Search

This paper estimates the impacts of regulating the use of sanitary and phytosanitary and technical barriers to trade measures through preferential trade agreements on exports of firms in Chile, Colombia, and Peru along the firm size spec trum. The analysis exploits novel data from the World Bank Deep Trade Agreements database and customs covering the universe of exporting firms in each country over 1996–2015. The paper uses a firm-product gravity equation with a stringent set of fixed effects and controls for the overall depth of the preferential trade agreements and product-specific bilateral tariffs. The findings show that firms’ exports increase significantly in destination markets with preferential trade agreements, including a larger number of sanitary and phytosanitary and technical barriers to trade provisions, and the effect is stronger for smaller firms. Provisions for the harmonization of sanitary and phytosanitary regulations in preferential trade agreements also have greater benefits for the exports of smaller firms, and so do preferential trade agreements, including stronger transparency provisions for sanitary and phytosanitary and technical barriers to trade regulations. The results are robust to dropping larger exporters and highly concentrated export sectors to address endogeneity. The benefits of sanitary and phytosanitary and technical barriers to trade provisions are mainly driven by sectors with more heavily-regulated products. Entry into new product markets and increases in export quality partly explain the rising exports of smaller firms. Finally, the estimated impacts are similar regardless of the income level of the preferential trade agreement partners.

This paper studies how productivity and markups respond to non-tariff measures. The analysis uses a novel time-varying data set on all non-tariff measures applied to imported products by Indonesia. Price and quantity information is used to disentangle the impact of non-tariff measures on plants’ technical efficiency and markups. The findings show that on average, non-tariff measures generate fewer distortions than import tariffs do. However, while specific non-tariff measures increase the quality of the products on which they are applied, others act as barriers to trade similar to import tariffs. These results suggest that to gauge their impacts and guide policy making, non-tariff measures should not be bundled together in empirical analyses.

This paper examines trade integration of East Asian countries through the lens of global value chains (GVCs). It first gauges the extent and involvement of trade in value-added (TiVA) for East Asian countries. The analysis confirms that reliance on backward GVC participation outside of the region still looms large in East Asia. This presents the case for creating policies that would enable the creation of greater global links in addition to focusing on deepening intraregional trade linkages remain important. Sectoral comparisons reveal that Regional Value Chains (RVCs) among East-Asian economies have been increasing its role in East Asian's exports of transport equipment sector while decreasing the role in its exports of textile and apparel sector. Such trend seems to suggest RVC opportunities are available to East Asian economies in sectors that require production to locate close to large and growing markets and suppliers' ability to absorb new technology. Moreover, the study finds enabling policy environment is an important factor to strengthen intraregional value chain linkages. For example, non-tariff measures (NTMs), have become an important part of trade-policy measures and have significantly affected trade flows in RVCs. It is found that NTMs are generally associated with reduced trade in value-added flows, except in the case that NTMs may help ensuring quality standards, such as technical NTMs in the food industry.

This study estimated ad-valorem equivalent (AVE) for non-tariff measures (NTM) applied by 81 countries to 5.321 products in six-digit products of the harmonized system (HS). For that, the study follow the method developed by Kee, Nicita e Olarreaga (2009) and the contributions brought by Beghin, Disdier e Marette (2015) to consider imperfect markets. The Monte Carlo method was applied to consider the uncertainty in the elasticities values, following Hallren e Opanasets (2018). The results show that the average AVE of the entire sample of countries is 104.89%, being more intense in the manufacturing sector. Negative AVEs are found mainly in the products of the chemical industry, electrical material and footwear. For Brazil, the results show that, on average, imports from the country are more expensive by 89%, being more intense also in manufactured products. The HS chapters most affected in Brazil are dairy products, metals (lead), cereal-based preparations and special fabrics. The sensitivity analysis shows that most AVE obtained by the employed methodology remains stable when elasticities vary. This study offers three contributions: i) the AVEs are estimated for products in the more actual version of HS, published in 2017; ii) allows negative AVEs, considering imperfect markets for a wide range of NTMs; and iii) evaluates the sensitivity of AVEs to variations in elasticities, admitting uncertainty.

Regulative non-tariff measures (NTMs), such as technical barriers to trade (TBTs) and sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures, have frequently been imposed to regulate the quality of imported goods when the market fails to address some issues of concern regarding harmful products with low standards. The impact of NTMs on trade values and trade volumes has been extensively modelled and analysed in the literature, while their quality impact has usually been studied using the unit values of imports. In this paper a monopolistic competition framework is presented, in which firms choose both the quality and the price of their exports subject to the compliance costs of NTMs behind the border and a fixed cost of technological change. Using the solutions of this model including NTMs, the quality of products at the six-digit level of the harmonised system (HS) traded globally and bilaterally during the period 1996-2017 is estimated. Using these estimates, the impacts of TBTs and SPS measures on trade values, volume, unit value and quality are estimated. On average and across all global bilateral trade, TBTs restrict imports while improving quality significantly. SPS measures stimulate trade and improve the average imported quality. Then, by estimating the importer-specific impact of NTMs on traded value, quantity, unit value, quality, and quality-adjusted price for each product, the 'NTM Black Box' is opened and analysed. This provides evidence of whether the quality of traded goods to an importing country has been upgraded despite the trade restrictiveness of NTMs. The complete analysed data that are available in the online appendix and visualised on Tableau will provide insights to scholars, policymakers and trade-dispute settlement cases at the World Trade Organisation (WTO).

