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Age is by far the most powerful predictor of the cessation of those forms of deviant behavior that involve substantial risk and/or physically demanding behavior. Turning to the issue of gender difference in deviant behavior, one finds that no sociological theory of deviance explains why deviant behavior is primarily a male phenomenon. Labelling theory has been the most popular perspective in the area of deviance. Differential association is essentially a theory of socialization. It suggests that if persons are brought up in an environment where the dominant message is that deviant behavior is acceptable and appropriate, they will accept this view and commit deviant acts. The strong patterning of the relationship between youthful age and low points in psychological well-being, life disenchantment, anxiety, and depression provide some empirical support for applying the Durkheimian concept of anomie to the transition adolescents and young adults are undergoing.

The stakes of choosing the best theory as a basis for violence prevention and offender rehabilitation are high. However, no single theory of violence has ever been universally accepted by a majority of established researchers. Psychiatry, psychology and sociology are each subdivided into different schools relying upon different premises. All theories can produce empirical evidence for their validity, some of them stating the opposite of each other. Calculating different models with multivariate logistic regression on a dataset of N=21,312 observations and ninety-two influences allowed a direct comparison of the performance of operationalizations of some of the most important schools. The psychopathology model ranked as the best model in terms of predicting violence right after the comprehensive interdisciplinary model. Next came the rational choice and lifestyle model and third the differential association and learning theory model. Other models namely the control theory model, the childhood-trauma model and the social conflict and reaction model turned out to have low sensitivities for predicting violence. Nevertheless, all models produced acceptable results in predictions of a non-violent outcome.

Individual and/or co-offenders fraudulent activities can have a devastating effect on a company’s reputation and credibility. Enron, Xerox, WorldCom, HIH Insurance and One.Tel are examples where stakeholders incurred substantial financial losses as a result of fraud and led to a loss of confidence in corporate dealings by the public in general. There are numerous theoretical approaches that attempt to explain how and why fraudulent acts occur, drawing on the fields of sociology, organisational, management and economic literature, but there is limited empirical evidence published in accounting literature. This qualitative inductive study analyses perceptions and experiences of forensic accountants to gain insights into individual fraud and co-offending in order to determine whether the conceptual framework developed from literature accurately depicts the causes of fraud committed by individuals and groups in the twenty-first century. Findings from the study both support and extend the conceptual framework, demonstrating that strain and anomie can result in fraud, that deviant sub-groups recruit and coerce members by providing relief from strain, and that inadequate corporate governance mechanisms both contribute to fraud occurring, and provide the opportunity for fraudulent activities to be executed and often remain undetected. Additional factors emerging from this study (the ‘technoconomy’, addiction and IT measures) were also identified as contributors to fraud, particularly relevant to the twenty-first century, and consequently, a refined conceptual framework is presented in the discussion and conclusion to the paper.

Differential association theory and the closely linked differential coercion/social support theory suggest that peers exert both criminogenic and protective influences on individuals. Yet, little is known about how dimensions of peer criminality and peer support affect reentry outcomes independently and interdependently. Using data from the Serious and Violent Offender Reentry Initiative, mixed-effects models demonstrate that peer criminality relates to significantly higher odds of substance use and criminal offending, whereas peer support relates to significantly lower odds of substance use and offending. Interaction terms between peer crime and support suggest the two exert independent, and not interactive, influences on recidivism. Although peer crime exerts a more robust effect, peer support must be understood as a mechanism that drives desistance independently of peer crime.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is often cited as a risk factor for criminality. However, many studies do not take other criminogenic variables into account when reporting on this relationship. It is even less clear whether models that include ADHD as a potential risk factor for criminality consider the importance of sex differences. To answer this question, we collected data from a telephone population survey sampling adults over the age of 18 years in the province of Ontario, Canada (final sample size = 5196). Respondents were screened for ADHD using the Adult ADHD Self-Report Version 1.1 Screener (ASRS-V1.1) and four extra items. Problematic drinking was assessed using the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT), while cannabis misuse was evaluated using the Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST). The Antisocial Personality Disorder Scale from the Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview provided a measure of previous conduct disorder symptoms and the 12-item General Health Questionnaire screening procedure was used to gauge general distress. History of arrest was self-reported. Three separate logistic regression analyses (entire sample, male only, and female only) were applied to estimate the association of the foregoing variables with arrest history. In the combined sample, conduct disorder symptoms, problem alcohol use, and problem cannabis use all predicted history of arrest. With regard to the male sample, conduct disorder symptoms, elevated AUDIT and ASSIST scores, and general distress were associated with an arrest history. For the female subsample, only conduct disorder symptoms and problematic cannabis use showed a relationship with criminality. To summarize, ADHD did not predict history of arrest for either subsample or the combined sample. When comparing males and females, conduct disorder symptoms and cannabis misuse exerted stronger effects on history of arrest for females than males. These results suggest that the relative importance and type of clinical risk factors for arrest may differ according to sex. Such information could be useful for crime prevention policies and correctional programs that take into account differences in experience by sex.

