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Human chorionic gonadotropin represents an ideal target for designing vaccines for fertility control for two main reasons: the molecule is only produced in significant quantities during pregnancy in humans and that to remove the molecule from the circulation results in pregnancy loss. There have been several attempts to design hCG vaccines for both pregnancy prevention and as a cancer therapy agent. During the period between 1973 and 2007, the World Health Organization set up a task force on the use of vaccines for regulating fertility in collaboration with Vernon Steven's group at the Ohio State University Research Foundation in the United States. This chapter describes a delivery system for the last version of the vaccine that met the criteria for use in a safe and effective antifertility product. The details of the testing of numerous vaccine delivery systems between 1999 and 2007 are presented here.

The precise elucidation of the antigen sequences for T-cell immunosurveillance greatly enhances our ability to both understand and modulate humoral responses to viral infection or active immunization. Mass spectrometry was used to identify 529 unique sequences from SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein extracellular domain in a complex with human leukocyte antigen class II molecules on antigen presenting cells from a panel of healthy donors selected to represent a majority of allele usage from this highly polymorphic molecule. The identified sequences span the entire spike protein and several sequences were isolated from a majority of the donors sampled indicating promiscuous binding. Importantly, many peptides derived from the receptor binding domain used for cell entry were identified. This work represents the most precise and comprehensive immunopeptidomic investigation with SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein and allows detailed analysis of features which may aid vaccine development to end the current COVID-19 pandemic. Funding: This work was supported by Eli Lilly and Company. Conflict of Interest: The authors declare no competing interests. Ethical Approval: Frozen PBMCs were obtained from 9 informed consent healthy donors (Discovery Life Sciences) according to local ethical practice.

Setting up an animal model by using active immunization methods is a common means of studying immune-related diseases or producing antibodies with high titer and high activities. However, the security during the process of pathogen emulsification remains unclear. In a physical examination, we unexpectedly noticed high levels of angiotensin II type 1 receptor autoantibody (AT1-AA) specific to the immunizing antigen in the sera of some researchers who had participated in setting up active immunization animal models, and we were puzzled about the cause of AT1-AA production. In this study, we intended to investigate whether the emulsified antigen was the source of infection in these researchers, and if so, how to prevent it from occurring. AT1-AA was detected by advanced ELISA method. The participants presented higher levels of AT1-AA compared with non-participants of the same laboratory. This phenomenon remained that some factors during the process of rat model establishment may contribute to AT1-AA production. Animal and glove penetration studies indicated the emulsified antigen infection was attributed to neither aerosol or fur touch nor penetrating through gloves. However, AT1-AA level was largely decreased in the participants after they used an automatic emulsification device. Because of the strong permeability of the adjuvant, we speculated that emulsified antigen might get access to the unprotected skin of the participants accidentally during the immunization process. These results demonstrated that accidental contacts of emulsified antigens may infect researchers during the process of traditional hand-push emulsification, resulting in high specific autoantibody levels, which can be prevented by using appropriate tools.

Passive immunisation with immunoglobulins as post-exposure prophylaxis after contact with measles is recommended by the German Standing Committee on Vaccination (STIKO) particularly for unprotected individuals at high risk of complications for whom active immunization is contraindicated, such as infants

While active immunization elicits a lasting immune response by the body, passive immunotherapy transiently equips the body with exogenously generated immunological effectors in the form of either target-specific antibodies or lymphocytes functionalized with target-specific receptors. In either case, administration or expression of recombinant proteins plays a fundamental role. mRNA prepared by in vitro transcription (IVT) is increasingly appreciated as a drug substance for delivery of recombinant proteins. With its biological role as transient carrier of genetic information translated into protein in the cytoplasm, therapeutic application of mRNA combines several advantages. For example, compared to transfected DNA, mRNA harbors inherent safety features. It is not associated with the risk of inducing genomic changes and potential adverse effects are only temporary due to its transient nature. Compared to the administration of recombinant proteins produced in bioreactors, mRNA allows supplying proteins that are difficult to manufacture and offers extended pharmacokinetics for short-lived proteins. Based on great progress in understanding and manipulating mRNA properties, efficacy data in various models have now demonstrated that IVT mRNA constitutes a potent and flexible platform technology. Starting with an introduction into passive immunotherapy, this review summarizes the current status of IVT mRNA technology and its application to such immunological interventions.