Актуальность статьи обусловлена необходимостью совершенствования нетарифного регулирования международной торговли, в т.ч. в рамках ЕАЭС, как одного из факторов развития внешней торговли в условиях ее стагнации по причине глобальных вызовов. Цель: развитие теоретических основ нетарифного регулирования, выявление проблем его применения и обоснование перспектив развития в рамках ЕАЭС. Разработана классификация мер нетарифного регулирования и представлена динамика развития отдельных видов НТМ за период с 2009 по 2020 гг. Обоснован механизм их влияния на международную торговлю. Выявлены особенности использования НТМ в торговле. Обозначены мировые тенденции и проблемы в сфере применения нетарифных мер, а также проблемы, специфичные для ЕАЭС. Определены направления совершенствования НТМ исходя из цели сокращения торговых издержек, связанных с НТМ, без ущерба для здоровья населения и защиты окружающей среды. Сформулированы основные рекомендации в отношении НТМ для внедрения в государствах-членах ЕАЭС., The article is devoted to the topical issue of non-tariff regulation improvement, in particular within the EAEU, as one of the drivers of international trade in the context of its stagnation due to global challenges. The study aims at developing a theoretical framework for non-tariff regulation, identifying problems of its application and justifying the prospects within the EAEU. A classifi cation of non-tariff regulation measures (NTMs) was worked out and the changes in their application over the period 2009-2020 with the impact on international trade were analyzed. The features of using NTMs in trade are revealed. Global trends and problems in the application of NTMs as well as issues specifi c to the EAEU are outlined. Given the priority to reduce trade costs associated with NTMs the areas for improving NTMs without aff ecting adversely public health and environmental protection were determined. The key suggestions regarding implementation of NTMs in the EAEU are presented.

We analyse the heterogeneous effects of technical regulations and safety standards embodied in nontariff measures on foreign direct investment using global firm-level panel data of bilateral cross-border ownership relationships over the period 2008-2018. To this end, we develop a novel measure of timevarying bilateral ad valorem equivalents of sectoral non-tariff measures, which reveals that technical barriers to trade (TBTs) played a much greater role as a trade-inhibiting factor in comparison with import tariffs and sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures over the period 1996-2018, with their relative importance increasing in the post-Great Recession period. Estimations using the Poisson pseudomaximum likelihood framework reveal the importance of non-tariff measures as a driver of foreign direct investment, with heterogeneous effects observed for the measures imposed by the host and the home country, as well as across sectors and types of non-tariff measures. Among other results, we find that an increase in the stringency of technical barriers to trade imposed by the host country is associated with higher investment in the foreign subsidiaries operating in this country, pointing to the regulatory barrierjumping motive of foreign direct investment. The effect is much stronger for the multinational corporations operating in the information and communications technology sector.

Eight multilateral rounds of negotiations under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and international agreements under the World Trade Organisation (WTO) have contributed significantly to the reduction of tariffs among WTO members. However, the imposition and use of non-tariff measures (NTMs) have surged over the years, mostly for legitimate policy goals. Among these measures, technical barriers to trade (TBTs) and sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures, in particular, allow countries to impose restrictions on the imports of low-quality products suspected of harming domestic consumers' health, plants, animals or the global environment. Such trade policy instruments aim to force higher standards in the import market and to ensure alignment with domestic regulations. The main question therefore is whether and how regulative NTMs affect trade flows, and in particular the quality of traded goods. Following the theoretical framework proposed by Feenstra and Romalis (2014), we theoretically illustrate how NTMs affect the average quality of imported products, while also incorporating the impact on the quantity and value of imports. The framework then allows us to estimate the impact of NTMs on traded values, quantities, unit values, quality and quality-adjusted prices at the detailed HS sixdigit level. The results of the various estimated variables for all countries at the detailed product level are available in a visualised format (Tableau) as well as an online data appendix, providing comprehensive insights for scholars and policy makers. Generally, the results point towards a quality-increasing impact of regulative NTMs, though this may come with lower traded quantities or values. These aspects must be weighed against the positive outcomes, i.e. the compliance with the aims of the regulations concerning health, security or environmental goals and the overall increase in quality. Imposing such measures should therefore be done in such a way that they reduce trade frictions as much as possible while recognising the legitimate motivations behind the imposition of NTMs. Further, harmonisation of standards at the multilateral level may circumvent potential frictions while supporting the overall aims of regulative NTMs.