This chapter suggests that theories of action can provide frameworks for criminologicai discourse. The explicit use of action theories as ways of integrating criminological accounts offers one such means of achieving this goal. Radical behavioral approaches have fed into criminology by way of a number of largely unrelated initiatives on the part of both sociologists and psychologists. Social learning theory and radical behaviorism have suffered from their association with differential association theory, preoccupied as it is with the social aspects of delinquent behavior in relation both to its mode of acquisition and to the motives and reinforcements it recognizes. The action theories that have been discussed are often linked to the theoretical accounts with which they have been most closely associated. Thus, the learning theory approaches have often been taken to exemplify the positivist tradition within criminology, while a line of descent for the rational choice approach has been traced from classical and neo-classical criminology.

This chapter offers thoughts on necessary future directions of theoretical studies on cybercrime generally, and differential association theory (DAT) and social learning theory (SLT) specifically. In the case of cybercrime, DAT proposes that interaction with differential associates who engage in technocrime will increase not only the actors' knowledge on how to engage in technocrime, but also aids in the acquisition of the motives and drives needed for participating in this illegal activity. SLT proposes that interaction with differential associates who engage in technocrime will cause a person to form definitions favorable or unfavorable to technocrime through an operant-conditioning-based learning process. The social learning process then repeats itself, which can either perpetuate cybercrime or abstinence from cybercrime, while also allowing for people to engage in cybercrime sporadically. Recently, scholars have discussed the roles played by associates in the causation of crime, a conversation that is especially relevant to the online world in which cybercrime occurs.

This chapter explores how biography and theoretical context intersected to foster the development of Sutherland's classic differential association perspective. A number of incidents helped me progress beyond this stage of mental disorganization, and led to the development of the theory which became known as differential association. Differential association is the causal or genetic process through which a particular person or series of persons, regarded individually, became criminals. Culture conflict is assumed in the concept of differential association. In order for association to be differential, cultures must be conflicting. Cultures are in conflict in many respects. The theory of differential association is that a person becomes a criminal through membership in a criminal group and segregated from anti-criminal groups, whose practices constitute respectively the criminal culture and the anti-criminal culture. Culture conflict and differential association are explanations from the point of view of the individual, while differential group organization is from the point of view of a group.

In the 1950s, American criminology witnessed the emergence of several new theoretical ideas about the causes of crime and delinquency. Through the 1940s, Sutherland's differential association theory was the dominant etiological idea in American sociology and criminology, and it would not be challenged until the second half of the 20th Century began. One of those challengers was Walter C. Reckless and his containment theory. Walter Reckless was born in Philadelphia in 1899 into a comfortable middle-class family where music and the arts were important components of family life. By the early 1950s, he had begun to conceptualize a control theory of delinquency which he would eventually call "containment theory". Containment theory postulated that "strong inner and reinforcing outer containment constitutes an insulation against normative deviancy, that is, violation of the sociolegal conduct norms". Containment theory, along with the early contributions of others, including Reiss, Toby, and Nye, helped lay the foundation for the development of modern social control theory.

The International Classification of Diseases 11th Version (ICD-11) will include Complex Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (CPTSD) as a unique diagnostic entity comprising core PTSD and DSO (disturbances in self-organization) symptoms. The current study had three aims: (1) assessing the validity of CPTSD in a unique population of male perpetrators of intimate partner violence; (2) examining whether exposure to different types of traumatic events would be associated with the two proposed CPTSD factors, namely PTSD or DSO; and (3) assessing the differential association of various sociodemographic and symptom characteristics with each factor. Participants were 234 males drawn randomly from a sample of 2600 men receiving treatment at 66 domestic violence centers in Israel. Data were collected using the International Trauma Questionnaire (ITQ) – Hebrew version. Confirmatory factor analysis supported the factorial validity of ICD-11 CPTSD. Cumulative lifetime trauma and physical childhood neglect were associated with PTSD and DSO, while cumulative childhood violence exposure was associated only with DSO. Anxiety was associated only with DSO; depression more strongly with DSO than PTSD. Religious level contributed only to PTSD; compulsory military service only to DSO. The study supports the distinction between PTSD and DSO in the CPTSD construct and introduces the role of cultural variables.