Maternal pertussis vaccination has been introduced in several countries to protect infants from birth until routine infant vaccination takes place. This review assesses existing evidence on the effectiveness and safety of immunization in pregnancy. The search was finalized in April 2017 and was based on searches using several databases. The selection criteria included any experimental or observational study reporting on the immunogenicity, effectiveness or safety of vaccination with a pertussis-containing vaccine in pregnant women and their infants. Following de-duplication and exclusions, we identified 8395 studies, which were reduced to 46 for inclusion. The overall risk of bias was low, with the exception of some early studies and pharmacovigilance safety data. The evidence demonstrates efficient transplacental transfer of maternal antibodies in infants whose mothers were vaccinated with Tdap or Tdap/IPV in pregnancy, with good evidence that this protects against disease in young infants. Safety studies covering more than 150 000 women vaccinated mostly in the late second or third trimesters are generally consistent and provide reassurance of no significant increased risk of recognized maternal conditions or of adverse events (including congenital anomalies) in infants born to vaccinated women. The clinical significance of reduced seroconversion to pertussis following routine immunization is not yet clear, but no increased risk of pertussis in infants whose mothers were vaccinated in pregnancy was found following primary immunizations in North American and English studies. Most post-booster studies suggest that any blunting effect is short-lived and that longer-term protection in infants from active immunization is not compromised.

A feeding trial for 91 days was conducted to investigate effects of active immunization against porcine Sox6 (pSox6) on meat quality and myosin heavy chain (MyHC) isoform expression in growing-finishing pigs. Twenty-four castrated Duroc × Landrace × Yarkshire pigs were randomly divided into three groups: (1) Control group; (2) 1 mg/head pSox6 active immunity group; (3) 4 mg/head pSox6 active immunity group (4 mg/head group). The results showed that pigs in 4 mg/head group had a greater a* (Redness) and a higher marbling score, while no significant effect was observed in L* (Lightness), b* (Yellowness), intramuscular fat and cooking loss. Muscle succinic dehydrogenase activity in pSox6 active immunization groups was significantly increased, and muscle lactate dehydrogenase activity was significantly reduced. Meanwhile, active immunization against pSox6 upregulated the mRNA expression of MyHC I, while no effect was observed on the mRNA expressions of MyHC IIa, MyHC IIx, MyHC IIb. In addition, pigs in the 4 mg/head group exhibited lower Sox6 mRNA level and higher MyHC I protein level, while no significant influence was observed on MyHC IIb protein level. Together, our data imply that active immunization against pSox6 could improve the pork quality and promote the MyHC I expression in growing-finishing pigs.

High-grade gliomas (HGG) exert systemic immunosuppression, which is of particular importance as immunotherapeutic strategies such as therapeutic vaccines are increasingly used to treat HGGs. In a first cohort of 61 HGG patients we evaluated a panel of 30 hematological and 34 plasma biomarkers. Then, we investigated in a second cohort of 11 relapsed HGG patients receiving immunomodulation with metronomic cyclophosphamide upfront to a DC-based vaccine whether immune abnormalities persisted and whether they hampered induction of IFNγ+ T-cell responses. HGG patients from the first cohort showed increased numbers of leukocytes, neutrophils and MDSCs and in parallel reduced numbers of CD4+/CD8+ T-cells, plasmacytoid and conventional DC2s. MDSCs and T-cell alterations were more profound in WHO IV° glioma patients. Moreover, levels of MDSCs and epidermal growth factor were negatively associated with survival. Serum levels of IL-2, IL-4, IL-5 and IL-10 were altered in HGG patients, however, without any impact on clinical outcome. In the immunotherapy cohort, 6-month overall survival was 100%. Metronomic cyclophosphamide led to > 40% reduction of regulatory T cells (Treg). In parallel to Treg-depletion, MDSCs and DC subsets became indistinguishable from healthy controls, whereas T-lymphopenia persisted. Despite low T-cells, IFNγ-responses could be induced in 9/10 analyzed cases. Importantly, frequency of CD8+VLA-4+ T-cells with CNS-homing properties, but not of CD4+ VLA-4+ T-cells, increased during vaccination. Our study identifies several features of systemic immunosuppression in HGGs. Metronomic cyclophosphamide in combination with an active immunization alleviates the latter and the combined treatment allows induction of a high rate of anti-glioma immune responses. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1007/s00262-018-2214-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

In tumor immunity, invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells play a pivotal role as a link between the innate and adaptive immune systems. With a precisely regulated activation mechanism, iNKT cells have the ability to respond quickly to antigenic stimulation and rapidly produce cytokines and chemokines, and subsequently an effective antitumor immune response. The development of iNKT cell-targeted active immunotherapy enables, not only an antitumor immune response through innate and acquired immunity, but also the conversion of an immunosuppressive into an immunogenic microenvironment. This review is focused on the activation mechanism and the role of iNKT cells after therapeutic active immunization. The therapeutic strategy targeting iNKT cells is expected to be applied to clinical practice in combination with surgery and chemotherapy.