In this modern digital world, goods from the information and communications technology (ICT) sector are the engine of the global economy. While tariffs levied on ICT goods have been eliminated or significantly reduced since the conclusion in December 1996 of the Information Technology Agreement of the World Trade Organization (WTO), non-tariff measure (NTMs) have come to be used more frequently with regard to imports of these goods. Technical barriers to trade (TBTs), as the most important trade policy measure imposed on imports of ICT goods, form the focus of this study. This paper analyses how different types of TBTs imposed on imports of ICT goods globally affected the values and volumes of imported goods at the six-digit level of the Harmonised System (HS) during the period 1996-2018. Keywords cited in the TBTs notified to the WTO give an indication of the aims behind the imposition of TBTs. Therefore, this study digs deeper into the impact of 30 types of TBT, using the keywords cited. The methodology used in this paper controls for zero trade flows using the Pseudo Poisson Maximum Likelihood (PPML) technique; and it controls for endogeneity bias using the exogenous instrumental variable approach. Furthermore, the paper provides more detailed analysis of the impact of TBTs across five ICT product categories that are defined by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). The results indicate that TBTs have a generally strong positive impact on the value of imports of ICT goods. While many keywords cited in TBTs notified to the WTO affect the values and volumes of imports in a positive way, certain other TBTs function as trade barriers that reduce their values and volumes.

In this paper, I estimate the impact of heterogeneity in non-tariff-measures (NTMs) policies on countries' global value chains (GVCs)-related trade and its backward and forward components. I firstly build a regulatory distance (RD) index, which measures the degree of dissimilarity in NTMs structures between two trade partners. By including the RD index in a structural gravity model, I then find a significant negative effect of regulatory distance on total, backward, and forward GVC-related trade. The negative impact results to be even stronger when I conduct the analysis only on manufacturing sectors. On the country dimension, I demonstrate that the effects of regulatory distance are associated with the exporters' and the importers' income levels.

В статье описаны особые экономические условия осуществления внешнеторговых операций на рынках сельскохозяйственной продукции в 2020-2021 гг. Описаны принципы применения мер таможенного регулирования в интересах экспортеров сельскохозяйственной продукции. Проведен анализ ситуации на рынке мяса и мясопродуктов. Сделан вывод о перспективах макроэкономической стабилизации в рамках ЕАЭС., The article describes the special economic conditions for the implementation of foreign trade operations in agricultural product markets in 2020-2021. The principles for the application of customs control measures in the interests of agricultural exporters are described. The situation on the meat and meat products market has been analyzed. A conclusion was made on the prospects for macroeconomic stabilization within the EEU.

The main objective of this paper is to reinvestigate the impacts of non-tariff measures (NTMs) on bilateral exports among Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) countries. The study adds to the literature in two areas. First, we calculate coverage ratios for NTMs related to specific sustainable development goals (SDGs) imposed on bilateral trade between RCEP member countries. Second, to avoid aggregation bias, the analysis covers four major sectors, namely agrifood, health, logistics, and other manufacturing. The results of a Poisson pseudo maximum likelihood (PPML) regression in a gravity model, using average import data from 2016 to 2018 at the Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding Systems (HS) two-digit level (97 subsectors), show that the effects of SDG-related NTMs vary by sector. NTMs related to SDG 3 (good health and well-being) distort trade in health but enhance trade in logistics. NTMs related to SDG 12 (responsible consumption and production) have a negative impact on logistics but a positive impact on other manufacturing exports. The findings provide new perspectives on the varying impacts of SDG-related NTMs on trade. Interestingly, the study finds that NTMs addressing SDGs 3 and 12 have positive trade impacts. Policymakers should, however, regulate NTM implementation, to minimize negative impacts and ensure that domestic firms comply to promote sustainable production.

Following from Vietnam’s ratification of the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP) in late 2018 and its effectiveness from January 2019, and the European Parliament’s recent approval of the European Union-Vietnam Free Trade Agreement (EVFTA) and its subsequent planned ratification by the National Assembly in May 2020, Vietnam has further demonstrated its determination to be a modern, competitive, open economy. As the COVID-19 (Coronavirus) crisis has clearly shown, diversified markets and supply chains will be key in the future global context to managing the risk of disruptions in trade and in supply chains due to changing trade relationships, climate change, natural disasters, and disease outbreaks. In those regards, Vietnam is in a stronger position than most countries in the region. The benefits of globalization are increasingly being debated and questioned. However, in the case of Vietnam, the benefits have been clear in terms of high and consistent economic growth and a large reduction in poverty levels. As Vietnam moves to ratify and implement a new generation of free trade agreements (FTAs), such as the CPTPP and EVFTA, it is important to clearly demonstrate, in a transparent manner, the economic gains and distributional impacts (such as sectoral and poverty) from joining these FTAs. In the meantime, it is crucial to highlight the legal gaps that must be addressed to ensure that national laws and regulations are in compliance with Vietnam’s obligations under these FTAs. Readiness to implement this new generation of FTAs at both the national and subnational level is important to ensure that the country maximizes the full economic benefits in terms of trade and investment. This report explores the issues of globalization and the integration of Vietnam into the global economy, particularly through implementation of the EVFTA.