This chapter aims to clarify and broaden key elements of differential-association/social-learning theory, using illustrative quotes from life history of "Sam Goodman"—a longtime "thief" and quasi-legitimate businessman who died in the 1990s following a four-month bout with lung cancer. Sam Goodman's life history narratives reveal crime and criminal careers not so much as discrete events or series of events, but as a process that can be marked by amplification spirals, shifts, and oscillations, and waxing and waning commitments to crime and criminal others. The behaviors of peers or associates may be as or more important than attitudes of peers in influencing an individual's own delinquency, just as one's past delinquency is likely to forecast greater risk for future delinquency. The concept of normative conflict frames the theory. Normative conflict is simply the notion that various groups and subgroups in society differ in terms of definitions of right and wrong, and in their definitions of whether individuals are obligated to follow laws.

In Causes of Delinquency, Hirschi attempts to state and test a theory of delinquency, seeing in the delinquent a person relatively free of the intimate attachments, the aspirations, and the moral beliefs that bind most people to a life within the law. In prominent alternative theories, the delinquent appears either as a frustrated striver forced into delinquency by his acceptance of the goals common to us all, or as an innocent foreigner attempting to obey the rules of a society that is not in position to make the law or define conduct as good or evil. Hirschi analyzes a large body of data on delinquency collected in Western Contra Costa County, California, contrasting throughout the assumptions of the strain, control, and cultural deviance theories. He outlines the assumptions of these theories and discusses the logical and empirical difficulties attributed to each of them. Then draws from sources an outline of social control theory, the theory that informs the subsequent analysis and which is advocated here. Often listed as a "Citation Classic," Causes of Delinquency retains its force and cogency with age. It is an important volume and a necessary addition to the libraries of sociologists, criminologists, scholars and students in the area of delinquency.

When Ruth Kornhauser set out to write her Ph.D. dissertation at the University of Chicago, she had as a template a three-part paper she had presented to a seminar attended by prominent scholars in the Berkeley area. In 1963, Kornhauser had not settled on a single label for the second set of theories, which were then called by a variety of names, including cultural transmission, subcultural, culture conflict, and differential association. All assumed that "groups with high rates of deviance have conventional values that are deviant only according to the standards of some other cultural system." By 1975, Kornhauser had decided that her 1963 paper was inconsistent with established fact, that pursuing its major positive thesis would produce a "totally wrong-headed book." She had believed, and had invested heavily in the strain theory enterprise. It seemed to have everything: motive, logic, condemnation, exculpation, and a clearly falsifiable central hypothesis.

This chapter reviews Ruth Rosner Kornhauser's major contributions to criminological theory and research, focusing on her typology of criminological theories. It discusses the intellectual influences that helped shape Kornhauser's approach to criminological theory, including Talcott Parson's functionalist approach and Gertrude Jaeger and Philip Selznick's normative theory of culture. The chapter revisits her construction and critique of "cultural deviance theory," and speculates about what led her to misinterpret the writings of Edwin Sutherland and other members of the Chicago School of Sociology. It reconsiders the issues of social structure and culture rose by Kornhauser and outlines a strategy for remedying her errors and moving beyond her presentation to a research agenda for criminology. Criminologists who assess Kornhauser's work rarely discuss her theoretical influences, with the exception of her alignment with social disorganization and social control perspectives. Kornhauser carefully constructs "cultural deviance theory," arguing that Sutherland's theory of differential association is its "purest" case.

This chapter reviews the empirical research evidence on the validity of social learning theory as an explanation of criminal and deviant behavior. It asserts that social learning theory can be elaborated to account for criminological and sociological regularities, making sense of events at the micro-levels of temporal and ecological aggregation, providing a better explanation than other theories. The chapter describes the volume of studies and the positive findings, with few negative findings, provides greater empirical support for social learning theory than for any other major social psychological theory of crime and deviance. Social Structure and Social Learning model is a cross-level elaboration or integration that proposes that social structure has an indirect effect on criminal and conforming behavior through the social learning variables of differential association, and imitation. Imitation and contagion in macro level analysis are treated as part of a statistical problem eliminated through statistical adjustments and filtering.

Developmental and life-course criminology (DLC) is concerned with three main issues: the development of offending and antisocial behavior, risk and protective factors at different ages, and the effects of life events on the course of development. DLC is especially concerned to document and explain within-individual changes in offending throughout life. The main aim of this volume is to advance knowledge about DLC theories, which have been developed only in the last twenty years. These recent theories aim to integrate knowledge about individual, family, peer, school, neighborhood, community, and situational influences on offending, and to integrate key elements of earlier theories such as strain, social learning, control, and differential association.