Streptococcus agalactiae (group B streptococcus GBS) is a Gram-positive pathogen capable of infecting a variety of fish, including tilapia, which results in huge economic losses for aquaculture. Elongation Factor Tu (EF-Tu) is a highly conserved moonlighting protein in GBS. Recent studies have implicated EF-Tu as one of the most important virulence factors of microbial pathogens with high immunoreactivity, which makes it a target for vaccine development. In the present study, the EF-Tu-encoding gene of GBS, HN0303, isolated from tilapia, was cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli. Surface specific stain showed that GBS can be recognized by rabbit anti-recombinant EF-Tu (rEF-Tu) antibodies. Rabbit anti-rEF-Tu serum blocking assays showed that EF-Tu participated in GBS adhesion to Epithelioma popuasum cuprini cells. Active immunization with Freund's incomplete adjuvant plus recombinant EF-Tu induced antigen-specific antibodies in tilapia, and generated moderate immune protection (relative percentage of survival was 70%). In an enzyme linked immunosorbent assay, tilapia antisera showed an antibody titer of 1:500. These observations suggested that GBS EF-Tu was present on the membrane, and that was capable of inducing immunity and protecting tilapia against infection. EF-Tu thus constitutes a candidate molecule for vaccines against GBS.

The review presents current data on epidemiology, prophylaxis and treatment of tetanus in children. The highest rates of morbidity and mortality, primarily those for neonatal tetanus, are seen in the warm climatic zone countries with a low level of medical care. According to World Health Organization estimates, in 2013, neonatal tetanus killed about 49,000 newborns. Due to active immunization in Russia, only isolated cases of tetanus do occur. However, due to rare incidence and absence of causal treatment, its diagnosis and management can be challenging. The article focuses on the surgical management of wounds as an important element of non-specific disease prevention. The concept of active surgical strategy is proposed in tetanus, based on a one-stage radical excision of infected tissues, up to the amputation of the limb if vitally indicated. The effectiveness of treatment of tetanus patients depends on a combination of several conditions, such as the presence of highly skilled experienced personnel in a specialized multidisciplinary center, modern equipment and medical preparations, as well as rational use of specific therapy.

Human serum contains natural antibodies against avidin. Affinity purified natural anti-avidin human IgG exhibits affinity constants comparable to those of antibodies produced by active immunization of rabbits. Using a random hexapeptide library displayed on the filamentous M13 phage, and rabbit anti-avidin purified antibodies as a selector, we searched for epitopes shared by both selector and natural human anti-avidin IgG. This approach, enabled the isolation and identification of phagotopes bearing consensus motifs similar to sequence stretches of the avidin loops and β-sheet regions. These phagotopes were recognized by the natural human anti-avidin antibodies. The fact that natural anti-avidin antibodies in human serum have similar epitopes to those of IgG elicited by active immunization of animals, led us to suggest that small peptide epitopes may prevent deleterious effects caused by antibodies formed against food proteins as well as therapeutic proteins.

Myasthenia gravis (MG) with antibodies to muscle-specific kinase (MuSK) is characterized by fluctuating fatigable weakness. In MuSK MG, involvement of bulbar muscles, neck, and shoulder and respiratory weakness are more prominent than in acetylcholine receptor (AChR) MG. MuSK autoantibodies are mainly of the IgG4 subclass, and as such are unable to activate complement, have low affinity for Fc receptors, and are functionally monovalent. Therefore, the pathogenicity of IgG4 MuSK autoantibodies was initially questioned. A broad collection of in vitro active immunization and passive transfer models has been developed that have shed light on the pathogenicity of MuSK autoantibodies. Passive transfer studies with purified IgG4 from MuSK MG patients confirmed that IgG4 is sufficient to reproduce clear clinical, electrophysiological, and histological signs of myasthenia. In vitro experiments revealed that MuSK IgG4 autoantibodies preferably bind the first Ig-like domain of MuSK, correlate with disease severity, and interfere with the association between MuSK and low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 4 and collagen Q. Some patients have additional IgG1 MuSK autoantibodies, but their role in the disease is unclear. Altogether, this provides a rationale for epitope-specific or IgG4-specific treatment strategies for MuSK MG and emphasizes the importance of the development of different experimental models.