This article explores the formation of multilateral dialogue among the BRICS grouping of Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa to address the problems of development quality based on the most demonstrative sphere of the countries’ economic cooperation — mutual trade. The foreign policy contour of the BRICS dialogue is a shared responsibility and stems from national obligations within the United Nations (UN) system, the World Trade Organization (WTO) and other international fora. As it connects with development strategies in different environments and at different paces, the convergence of the positions taken by BRICS members both within and outside the forum is in line with their domestic economic priorities, and hence multilateral cooperation mechanisms are included in national development plans. The external economic contour poses similar restrictions on internal development — agricultural and manufacturing industries based on the exploitation of natural resources, the use of dirty fuels, ecologically intensive exports and the general need to preserve and restore the resource base. Analytically, this study is based on the quantitative parameters of intra-BRICS trade from 2009–2017, the BRICS export resource-intensity indicators and non-tariff restrictions statistics. Maintaining relatively similar and generally low tariffs in raw materials sectors, BRICS countries regulate the turnover of “green” goods within the group through technical barriers, price control measures and quality standards, maintaining a consistently high share of environmentally intensive raw materials. At the same time, given the differentiation of BRICS countries in terms of quality of growth and sensitivity to external shocks, some of them seek to diversify their exports (oil and petroleum products from Russia and China), while others protect local producers (agricultural products from Brazil and Russia), and take “green economy” measures as a substitute for higher tariffs for environmentally friendly goods to help retain markets.

The liberalization of agricultural trade brought about by the economic reforms of 1991, the subsequent WTO agreement and the proliferating Regional Trading Agreements have opened opportunities as well as challenges for India’s horticultural trade. This paper analyses the performance of horticultural exports from the country in terms of growth, instability, dynamics, diversification and stability with respect to commodities and markets and the constraints in terms of the Non-Tariff Measures (NTMs) faced and delineates the opportunities and strategies required to be followed by the sector for a sustainable growth. The horticultural exports from the country have grown significantly in both quantity and value terms during the period from 1991 to 2016. The highest share in the exports of horticultural products from India was accounted by grapes for which the major markets were Netherlands, Russia, United Kingdom, UAE, Germany and Saudi Arabia. Among the vegetables, India accounted for about 9.4 per cent of share in world exports of onion and the main destinations were Bangladesh, Malaysia, UAE and Sri Lanka. The horticultural exports have shown increased commodity diversification as well as geographical diversification due to increased market access in developed countries. Even though the tariffs have come down there by increasing the exports, the NTMs, especially quality issues in connection with sanitary and phyto-sanitary regulations have increased in the post- liberalization era. Given the inherent potential and rising competiveness of the India’s horticultural sector, the removal of product specific constraints, especially production of commodities of international standards could definitely help in sustaining the growth of horticultural exports.

International audience; The world economy is still far from the ideal model of a barrier-free market, freed from any barriers to trade. In this paper, we will try to analyse the impact of non-tariff measures on Moroccan exportations. The review of the literature shows that the effect of non-tariff measures on international trade exceeds the tariff ones. In order to analyse empirically the impact of non-tariff measures on Moroccan foreign trade, we used the elasticity of imported demand and an estimated gravitational equation for a sample of 28 countries of different levels of development. Our database consists of 4242 tariff lines during the period 2000-2015. The results show that non-tariff measures negatively affect Moroccan foreign trade. Exporting sectors are not affected to the same degree and suffer more in trade with economically similar countries (Developing countries) than in trade with developed nations.

Eight multilateral rounds of negotiations under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and international agreements under the World Trade Organisation (WTO) have contributed significantly to the reduction of tariffs among WTO members. However, over the years legitimate reasons for the imposition of non-tariff measures (NTMs) within regulations have triggered their extensive use. Among these measures, technical barriers to trade (TBTs) and sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures allow countries to impose restrictions on the import of low-quality products suspected of harming domestic consumers' health, plant life or the environment. Such trade policy instruments may lead to higher standards in the import market, in addition to improving market efficiency through information requirements such as mandatory labelling. This paper analyses two types of regulative and standard-like NTMs - TBTs and SPS measures - and the quality improvement of traded products that is driven by their imposition, which might be a general underlying motive for the adoption of such regulations. Based on a model framework involving both the supply and the demand side of trade and using four types of measures of these NTMs, this paper assesses the impact of TBTs and SPS measures on the quality of traded products. A dummy variable measuring the existence of these NTMs and a count variable indicating their stringency are used in the analysis. Moreover, two other variables indicate flows of NTMs imposed in each year and stocks of these NTMs accumulated over years. The results indicate that TBTs and SPS measures do indeed imply a higher quality of traded products, which is also consistent with the model when NTMs enter as a specific trade cost. Stringent TBTs with more regulations imposed in each year (i.e. flows of count TBTs) have the largest impact on the quality of traded products. However, for SPS measures only the existence of a regulation (i.e. the dummy variable on flows of SPS measures) on a traded product has the strongest impact on its quality.

[EN] Food safety concerns about the risk of aflatoxin (AF) contamination have been growing in many regions, particularly in the European Union (EU). To protect consumers from health risks, the EU has established strict standards for maximum acceptable AF levels in food products; these standards have changed several times. This article examines the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) database, which contains notifications on border controls on AF levels in tree nuts and peanuts. A count data model was used to analyze the impact of political economy considerations, past alerts, and path-dependence effects on RASFF border controls. Policy changes, including the harmonization and relaxing of the EU¿s AF standards, significantly affected the frequency of border controls, with diverse effects among exporting countries. It is believed that the present study provides some insights to the modeling of food standards for explanation or forecasting purposes.