In 1940, Edwin Sutherland claimed that the discipline of criminology was operating with an inaccurate view of criminal behavior. He argued that criminology focused too much on the offending of working-class people via the causal mechanisms of poverty, psychopathy, and sociopathy. His theory on white-collar crime was an observation that people of high social class commit crimes and have their own forms of offending behavior. Of this behavior, Sutherland noted that it could be more far-reaching and damaging than offenses committed by the working class, while at the same time encountering less scrutiny and condemnation from society. By taking the first steps into the study of crimes of the powerful, Sutherland opened up discussion of a wide range of nonviolent, financially motivated offenses such as corruption of state officials, fraud, and embezzlement. He proposed the theory of differential association as an attempt to provide a more effective explanation of offending behavior inclusive of the offending of the rich and powerful. During the 20th century, research into white-collar criminals and the professional con artist has revealed broad typologies of offending behavior and patterns of offending. Today, white-collar crime is a broad term that applies to a range of activities and has become shorthand for discussions of crimes that involve deception, abuse of trust, and intelligent criminals. Media representations have emphasized these characteristics and portrayed white-collar criminals and con artists as offending elites, both in terms of social class and type of offending. Film and television depictions present an elaborate form of criminality based on guile and manipulation of victims. The image of the white-collar criminal, the professional con artist, and their victims in popular culture are equally nuanced and tap into ideas about the moral acceptability of this kind of offending. The influence of popular culture on attitudes toward white-collar crime is of great interest in the study of criminology.

In the broad spectrum of criminological theories on the causes of deviant behavior, sociological theories of criminality involve particular importance. These theories, the causes of such behaviors are only seen in the conditions and social interactions of the individual in their environment. However, with scientific explanations about the causes of criminal behavior, special place has the theory who gives a special importance to the delinquent's interaction with its environment. This is known as theory of various associations or more commonly known as the theory of differential association. The creator of this theory is the famous American sociologist and criminologist Edwin Sutherland, who has left indelible imprints on the relatively short but very important tradition of American criminological theories of criminality. The famous creator's lessons have been taken and modified by many prominent criminologists in their reviews of criminal etiology. As a result this lesson has also been the basis for numerous subsequent empirical research on criminal behavior. In this paper, using the comparative, theoretical, and meta-analysis methods, will be presented the views of some criminology authors and their interpretation of Sutherland's lessons on differential association. Due to this, a brief section of some empirical studies of delinquent behaviors based on E. Sutherland's lessons will be presented, and also the final discussion on these issues will be discussed.

The principal objective of the present article is to evaluate the idea that all job demands are not identical. Literature review has been performed to assess the notion that all demands are not equal. Thus, the underlying rationale for segregation of job demands as challenges and hindrances has been evaluated. This study might be guiding for future research to answer the identified ambiguity and issues in job demand literature. The article may help researchers and practitioners to develop understanding regarding the potential of job demands in predicting work outcomes. The article may help scholars and managers to better understand the differential association of job demands with work related outcomes as such exploration is not much attempted in literature.

Drinking motives (DM) reflect the reasons why individuals drink alcohol. Weekdays are mainly dedicated to work, whereas weekends are generally associated with spending time with friends during special events or leisure activities; using alcohol on weekdays and weekends may also be related to different DM. This study examined whether DM were differentially associated with drinking volume (DV) on weekdays and weekends. A representative sample of 5,391 young Swiss men completed a questionnaire assessing weekday and weekend DV, as well as their DM, namely, enhancement, social, coping, and conformity motives. Associations of DM with weekday and weekend DV were examined using structural equation models. Each DM was tested individually in a separate model; all associations were positive and generally stronger (except conformity) for weekend rather than for weekday DV. Further specific patterns of association were found when DM were entered into a single model simultaneously. Associations with weekday and with weekend DV were positive for enhancement and coping motives. However, associations were stronger with weekend rather than with weekday DV for enhancement, and stronger with weekday than with weekend DV for coping motives. Associations of social motives were not significant with weekend DV and negative with weekday DV. Conformity motives were negatively associated with weekend DV and positively related to weekday DV. These results suggest that interventions targeting enhancement motives should be particularly effective at decreasing weekend drinking, whereas interventions targeted at coping motives would be particularly effective at reducing alcohol use on weekdays. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).

