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Ventral pallidum (VP) is an important source of limbic input to medial thalamus. Three studies examined the role of VP in spatial memory tasks impaired by medial thalamic lesions. In the 1st study, rats with VP lesions were impaired performing delayed matching trained with retractable levers (DMRL), a measure sensitive to prefrontal (but not hippocampal) damage. The 2nd study demonstrated dose-dependent DMRL impairment following microinjection of gamma-aminobutyric acidA, glutamate, or mu-opioid agonists in VP. In the 3rd study, VP lesions had no effect on varying choice radial-maze delayed nonmatching, a measure sensitive to hippocampal (but not prefrontal) lesions. These results suggest a common role in spatial memory for VP and other components of prefrontal-ventral striatopallidothalamic circuits distinct from hippocampal function. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pigeons' choosing between fixed-interval and random-interval schedules of reinforcement was investigated in three experiments using a discrete-trial procedure. In all three experiments, the random-interval schedule was generated by sampling a probability distribution at an interval (and in multiples of the interval) equal to that of the fixed-interval schedule. Thus the programmed delays to reinforcement on the random alternative were never shorter and were often longer than the fixed interval. Despite this feature, the fixed schedule was not strongly preferred. Increases in the probability used to generate the random interval resulted in decreased preferences for the fixed schedule. In addition, the number of consecutive choices on the preferred alternative varied directly with preference, whereas the consecutive number of choices on the nonpreferred alternative was fairly constant. The probability of choosing the random alternative was unaffected by the immediately prior interval encountered on that schedule, even when it was very long relative to the average value. The results loosely support conceptions of a "preference for variability" from foraging theory and the "utility of behavioral variability" from human decision-making literatures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the appropriate initial teacher preparation and the continued professional development of English language teachers. English is taught by a variety of people around the world that may be trained or untrained, native or nonnative speakers. It has been noted that effective English learning depends to a large extent on appropriate teaching. challenged. Recently, the idea that native speakers are the best teachers has been questioned. The debate over British versus American English as the preferable model has given way to the concepts of multiple possible targets and nativized English speakers. One of the potential research questions that have been raised include how do classroom activities planned and executed by teachers relate to students' language learning. Also, the best method to identify, measure and promote effective teaching has been taken into consideration. The standards of target language proficiency expected of nonnative-English-speaking teachers have also been noted.

Focuses on the outline of the official United States' nuclear disarmament treaties. Emphasis of the US on the preservation of its capability in adapting offensive and defensive forces for strategic conditions; Focus on the size and composition of nuclear forces; Efforts of the US on the promotion of 'mutual assurance' in the deployment of nuclear forces.

Proposes the application of the South Asian 1997 Intermediate Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty as a model for a missile-ban treaty between India and Pakistan. Enhancement of the stability of South Asia; Reasons for South Asia's arms control focusing toward achieving a treat on missiles; Advantages of IND as a model; Objections to using INF as basis for treaties.

The article presents a study that investigates on the reflective teaching and professional development through the practice of English as a second foreign language (EFL) by implementing three professional development procedures such as journals, videotaping, and teaching portfolios. The author relates that these professional development procedures enable the teachers to promote reflective teaching and to evaluate the needed improvement in its procedures. He added that its primary aim is to promote professional development in reflective teaching through collaborative approach.

This article gives basic guidelines for setting up a private duty agency including the factors to consider before beginning the business, legal and organizational structure of the agency, and daily management issues. Key personnel functions and the information necessary for forms used to conduct business are discussed. Key words: structure, management, communication flow [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

North Korea's record on the nuclear question gives no reason to trust in its compliance with the October 1994 agreement with the United States. This article traces the development of the North Korean nuclear program and the negotiations with the International Atomic Energy Agency and the United States, as well as Pyongyang's clandestine chemical‐biological weapons production and missile programs. In sum, North Korea poses a real military threat to East Asia, and its clear violations and flaunting of the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty endanger the nonproliferation regime. If Pyongyang continues with its noncompliant behavior, the United States must bolster its nuclear and conventional deterrents in East Asia and apply pressure for a real termination of North Korea's nuclear program. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The policy of appeasement toward North Korea, which has consistently violated its international treaty obligations, must stop. The United States should present Pyongyang with an ultimatum either to open up its nuclear facilities to special inspections or to face US. determination to inflict punishment with every means available short of war. By using its secret nuclear program for what amounts to extortion. North Korea is making a mockery of the nonproliferation regime, sending the message that a party to the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT) can violate the treaty with few or no repercussions. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This article is a literature review which seeks to answer four questions: 1) What is washback? 2) How does washback work? 3) How can we promote positive washback? 4) How can we investigate washback? Building on the 'Washback Hypothesis' proposed by Alderson and Wall, and suggestions from Hughes, the article proposes a model that identifies participants, processes and products which may influence, or be influenced by, washback. Strategies for investigating wash back are also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The article examines the impact of total nuclear disarmament and nuclear deterrence on the security interests and policies of the U.S. Nuclear deterrence provides security and stability in the face of emerging and traditional threats. The authors explain that total disarmament would make the country vulnerable to the nuclear and biological weapons threats of other countries. The authors discuss Russia's continuing chemical- and biological-weapons programs, as well as Iraq's continuing ballistic-missile program.

The article discusses the author's opinion on how to address the threat of biological weapons. She stresses that arms control in the field of biological weapons is impossible to achieve. She emphasizes that the ideal way to respond to the danger that these weapons bring is to develop and use effective defenses that will render the weapon useless to a perpetrator. Since current technology does not allow these defenses, she asserts that the threat of these weapons should be met with nuclear deterrence.

The article offers a statement as a means of initiating discussion concerning key areas for future research in the Teacher of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) profession. In recent years, a number of research agendas that are highly relevant to the activities of the TESOL profession internationally have been published. With limited research funding typically available to TESOL researchers and with the enormous potential scope of research pursuits across the profession internationally, it is helpful to identify a subset of important and timely topics that researchers across educational contexts can pursue using a variety of research methods. In addition to the research many TESOL professionals conduct within their own local institutions, promoting possibly larger scale TESOL research has scholarly and practical benefits. It has been viewed that the selection of topics for further investigation should be principled, with preference given to, first, issues that have not been sufficiently researched and have important theoretical and practical value; second, issues in which there is considerable interest among well-defined groups; third, issues involving underrepresented learners, populations, and geographical regions; and fourth, issues with major policy implications.