Effective tools for male contraception are important in the control of reproduction in animal populations. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effects of active immunization against gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) on male reproductive function assessing testicular morphological changes and serum-gonadotropin levels in pre-pubertal rabbits, guinea pigs and ram lambs. An anti-GnRH vaccine was developed by linking a GnRH-homologous molecule to a tetanus clostridial toxoid (Al(OH)3 coadjuvant). After vaccination protocols testicular morphometry, histopathological alterations and endocrine responses (FSH, LH, testosterone and cortisol serum levels) were evaluated. Testicular volume was significantly reduced in vaccinated animals with respect to the control group in rabbits, guinea pigs and ram lambs (P

Background/Aims: The abnormally activated EGFR promotes tumor growth, invasion and metastasis. Current therapeutics targeting EGFR have markedly improved the clinical outcome, but they are limited in use due to transient efficacy, frequent administration, high cost and significant toxicity. Methods: We rationally designed a multiepitope immunogen against EGFR, named as DEGFRm. The immunogen is composed of an epitope peptide (EGFR265-283) and the extracellular domain III (EGFR334-505) of mouse EGFR. EGFR265-283 is grafted onto the translocation domain of diphtheria toxin (DTT), and EGFR334-505 is fused to C-terminal of DTT. Next, the immunogenicity and anti-tumor efficacies of DEGFRm vaccine were examined in mouse tumor models. Results: When formulated with Alum and CpG, DEGFRm vaccine elicits Th 1 immune responses and inhibits tumor growth in both prophylactic and therapeutic mouse tumor models. Moreover, the tumor microvasculature is markedly reduced and the tumor infiltration of CD8+ T lymphocytes is greatly enhanced. Conclusions: These data suggest that active immunization with DEGFRm vaccine is a promising strategy for therapy of various EGFR+ cancers.

Can infection with the dental caries pathogen, Streptococcus mutans, be intercepted or modified immunologically? Resolving this question requires answer to many questions: What are the pathways by which this cariogenic streptococcus enters and accumulates in the dental biofilm? Can bacterial components associated with virulence induce immune responses? What is the level of maturity of immune pathways in the oral cavity of the young child at the time of infection? Many such questions have been answered. For example, preclinical application of modern methods of mucosal vaccine design and delivery has routinely resulted in protection from dental caries caused by S. mutans infection, using antigens involved in the sucrose-independent or sucrose-dependent mechanisms of infection by these cariogenic streptococci. Passive administration of antibody to functional epitopes of S. mutans virulence antigens has also provided a degree of protection in preclinical studies and small-scale human investigations. The caries-protective capacity of active immunization with dental caries vaccines now awaits proof of principle in pediatric clinical trials.

Five Japanese Black embryo transfer calves from a single embryo flush, 30 to 45-days-old, including 4 live animals for clinical examination and 1 dead for necropsy, were presented with a history of decreased milk intake and hypoproteinemia. Consistent clinicopathological abnormalities in the 4 calves presented for clinical evaluation included hyperkalemia, hyperphosphatemia, hypoproteinemia, hypoalbuminemia, hyperbilirubinemia, increased creatine phosphokinase activity, and proteinuria. Four calves ultimately were necropsied and all had histologic evidence of immune complex glomerulonephritis. Glomerulonephritis in these calves was hypothesized to have resulted from the interaction of passively acquired antibodies at birth and active immunization at 7 and 28 days of age with a Salmonella Typhimurium core antigen vaccine.