The present study applies Social Learning (Differential Association) Theory to the explanation of political violence, focusing on exposure to extremist content through new social media (NSM) and controlling for key variables derived from rival theories. Data are gathered using (a) a paper-and-pencil study among high school students, and (b) a web survey targeting youths between 16 and 24 years old. A total of 6020 respondents form the dataset. Binary logistic regression is used to analyze the data. Results show that even when controlling for background variables, strain variables, personality characteristics, moral values, and peer influences, the statistical association between measures of extremism through NSM (ENSM) and self-reported political violence remains significant and fairly constant. The most persistent effects are found for those measures where individuals actively seek out extremist content on the Internet, as opposed to passive and accidental encounters using NSM. Furthermore, offline differential associations with racist and delinquent peers are also strongly and directly related to self-reported political violence, as are some mechanisms from rival perspectives. This indicates that political violence can only partially be explained by social learning and suggests that the impact of ENSM is mediated by real-world associations and that the offline world has to be taken into account.

In recent year’s metacognitive theories – particularly the self-regulatory executive function model proposed by Wells and colleagues – have emerged as a potentially useful perspective from which to extend current cognitive-behavioral models for the mood and anxiety disorders. Metacognitions refer to different beliefs individuals endorse about their thoughts, internal states, and effective coping strategies. Research has linked these attitudes to obsessive compulsive symptoms (OCS), yet it remains unclear whether there may be a differential association with the different OCS dimensions and hoarding. The current study aimed to investigate the specific relationships between the OCS dimensions, hoarding, and metacognitions controlling for general distress. The sample (N=160) was comprised of young adults at a large university in Germany. Although all symptom types were significantly linked with the various metacognitions assessed (all p’s

Hearing loss and hormone therapy are independently associated with dementia, yet joint effects of hearing loss and hormone therapy could be associated with greater decline in global cognition and increased risk of dementia. Using data on self-reported hearing loss (moderate/severe vs. mild/normal hearing) and hormone therapy (0.625 mg of conjugated equine estrogens [CEE], 0.625 mg of conjugated equine estrogens plus 2.5 mg of medroxyprogesterone acetate [CEE+MPA], and respective placebos) from 7,220 post-menopausal women enrolled in the Women’s Health Initiative Memory Study, we modeled multivariable linear mixed effects models with change in global cognition, as defined by Modified Mini Mental State Examination, as an outcome and accelerated failure time models with adjudicated dementia diagnosis as an outcome. Models were adjusted by demographic characteristics, co-morbidities, and depressive symptoms. After adjustment, post-menopausal women with hearing loss and CEE had lower global cognition (β=-0.841, 95% CI: -1.647, -0.035) and less steep decline in global cognition (β=0.104, 95% Confidence Interval, [CI]: 0.010, 0.199), as compared to those with normal hearing and placebo. After adjustment, post-menopausal women on CEE+MPA with (Time Ratio, [TR]=0.68, 95% CI: 0.52, 0.90) and without (TR=0.60, 95% CI: 0.37, 0.96) hearing loss have faster time to dementia than those with normal hearing and placebo. Hormone therapy seems to be a more potent driver of cognitive outcome regardless of hearing status.

Previous studies have shown that higher levels of economic hardship in older adults is associated with increased odds of adverse health outcomes such as insomnia, anxiety, and depressive symptoms. The objective of this study was to determine if there was a differential association between individual measures of economic hardship and aforementioned adverse health outcomes. Cross-sectional analysis was conducted using data from the 2012 National Health and Aging Trends Study (NHATS). Logistic models were developed to assess the association between each of the four measures of economic hardship and three previously reported adverse health outcomes. Participants were asked if in the last month they did not have enough money for food, utility bills, mortgage/rent, or medical bills/prescription drugs. Measures of adverse health outcomes were symptoms of depression, anxiety, and insomnia. There were 7,075 community dwelling older adults aged 65 and older in the 2012 NHATS data. Results indicated that those who skipped meals were more likely to have depression, anxiety, and insomnia symptoms than those who did not skip meals. After adjusting for race, age, gender, education, and comorbid health conditions, skipping meals was associated with depression (OR=4.11, p