This study analyses the relationship between non-tariff measures (NTMs) applicable in the agricultural sector of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan and the sustainable development goals (SDGs). Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, as newer members of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU), first established by Belarus, Kazakhstan and the Russian Federation in 2010, have the intention of eliminating intra-block barriers in the trade of goods, services, capital and labour. Elimination of barriers, as envisaged by the EAEU Treaty, specifically includes non-tariff regulation. However, the scope of non-tariff regulation, as defined in the Treaty, only includes traditional commercial instruments, such as licencing and quotas. Other regulations which are considered as NTMs by WTO, UNCTAD and other international organizations, such as sanitary and phytosanitary measures and technical barriers to trade, are addressed by other chapters in the Treaty and are not subject to elimination. As such, there is sometimes confusion in discussions about NTMs within the scope of the EAEU due to such varying definitions. Many NTMs (in broader sense) in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan are found to have legitimate and necessary objectives, such as protection of human, animal and plant health or, protection of the environment. At the same time, there seems to have been instances in the region of NTMs being overtly used with a protectionist intent. The bulk of the measures examined affecting agricultural trade, however, showed that the most frequent NTMs might be addressing health-related Sustainable Development Goals. Data on NTMs remain incomplete in many countries of the region. This is evident by the varying level of completeness of measures notified by EAEU member States to the WTO that are based on ratified EAEU regulations. As such, further efforts are needed to increase transparency in this area to ensure the measures do not create unnecessary barriers to trade and sustainable development.

Trade used to be about goods crossing borders and the instrument of protection was mostly through tariffs. Then there was greater recognition of trade in services, now exceeding the share of goods in global trade. Because of services, the focus of trade protection shifted more towards "behind the border barriers" or domestic regulations that can obstruct services trade. More recently, the flows of goods and services are eclipsed yet again by data flows whose contribution to the economy is projected to reach 11 trillion USD by 2025. In the digital era, a new set of non-tariff measures - mostly related to data - have thus emerged. The paper seeks to understand the role of data in business and trade, the nature of some data flows restrictions and other digital trade barriers, and potential impact of data regulations.

In the last decades, it was observed a reduction in tariff barriers for all countries. Even though this reduction affected almost all goods, the agribusiness sector experienced a smaller impact, keeping a higher average tariff, relative to other industries. In addition to these tariff measures, the sector is also affected by a substantial number of non-tariff measures, which, depending on its nature, can be established as true barriers to international trade, affecting imports and exports. Thus, seeking to comprehend the present scenario about the imposition of non-tariff measures to agribusiness products on a global level, it was estimated a gravitational model through the Poisson pseudo maximum likelihood (PPML) estimator. This model was formulated based on the main agribusiness goods exported by Brazil, and also on the main measures groups, and the total: sanitary and phytosanitary measures (SPS), technical barriers to trade (TBTs) and measures related to exports. Those estimations were based on a panel database, built with data from the measures available from the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). The results suggest that there is not a clear relationship between the number of non-tariff measures with bilateral trade flows, generating positive and negative relations between those covariates, depending on the product analyzed. This result suggests that the relationship studied depends on the product analyzed and the kind of measure applied, showing the need for a deeper understanding of the data and a higher detailing on the classification of measures to fully comprehend the phenomenon.

Статья посвящена анализу экономического развития стран Восточной Азии за 2014—2019 гг. с прогнозом на 2020 г. в разрезе факторов экономического роста и внешней торговли. Материал основан на статистических данных международных экономических организаций. Отмечено, что в целом перспективы восточноазиатского региона достаточно стабильны. Внутренний спрос уравновешивает негативное влияние уменьшения внешнего экспортного спроса из‑за торговых ограничений. Несмотря на сохраняющуюся зависимость от внешней торговли, многие страны Восточной Азии достигли такой стадии развития, когда внутреннее частное потребление стало сильным фактором роста. Китай продолжает оставаться локомотивом мировой экономики как крупнейший мировой производитель и потребитель товаров. В условиях расширения протекционизма и импортных ограничений на китайские товары ведущая роль внутреннего инвестиционного и растущего потребительского спроса в поддержании экономического роста позволяет Китаю без особых потерь преодолевать кризисные явления в мировой экономике. Сделан вывод о том, что торговые противоречия, а также неопределённость относительно будущего многосторонней торговой системы придадут новый импульс двусторонним и многосторонним интеграционным инициативам. Страны восточноазиатского региона будут всё больше склоняться к заключению двухсторонних и региональных торговых соглашений в целях дальнейшего развития. Именно региональная экономическая интеграция может стать дополнительным локомотивом развития Восточной Азии. Ключевым фактором её успеха становится наличие в регионе ёмких развивающихся рынков. Появление многочисленного среднего класса с растущими доходами и покупательной способностью в восточноазиатских странах ведёт к формированию растущего спроса на широкий ассортимент потребительских и промышленных товаров и услуг. Такой увеличивающийся спрос порождает быстрый рост внутрирегиональной торговли и создаёт основу дальнейшего углубления региональной экономической интеграции., The paper analyzes the economic development of East Asian countries in 2014—2019 with a forecast for 2020 in the context of factors of economic growth and foreign trade. The paper is based on statistical data from international economic organizations. It is noted that in general the prospects for the East Asian region are quite stable. Domestic demand balances the negative impact of reduced external export demand due to trade restrictions. Despite continued dependence on foreign trade, many East Asian countries have reached a stage of development where domestic private consumption has become a strong driver of growth. China continues to be the engine of the world economy as the world’s largest producer and consumer of goods. In the context of expanding protectionism and import restrictions on the goods made in China, the leading role of domestic investment and growing consumer demand in maintaining economic growth allows China to overcome the crisis in the world economy without much loss. It is concluded that trade contradictions as well as uncertainty about the future of the multilateral trading system will give a new impetus to bilateral and multilateral integration initiatives. The countries of the East Asian region will be increasingly inclined to conclude bilateral and regional trade agreements for further development. It is regional economic integration that can become an additional engine for the development of East Asia. A key factor for its success is the presence of large emerging markets in the region. The emergence of a large middle class with growing incomes and purchasing power in East Asian countries leads to a growing demand for a wide range of consumer and industrial goods and services. This increasing demand generates rapid growth in intraregional trade and provides the basis for further deepening regional economic integration.