Therapeutic vaccines offer a viable strategy to treat opioid use disorders (OUD) complementary to current pharmacotherapies. The candidate Oxy(Gly)(4)-sKLH vaccine targeting oxycodone displayed pre-clinical proof of efficacy, selectivity and safety, and it is now undergoing clinical evaluation. To further support its implementation in the clinic, this study tested critical in vivo neuropsychopharmacological properties of the Oxy(Gly)(4)-sKLH vaccine in rats. While repeated immunizations with Oxy(Gly)(4)-sKLH were necessary to maintain the antibody response overtime, exposure to free oxycodone did not boost oxycodone-specific antibody levels in vaccinated rats, limiting concerns of immune-related side effects. Immunization with Oxy(Gly)(4)-sKLH achieved sustained antibody titers over a period of five months following initial vaccination, supporting its potential for providing long-lasting protection. In vivo studies of selectivity showed that vaccination prevented oxycodone-induced but not methadone-induced antinociception, while still preserving the opioid antagonist naloxone’s pharmacological effects. Vaccination did not interfere with fentanyl-induced antinociception or fentanyl distribution to the brain. These in vivo data confirm the previously reported in vitro selectivity profile of Oxy(Gly)(4)-sKLH. Vaccination extended oxycodone’s half-life up to 25 hr compared to control. While vaccination reduced the reinforcing efficacy of oxycodone in an intravenous self-administration model, signs of toxicity were not observed. These rodent studies confirm that active immunization with Oxy(Gly)(4)-sKLH induces highly specific and long-lasting antibodies which are effective in decreasing the reinforcing effects of oxycodone while preserving the efficacy of medications used to treat OUD and overdose.

preventive vaccinations should only be given to healthy children. Children with altered reactivity should be vaccinated only if certain conditions are met. However, the vaccination schedule can not be stable. The effectiveness of immunoprophylaxis largely depends on the correct age for primary immunization and optimal intervals between vaccinations taking into account their state of health to exclude disturbances in the course of the vaccination process. The issue of contraindications to the provision of preventive vaccinations is urgent and complex in the problem of preventing infectious diseases. There is a category of children for whom the full immunization schedule provided for healthy children is an unbearable burden. Contraindications to the conduct of a vaccine is determined not only on the basis of the anamnesis, but also on the clinical examination. The ability to react or not to react to any particular antigen, as well as the height of the immune response, are genetically encoded. One of the most important factors that significantly affect the development of children is their morbidity, especially during the first three years of life. Active immunization depends on this factor. About 10% of children do not get vaccinated due to temporary medical contraindications. Although there are only two reasons for withdrawing from vaccinations: Hypogammaglobulinemia and a high probability of a severe outcome as a result of vaccination. Difficulties in solving a problem of clinical safety force pediatricians to exclude from immunization most children with the problems in the anamnesis. It prevents the formation of collective immunity among children and creates the danger of a more frequent occurrence of a severe course of infectious diseases (measles, whooping cough) in children with the problems in the anamnesis. © 2017 Published by Oriental Scientific Publishing Company.

Immunocastration via vaccination against gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is an effective alternative to surgical castration in livestock. In this study, male mice were immunized with eight GnRH peptide derivatives. Two, which exhibited highly significant effects in mice, and one which exhibited the least significant effects were selected for active immunization of 13-month-old bulls. The effects of these GnRH vaccines on sexual development and meat quality in bulls were evaluated by examining testis length, serum hormone and GnRH antibody concentrations, observation of sexual behavior and testicular tissue sections, and evaluation of meat quality indexes. The results indicated that anti-GnRH titers increased rapidly (P

Dementia with Lewy bodies, Parkinson's disease, and Multiple System Atrophy are age-related neurodegenerative disorders characterized by progressive accumulation of α-synuclein (α-syn) and jointly termed synucleinopathies. Currently, no disease-modifying treatments are available for these disorders. Previous preclinical studies demonstrate that active and passive immunizations targeting α-syn partially ameliorate behavioral deficits and α-syn accumulation; however, it is unknown whether combining humoral and cellular immunization might act synergistically to reduce inflammation and improve microglial-mediated α-syn clearance. Since combined delivery of antigen plus rapamycin (RAP) in nanoparticles is known to induce antigen-specific regulatory T cells (Tregs), we adapted this approach to α-syn using the antigen-presenting cell-targeting glucan microparticle (GP) vaccine delivery system. PDGF-α-syn transgenic (tg) male and female mice were immunized with GP-alone, GP-α-syn (active humoral immunization), GP+RAP, or GP+RAP/α-syn (combined active humoral and Treg) and analyzed using neuropathological and biochemical markers. Active immunization resulted in higher serological total IgG, IgG1, and IgG2a anti-α-syn levels. Compared with mice immunized with GP-alone or GP-α-syn, mice vaccinated with GP+RAP or GP+RAP/α-syn displayed increased numbers of CD25-, FoxP3-, and CD4-positive cells in the CNS. GP-α-syn or GP+RAP/α-syn immunizations resulted in a 30–45% reduction in α-syn accumulation, neuroinflammation, and neurodegeneration. Mice immunized with GP+RAP/α-syn further rescued neurons and reduced neuroinflammation. Levels of TGF-β1 were increased with GP+RAP/α-syn immunization, while levels of TNF-α and IL-6 were reduced. We conclude that the observed effects of GP+RAP/α-syn immunization support the hypothesis that cellular immunization may enhance the effects of active immunotherapy for the treatment of synucleinopathies.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENTWe show that a novel vaccination modality combining an antigen-presenting cell-targeting glucan particle (GP) vaccine delivery system with encapsulated antigen (α-synuclein) + rapamycin (RAP) induced both strong anti-α-synuclein antibody titers and regulatory T cells (Tregs). This vaccine, collectively termed GP+RAP/α-syn, is capable of triggering neuroprotective Treg responses in synucleinopathy models, and the combined vaccine is more effective than the humoral or cellular immunization alone. Together, these results support the further development of this multifunctional vaccine approach for the treatment of synucleinopathies, such as Parkinson's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, and multiple systems atrophy.