OBJECTIVES: Anemia is a public health problem in Ethiopia. There is strong evidence to show that both individual and community level factors play an important role in the prevalence of anemia and should be considered while designing effective programs to reduce anemia. The study aims to explore the determinants of anemia at both individual and community levels and to analyze any differential effect of a predictor at the two levels. METHODS: Multilevel random intercept model was estimated using Ethiopia DHS 2016 with group mean centered variables at the individual level and grand mean level centering for cluster-level variables. The analysis was conducted in Stata/SE 15.1 using “melogit”. The final sample included 14,489 women of reproductive age group (WRA) belonging to 25 strata with an average cluster size of 580. RESULTS: The variation between strata accounted for almost 11 percentage of the variability in the outcome. Woman's age and number of children at the individual level as well as at the cluster level, and religion and education at the individual level are significant predictors. In addition, significant cross-level interactions include mean number of children in cluster versus woman's age and household wealth; religion versus cluster means of household wealth and prevalence of high decision-making power and child marriage; and number of children versus mean age in cluster. Results suggest that women who are younger than the average cluster age and reside in relatively younger clusters have a higher probability of being anemic as compared to women who are older than the average cluster age. On the other hand, the probability of being anemic is the lowest across ages for younger women if they reside in clusters with highest mean age. Similarly, the association of poverty at the individual level reduces with increasing average wealth at cluster level while the opposite is true for number of children. Cluster average of number of children has a differential association with the probability of being anemic across religions. Cluster prevalence of high decision-making power among women and child marriage have a negative association with the probability of being anemic though the association varies by religion. CONCLUSIONS: Results showed the importance of variation between strata and clusters; and the importance of these when interacting with some individual level characteristics, that are not modifiable. These results have important implications for anemia program and policy FUNDING SOURCES: FHI 360, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. SUPPORTING TABLES, IMAGES AND/OR GRAPHS

To the Editor We appreciate the editorial by Burden and Timpson1 highlighting collider bias as a potential explanation for our findings of a differential association between diabetes and atrial fibrillation (AF) by ethnicity as well as by heart failure (HF) type.2 Collider bias applies in aetiologic research where causal associations between two independent variables are spuriously created due to stratification by a causally related health outcome. First we point out that ours was not aetiologic research, and we specifically acknowledged that our observational study design does not allow ascertainment of causality. We nonetheless agree that the diabetes–AF paradox was one of our most intriguing observations, raising questions that, while not answered by …

This editorial introduces a collection of research papers and a review on ADHD, highlighting the continuing challenge that ADHD poses in research and practice. The articles include a Practitioner Review providing a comprehensive review focusing on current knowledge about barriers and facilitators operating at the individual, organisational and societal level; a study reporting a randomised controlled trial of parent training for ADHD pre-schoolers; an empirical paper on sex differences in ADHD symptom severity; a study of the co-development of ADHD and externalizing behaviour across the lifespan; a study of the genetic architecture of neurocognitive abilities in the general population; and finally a study examining the differential association among three behavioural dimensions leading to early-onset conduct problems. ? 2015 Association for Child and Adolescent Mental Health.

Research explaining the overlap between psychopathy and alexithymia is in its infancy. A study by Lander, Lutz-Zois, Rye, and Goodnight (2012) revealed a significant positive correlation between secondary, but not primary, psychopathy and alexithymia. However, little is known about what accounts for this differential association. Because both alexithymia (Webb & McMurran, 2008) and secondary psychopathy (Blackburn, 1996) have been linked to Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD), the current study sought to determine if emotional processing deficits characteristic of BPD could explain the link between secondary psychopathy and alexithymia. The results supported the hypothesis that BPD would mediate the association between secondary psychopathy and alexithymia. Implications, limitations, and future directions are discussed.

This study aims to predict social determinants of alcohol use and examines the influence of social bond/attachment, parental control and social learning on the frequency of youth alcohol use. The total of 1843 complete responses were received from 25 high school students in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan. The structural equation modeling (SEM) is used to examine the results of this study. There are very few studies assessed the aspects of the social learning and social control theories in Kyrgyzstan and it is a total new area for youth deviant behavior studies. The results of this study indicate that social bond and attachment decreases the use of alcohol among high school students. However, parental control and social learning (differential association) increase the the frequency of the alcohol consumption among Kyrgyz youth.

On Friday 21st April 2011, Indonesia was shocked by a suicide bombing in a police mosque in Cirebon,West Java Indonesia. The bombing exploded just before the Friday prayer began. Historically, althoughsuicide bombings or mosque bombing have occurred elsewhere, the suicide mosque bombing in Cirebonwas the first time this had occurred in Indonesia. There are similarities between the Cirebon bombingand other bombings occurring in Indonesia. First, there is a similar relationship among the suspects.Second, the suspects were all involved in organizations that have hard-line Islamic ideology. The aim ofthis paper is to understand the differential association and general strain theories in the light of the newform suicide bombing that occurred in Indonesia. This paper will be argued that differential associationtheory is an appropriate approach to explain the cause of the suicide bombing related to the relationshipamong suspects. Similarly, general strain theory is a suitable approach to explain the cause of theterrorism in Indonesia. KeyWords: terrorism, suicide bombing, differential association and general strain theories.

