the 1980s, gaps in institutional medicine was filled by Western medicine which had become part of the folk medicine already, and the accessibility of institutional medicine was improved through civilian efforts. Of course, the Daegok Diary shows more than the social structure of rural areas. It also reveals a lot about the man who wrote it, Shin Kwonsik. Unlike the others, Shin chose to become a quasi-doctor because of his separation from the tradition and his desire to learn. He grew up alone without parental care and later moved to Seoul by himself. This meant a break with the tradition. He joined the army in the wake of the Korean War and learned how to give injections there. After he was discharged, he devoured many books and newspapers including Million People’s Medicine. In short, the existence of a quasi-doctor like Shin was the result of the combination of the absence of institutional medicine, the predominance of Western medicine, and the characteristic of Shin as a ‘learning modern.’

This article is the outcome of a project to photographically document the David Capistrano Filho Birthing House (Casa de Parto David Capistrano Filho) continuously for 12 years from 2005 to 2017. The photographs narrate daily life in the institution: its regular activities with families, celebrations, its domestic, therapeutic, and community activities, and activities involving the exercise of citizenship for the right to autonomy and quality in reproductive health care. The birthing house is a public health institution that serves women with low-risk pregnancies in Realengo, a district in the west zone of Rio de Janeiro. More broadly, it proposes to educate and inform by creating bonds and relationships of proximity and by fostering non-medical practices and transdisciplinary care.

Для исследователя традиционных обществ связь между магией и народной, или традиционной медициной, очевиден. Цель статьи ‐ выявить сущ- ностные черты магических и апотропеичных действий в народной медицине румын. Народная медицина в традиционном обще- стве возникает способом мировосприятия, включая его отношение к природным явлениям и к враждебным действиям других лиц. Магия была составной частью народной медицины, так как заболеваемость объяснялась внешними факторами, а недуги, по мнению древних людей, «привносились» внешними злыми силами. Исследование диалектической связи магических дейст- вий, их комплексов и ожидаемого медицинского результата, опираясь на верования и традиционные народные ритуалы стано- вит новизну работы. Методологическая база включает описательный и сравнительный методы, опирающиеся на результаты полевых исследований. Существуют активные, агрессивные практики, которые вызывают магическую, вредную силу (заговоры, заклинания, колдовство) или пассивную противодействие практике, предназначенную для обеспечения защиты от заклинаний (защитные заговоры, заговоры-обереги). Выводы. В статье предпринята попытка классификации магических дейс- твий в народной медицине, согласно сфер влияния, количества участников, атрибутики ритуалов.

An annotated bibliography on the medicalization of childbirth in Brazil from 2001 to 2017. It includes articles published in Brazilian periodicals retrieved from the Scielo, Hisa, and Lilacs databases. The references from the articles are presented, followed by the authors' abstracts. The aim is to map out what was written about the medicalization of childbirth in Brazil in the period in question in order to make this scholarly output more accessible to students and researchers interested in the subject.