Cancer vaccines, which are designed to amplify tumour-specific T cell responses through active immunization, have long been envisioned as a key tool of effective cancer immunotherapy. Despite a clear rationale for such vaccines, extensive past efforts were unsuccessful in mediating clinically relevant antitumour activity in humans. Recently, however, next-generation sequencing and novel bioinformatics tools have enabled the systematic discovery of tumour neoantigens, which are highly desirable immunogens because they arise from somatic mutations of the tumour and are therefore tumour specific. As a result of the diversity of tumour neoepitopes between individuals, the development of personalized cancer vaccines is warranted. Here, we review the emerging field of personalized cancer vaccination and discuss recent developments and future directions for this promising treatment strategy.

EXOPOLYSACCHARIDES (EPS) produced from Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato, P. syringae davson 973 and P. syringae pv. coriandricola 908 were studied. Mice immunized (i.p.) with bacterial EPS preparations from three strains (divided into 3 days) and in the fifth day, challenged (s.c.) with 1 ml of human pathogen P. aeruginosa 3 to each mouse, all groups of mice showed an increase in total leukocyte counts as well as neutrophil and monocyte numbers if compared with saline control group. Studing the active immunization by purified bacterial EPS on the counts of P. aeruginosa in lungs, spleens and livers of challenged mice revealed the protection of organs against bacteremia. Thus, the immunoprotective characters of the three purified EPSs could be concluded and recommended for prophylactic applications.

Over-expression of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) has been reported in a number of human malignancies. Strong expression of this receptor has been associated with poor survival in many such patients. Active immunizations that elicit antibodies of the desired type could be an appealing alternative to conventional passive immunization. In this regard, a novel recombinant peptide vaccine capable of prophylactic and therapeutic effects was constructed. A novel fusion recombinant peptide base vaccine consisting of L2 domain of murine extra-cellular domain-EGFR and EGFR mimotope (EM-L2) was constructed and its prophylactic and therapeutic effects in a Lewis lung carcinoma mouse (C57/BL6) model evaluated. Constructed recombinant peptide vaccine is capable of reacting with anti-EGFR antibodies. Immunization of mice with EM-L2 peptide resulted in antibody production against EM-L2. The constructed recombinant peptide vaccine reduced tumor growth and increased the survival rate. Designing effective peptide vaccines could be an encouraging strategy in contemporary cancer immunotherapy. Investigating the efficacy of such cancer immunotherapy approaches may open exciting possibilities concerning hyperimmunization, leading to more promising effects on tumor regression and proliferation.

The objective of this study was to investigate effects of active immunization against Akirin2 on muscle fiber-type composition in pigs. Here we showed that the titer of Akirin2 antibody in pigs immunized with porcine Akirin2 (pAkirin2) was significantly increased. Active immunization against pAkirin2 decreased succinic dehydrogenase and malate dehydrogenase activities and increased lactate dehydrogenase activity in the longissimus dorsi muscle of pigs. Active immunization against pAkirin2 significantly decreased MyHC I and MyHC IIa mRNA expressions and MyHC I protein expression and increased mRNA expressions of MyHC IIb as well as protein expressions of MyHC IIb and fast-MyHC. mRNA expressions of nuclear factors of activated T cells c1 (NFATc1), transcriptional coactivator PPARγ coactivator-1α, myocyte enhancer factor 2C, and modulatory calcineurin interacting protein 1 exon 4 isform were also notably decreased by active immunization against pAkirin2. Together, our data imply that active immunization against pAkirin2 may result in a slow to fast fiber-type shift in pigs, and which may be mediated by suppression of the calcineurin/NFATc1 signaling pathway.