В статье исследованы актуальные вопросы функционирования системы нетариф ного регулирования в Европейском союзе. Определено, что это интеграционное объединение прошло практически все стадии интеграционного процесса в рамках которого осуществляются важнейшие экономические и политические процессы Европы. Выявлено, что для таможенного тарифа ЕС харак терна эскалация - увеличение ставки таможенной пошлины по мере повышения степени переработки товара. Проведен анализ количественных ограничений импорта в странах ЕС, данных статистики по использованию мер нетарифного регулирования Европейским союзом в период с 2014-2019гг., The article deals with topical issues of the functioning of the non-tariff regulation system in the European Union. It is determined that this integration Association went through almost all stages of the integration process, during which the most important economic and political processes in Europe are carried out. It is revealed that the EU customs tariff is characterized by an escalation - an increase in the rate of customs duty as the degree of processing of goods increases. The analysis of quantitative import restrictions in the EU countries, statistics on the use of non-tariff regulation measures by the European Union in the period from 2014-2019., Экономика и предпринимательство, Выпуск 3 (116) 2020

In international literature, Brazil ranks among the most prolific countries in requesting non-tariff measures (NTMs) on their imports. When this incidence is translated into ad valorem equivalent, studies show that the costs that these measures represent place the country among the world's outliers in trade protection. This work described the incidence of NTMs that Brazil imposed its imports in the 2016-2018 at different levels of aggregation: by group of NTMs, by sector, by section of the Harmonized System (HS), by six-digit products of the HS and by partner country. The methodology is based on the inventory approach, of a descriptive and exploratory nature, with the obtainment of the frequency indicator, the coverage ratio, and the prevalence score. The results show that Brazil is more demanding in NTMs for the import of agricultural products, especially live animals, fats and oils and soybeans. In two digits of the HS, fish, meat preparations, meats and offal, coffee and fruits stand out. Among the manufactures, products from the chemical industry and vehicles stand out. In the extractive industry, more NTMs are required for bamboo and wood slabs and corrugated paper boxes.

Экспорт товаров животного происхождения из России развивается неравномерно. Кратный рост по отдельным товарным группам сочетается с почти полным отсутствием роста по другим. Поставки куриного мяса и молочной продукции на рынок КНР начались одновременно более года назад. Концепции продвижения товарных групп тоже совпадают. Темпы роста по обеим группам отличаются в несколько раз. Автор рассматривает применение ветеринарно-санитарных мер, предусмотренных Соглашением ВТО о применении санитарных и фитосанитарных мер, страной-импортером в качестве основной причины отставания экспорта молочной продукции. В соответствии с условиями транспарентности соглашений ВТО, Система ВТО по управлению информацией по санитарным и фитосанитарным мерам и техническим барьерам в торговле агрегирует данные, которые могут использоваться для моделирования введения санитарных и фитосанитарных мер участниками ВТО по отдельным классам товарной номенклатуры, что позволяет надежно прогнозировать будущие санитарные меры и значительно снижает риски внешней среды для экспортеров. В статье рассматривается применение предиктивной модели применения ветеринарно-санитарных мер участниками ВТО в отношении молочной продукции методами машинного обучения для продвижения экспорта на примере рынка молочной продукции КНР., Exports of products of animal origin from Russia have been growing unevenly. Soaring exports of certain product groups is combined with flat figures for others. Exports of poultry and dairy products to Chinese market started to grow simultaneously in 2019. While promotion strategies for both product groups are also the same, the growth rates for both groups differ several times. The author considers the application of veterinary and sanitary measures provided for by the WTO Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures by the importing country as the main reason for the lagging dairy products exports. In accordance with the transparency provisions of the WTO agreements, the WTO System for Information Management on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures and Technical Barriers to Trade aggregates data that can be used to model the introduction of sanitary and phytosanitary measures by WTO members on individual groups of the commodity classifi cation, which allows reliable forecasting of future sanitary measures and signifi cantly reduces the external risks for exporters. The paper assesses building a predictive model for veterinary-sanitary measures application by World Trade Organization members in relation to dairy products using machine learning as a way to promote and predict dairy exports.