Purpose To assess the association among parent and peer weight-related teasing, emotional eating, and weight control behaviors in minority girls. Methods 141 Hispanic and African American preadolescent girls (mean age = 11.1 years, SD = 1.5 years) participated. Most of the participants were of Hispanic origin, had a bicultural orientation, and were obese. Participants completed surveys assessing weight-related teasing, emotional eating, weight control behaviors, demographic, and acculturation characteristics. Body weight and height were also assessed. Hierarchical regression analyses were run to determine the associations among study variables. Results Fifty-nine percent of participants reported being weight-related teased by peers and 42% participants reported weight-related teasing by parents. Weight-related teasing by parent was associated with emotional eating and binge eating, whereas peer weight-related teasing was only associated with emotional eating. Conclusions Findings demonstrated the differential association of weight-related teasing from peers and parents to emotional and binge eating in minority girls.

Differential association and social learning theory assume delinquent peers to be instigators and reinforcers of delinquent behaviour and norms favourable of delinquency. Control theory, on the other hand, assumes that delinquents will group together with peers that share a common normative and behavioural background. Interactional theory as an integrative paradigm argues that both – influence and selection – processes might be active simultaneously and are embedded in a reciprocal causal relationship. This paper tests the reciprocity between the association with delinquent peer groups, the acceptance of pro-violent norms and violent delinquency during adolescence with data from a German longitudinal panel study in a longitudinal structural equation model. Results indicate that peers, norms and violence are interactionally related and that influence and selection processes are active simultaneously. Moreover, further structural dimensions are able to explain delinquent peer group association, the acceptance of pro-violent norms and violence in early adolescence.

The aim of the study was to obtain adolescents’ perspectives about why young people offend. Twenty-four Australian male and female offenders and non-offenders offered insights about what, according to them, motivates young people to become involved in crime. Without the use of sophisticated language, participants offered explanations that were well-aligned with the ‘big three’ theories suggested by Cullen and Agnew (2003) as major criminological theories — namely, control, differential association, and strain theories. Participants also provided explanations that corroborated Carroll, Houghton, Durkin, and Hattie's (2009) reputation enhancing goals theory. Participants’ explanations were consistent with empirically supported criminological theories, suggesting that young people involved in crime, or associated with known offenders, have insights about the causes of crime. An extrapolation of this notion would suggest that they might also have some insight into what measures could be taken to reduce or prevent offending. Notwithstanding further research, it is proposed that young people should be given more voice in criminal justice matters.

Traditionally, studies that examine the activities of misbehaving employees and customers have done so in a separate and unrelated manner. Drawing on research that explores deviance amplifications and deviant learning, the current study aims to address this identified gap in the literature and provide empirical evidence of the linkages between perceived employee deviance and the severity of customer misbehaviour. Utilising equity, power and differential association theories, a conceptual model is forwarded comprising four hypotheses between the constructs: perceived employee service deviance; customer repatronage intent; severity of customer misbehaviour; and past customer misbehaviour. Using survey responses from 380 consumers of bars, hotels and restaurants, the empirical results offer support for the forwarded research model. The results show that customers perceiving employee misbehaviour are profoundly affected. Such experiences erode their repatronage intentions and are linked (directly and indirectly) to the severity of dysfunctional customer behaviour performed. Consumers’ past experience of misbehaviour is also found to impact the hypothesised relationships. The paper concludes by considering the implications of the findings and outlining directions for future research.

“Peer deviance” is normally measured through one’s perceptions of the deviant behavior of friends. However, recent research suggests that peer deviance perceptions may be inaccurate and unreflective of a peer’s actual deviance. Using dyadic data, the current study addresses the potential for three distinct sources of misperceptions of peer deviance stemming from (a) the actor who generates the perception, (b) the friend about whose deviance is perceived, and (c) the friendship between the actor and the friend. Using multilevel regression alongside analyses of variance (ANOVAs), results demonstrate that misperceptions, overperceptions, and underperceptions of peer deviance occur frequently and systematically covary with the deviant behavior of the perceiver, the friend, and the total amount of deviance within the friendship.

This study aimed at evaluating self-control theory in the context of online music piracy by adolescents in Hong Kong. In addition to self-control measures, social variables and strain variables were measured in this study with 634 secondary school students. The results did not strongly support the general theory of crime's claim that the impact of self-control is universal across gender and cultures. Individuals' self-control was correlated with boys' online piracy behaviour, but not that of girls. A stronger influence of social factors (differential association) compared with self-control on online piracy behaviour was also observed. This research contributes to knowledge of the interplay of gender and culture in shaping the applicability of self-control theory in understanding delinquent behaviour.