Many different approaches have developed for the evaluation of non-tariff measures (NTMs) and free trade agreements (FTAs). Moving on from models using simple dummy variables, today a range of databases can capture different aspects of NTMs and FTAs. Some assess the depth of FTAs by extracting information from legal texts. Other data sources are based on surveys, on complaints by trading partners at the World Trade Organization (WTO) or notifications by companies or countries. This paper uses a gravity model to assess the value added of information on FTAs and NTMs by evaluating ex-post their ability to predict the trade effects of the EU-South Korea Free Trade Agreement, the first 'second-generation' FTA of the EU, applied since 2011. Our results show that, when accounting for information on the FTA components, no extra trade effect is attributable to the EU-South Korea FTA. The message from the evolution of NTMs differs considerably according to the indicator used, but trade predictions are hardly affected. On the aggregate country level, provisions on investments exhibit a particularly strong positive effect, while regulations on intellectual property rights seem to hamper bilateral trade. Most specifications, furthermore, point to a negative effect of differences in the number of technical barriers to trade (TBT) applied and sanitary and phytosanitary measures (SPS) against which trading partners issued complaints at the WTO.

Starting in the 1960s with the Kennedy Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), nontariff measures (NTMs) have been replacing tariffs continuously as the core element of trade negotiations. Today they take centre stage in all EU trade agreements with industrialised and emerging economies. By matching product codes to the rich data of NTM notifications to the World Trade Organization and complementary information provided by the Temporary Trade Barriers Database, we provide a valuable open data source for trade policy analysis. Using data for 148 NTM-imposing economies for the period 1995-2019, we describe the evolution of different types of NTMs along countries and sectors, with a special focus on NTMs implemented by the EU. The analysis of our data, paired with comparisons with other sources, shows the merits and shortcomings of the WTO's service in providing transparency over members' trade policies.

This paper identifies the effect of trade policy on market power through new data and a new identification strategy. It uses a large data set containing export values and quantities by product and destination for all exporting firms in 12 developing and emerging countries over several years, merged with destination-product-specific information on tariffs and non-tariff barriers. Market power is identified by observing how exporting firms price discriminate across markets in reaction to variations in bilateral exchange rates. Pricing-to-market is prevalent in all regions of the sample, even among small firms, although it is increasing in firm size, in accordance with theory. More importantly, the effect of non-tariff measures is not isomorphic to that of tariffs: the observed pricing-to-market behavior suggests that, although tariffs reduce the market power of foreign firms through classic rent-shifting effects, non-tariff measures alter market structure and reinforce the market power of non-exiting firms, domestic and foreign ones alike.

[ES] El comercio internacional de frutas frescas ha sufrido una progresiva liberalización comercial en la forma de reducciones arancelarias en las últimas décadas. Persisten sin embargo numerosas medidas no arancelarias que condicionan en gran medida los flujos comerciales, teniendo en cuenta además que cada mercado de destino puede implementar diferentes medidas, atendiendo a sus intereses de protección de los consumidores, de la sanidad vegetal, etc. Dado que el sector de exportación de cítricos en fresco es muy relevante para los intereses valencianos, el presente trabajo tiene el objetivo de listar las diferentes medidas no arancelarias aplicadas a los cítricos valencianos en diferentes mercados de destino., [EN] International trade in fresh fruits has undergone progressive trade liberalization in the form of tariff reductions in recent decades. To persist, however, requires non-tariff measures that largely condition trade controls, taking into account in addition to each destination market, you can implement different measures, taking into account your interests of consumer protection, plant health, etc. Fresh citrus export sector is very relevant for Valencian interests, this paper has the objective of listing the different non-tariff measures applied to Valencian citrus fruits in different destination markets.

In the 21st century, non-tariff measures have become the major obstacle to liberalizing international trade. This thesis is a part of research about of the quantization of non-tariff measures and aims to compare the degree of restrictiveness of these measures and the customs duties applied to Moroccan exports. Thus, this work presents a comparison of the non-tariff measures restriction applied by countries of different levels of development. This research introduces the quantification of non-tariff measures by applying the elasticity of import demand to the results of a gravity model for a sample of 28 countries. The results show that non-tariff measures are more restrictive than the tariffs applied to all exporting sectors. This difference becomes important in the case of developed countries due to their low pricing level. However, the level of restriction of trade among developing countries is revealed due to the application of restrictive non-tariff measures and further high tariffs.; Les mesures non tarifaires sont devenues l’obstacle majeur à la libération du commerce international au XXIème siècle. La présente thèse s’inscrit dans le cadre des travaux de quantification des mesures non tarifaires et vise la comparaison du degré de restrictivité de ces mesures et des droits douaniers appliquées aux exportations marocaines. Ainsi, ce travail présente une comparaison de la restriction des mesures non tarifaires appliquées par différents pays de niveaux de développement différents. Ce travail de recherche introduit la quantification des mesures non tarifaires par l’application de l’élasticité de la demande d’importation sur les résultats d’un modèle de gravité appliqué à un échantillon de 28 pays. Les résultats montrent que les mesures non tarifaires sont plus restrictives que les tarifs douaniers appliqués pour l’ensemble des secteurs exportateurs. Cette différence devient importante pour le cas des pays développés en raison de leur niveau de tarification très bas. Cependant, le niveau de restriction des échanges chez les pays en développement est très révélé en raison de l’application de mesures non tarifaires restrictives et de tarifs douaniers encore élevés.

In the 21st century, non-tariff measures have become the major obstacle to liberalizing international trade. This thesis is a part of research about of the quantization of non-tariff measures and aims to compare the degree of restrictiveness of these measures and the customs duties applied to Moroccan exports. Thus, this work presents a comparison of the non-tariff measures restriction applied by countries of different levels of development. This research introduces the quantification of non-tariff measures by applying the elasticity of import demand to the results of a gravity model for a sample of 28 countries. The results show that non-tariff measures are more restrictive than the tariffs applied to all exporting sectors. This difference becomes important in the case of developed countries due to their low pricing level. However, the level of restriction of trade among developing countries is revealed due to the application of restrictive non-tariff measures and further high tariffs.; Les mesures non tarifaires sont devenues l’obstacle majeur à la libération du commerce international au XXIème siècle. La présente thèse s’inscrit dans le cadre des travaux de quantification des mesures non tarifaires et vise la comparaison du degré de restrictivité de ces mesures et des droits douaniers appliquées aux exportations marocaines. Ainsi, ce travail présente une comparaison de la restriction des mesures non tarifaires appliquées par différents pays de niveaux de développement différents. Ce travail de recherche introduit la quantification des mesures non tarifaires par l’application de l’élasticité de la demande d’importation sur les résultats d’un modèle de gravité appliqué à un échantillon de 28 pays. Les résultats montrent que les mesures non tarifaires sont plus restrictives que les tarifs douaniers appliqués pour l’ensemble des secteurs exportateurs. Cette différence devient importante pour le cas des pays développés en raison de leur niveau de tarification très bas. Cependant, le niveau de restriction des échanges chez les pays en développement est très révélé en raison de l’application de mesures non tarifaires restrictives et de tarifs douaniers encore élevés.

As a small transition economy, Albania has achieved significant progress, and the average year-to-year growth rate of trade from 2000 to 2017 has outperformed the world average reaching almost eleven percent. Yet, Albanian exports are very concentrated in terms of market destinations and product varieties. Green shoots in a range of export industries illustrate that Albania has the potential to further leverage international trade. Despite its small size, Albania has become one of the top twenty exporters of tomatoes in the world, and one of the most attracting touristic destinations in Europe. However, the price gap it receives on exported tomatoes compared to competitors is still significant, which points towards unexploited potential. Adopting the necessary measures to close this price gap will have a great impact for the tomato producers and exporters. Future work on trade competitiveness will build and expand on these dimensions using firm level data, and input-output data for a deeper understanding of Albanian insertion in global value chains (GVCs).

In recent years, the implementation of and compliance with general values such as the protection of human rights, labor, environment, and democracy has become a very important agenda in global trade policy. The new Secretary General of the WTO emphasized her strong interest in the WTO negotiations in reforming various subsidies for fishing industries, which are to be concluded by the upcoming Twelfth MC (Ministerial Conference) in November 2021. Sustainability has become another critical issue in the international trade context. Plurilateral initiatives among 50 WTO member countries have already been taken regarding the Structured Discussion on Trade and Environmental Sustainability (SDTES). In these circumstances, this study on the EU’s IUU case toward Thailand helped to understand how Thailand’s compliance with the EU IUU Regulation has affected Thailand in achieving the goal of “sustainability” of both fishing practice and working conditions in its fishing industry. The EU’s imposition of the “Status of IUU Nations Carded“ has created the grounds to combat IUU fishing in Thailand by converting an issue of public interest into a private sector issue, for which the sharp decline in fish exports is a matter of concern. This EU–Thailand case also indicated that along with intensifying international cooperation and surveillance for improving the working environment, the inclusion of a human rights issue as a tool for correcting trade distortion is most urgent and essential. For the sustainability of both economic and societal values of developing countries such as Thailand, a firm and solid implementation of adequate working conditions should be employed among global trade participants.

This thesis aims to shed light on the persistence of non-tariff measures in ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations). It begins with an analysis of the issues on compliance with, and effectiveness of, the region’s international law instruments relating to non-tariff measures. The persistence of non-tariff measures may be due to the trade regime’s inability to provide the Member States with sufficient incentives to comply with their obligations. This is followed by a look into the Member States’ underlying motivations. It is noteworthy that the persistence of non-tariff measures coincided with significant structural changes in the region’s economies. This thesis shows how these structural changes may have influenced the preferences of different actors in the Member States for non-tariff measures. The last part of this thesis builds upon these insights and extends the analysis to an examination of the underlying determinants of trade policy in the region. The results indicate that economic factors do matter. Additionally, the degree of political insulation and accountability may affect how governments respond to these societal preferences, as reflected in laws, policies, and regulations. Thus, non-tariff measures persist in ASEAN because its trade regime failed to overcome the policymakers’ interests in catering to the societal preferences for different kinds of trade measures.