This article examines Hezbollah through the lens of differential association theory. The theory posits that violent behavior is cultivated in group interaction. One does not simply act alone but must learn from the tricks, successes, and failures of those who belong to one's group. In this analysis, the theory explains how Hezbollah has successfully managed to recruit new members and convince them to perpetrate terrorist attacks. The essence of any terrorist endeavor is communication among group members. As such, by interacting with one another, Hezbollah terrorists develop their combat skills and learn new tactics. Of particular importance in this analysis is the role of symbolism that forges a bond among group members. Whether it is through the Ashura procession (an annual Shi'ite commemorative ceremony), matams (religious sanctuaries that now serve as political and social gatherings), or calendar events such as World Jerusalem Day, potential Hezbollah members get to learn violent behavior by cultivatin...

Given the voluntary nature of adolescent friendships, forgiveness of interpersonal transgressions has been identified as a critical aspect of maintaining these relationships. However, transgression forgiveness is related to a range of situational (e.g., transgression severity), interpersonal (e.g., friendship commitment), and intrapersonal (e.g., victim's empathy) factors. Data from 161 adolescents were used to examine the nature of the relationships between these factors and forgiveness and to examine the differential association patterns for adolescent boys and girls. Results for the overall adolescent sample indicated both situational and interpersonal factor associations with forgiveness (R2 = .52, p.001). Examination of separate female and male forgiveness reports indicated similar interpersonal factor associations and differential situational factor associations with female (R2 = .46, p.001), and male (R2 = .60, p.001) forgiveness. Findings suggest the likelihood of forgiving may be contextually dependent, and that researchers should consider transgression, relationship, and intrapersonal characteristics when examining forgiveness. Further, the present study suggests the contextual factors associated with forgiveness may be further differentiated by gender.

The Finnish educational system streams students to academic or vocational tracks at the transition to upper secondary school. Organized as specialized training programs, vocational schools in Finland are highly segregated by gender and tend to attract significant concentrations of poorly motivated students with behavioral problems. Drawing on differential association theory, we hypothesize that these settings facilitate criminal involvement. Evidence from longitudinal data suggests that participation in vocational education is criminogenic for males but not females. Moreover, supporting the cumulative disadvantage hypothesis, participation in the vocational track mediates the association between low academic performance and the risk of criminal conviction. These findings raise concerns about a system of tracking prevalent in many European countries.

Previous studies had attributed the management fraud to different reasons. Williams (2012) suggested that the management fraud is motivated by proposed unrealistic goals supported by attractive compensations. Frankel (2012) attributed the management fraud to CEO's unethical financial decisions and the complexity of information technology. The manager fraud behavior is influenced by several factors such as an intrapersonal (attitude, values, belief, and personality traits), social (social norms and controls), institutional (policies, laws, rules and regulations), and ethical factors (personal moral value and organization value/culture). In other words, the management fraud is the outcome of the management decision-making, which is influenced by managers’ personal values, personal beliefs, organizational factor, and social factors. To detect and prevent fraud, it is helpful to know its root causes, thereby manage the fraud risk exposure. Previous studies have linked the management fraud to various theoretical frameworks such as a differential association theory, a general stain theory, and business ethics theory.

The financial statement fraud (management fraud) occurred in three different ways: lack of awareness of acting fraudulently (by error), awareness of acting fraudulently coupled with rationalization to avoid negative affect or emotion (individual’s intuition support committing a fraud), or awareness of acting fraudulently coupled with reasoning through cost-benefit analysis (individual’s intuition unclear). The management fraud can be viewed as a decisional, behavioral, cognitive, societal, emotional, or ethical phenomenon. In summary, the management fraud, as a human behavior, is an intentional, complex, multidimensional act that results from multiple interactive factors. In other words, the management fraud is the outcome of management decision-making, which is influenced by managers’ personal values, personal beliefs, organizational factor, and social factors. It can be viewed as a decisional, behavioral, cognitive, societal, emotional, or ethical phenomenon. Multiple theories explained the management fraud behavior based on different perspectives including agency theory, a fraud triangle theory, a theory of planned behavior, a rational choice theory, a prospect theory, a differential association theory, a general stain theory, and business ethics theory.

Objective: A decade ago a first bibliometric study considered the worldwide distribution of scientific publications of anorexia nervosa to be an indirect indicator of its prevalence at different latitudes. This bibliometric approach was grounded on the hypothesis that the prevalence for a particular disorder in a geographical area could be associated to an increase in the allocation of funds and health care resources supporting clinical and research programs, which in turn would be associated with an increase in the production of related scientific literature. Method: References to anorexia nervosa, anxiety disorders and seasonal affective disorders were retrieved from PubMed and PsycINFO databases and collected for the period 2000-2014. The distributions of the bibliographic references were mapped according to the institutional affiliation of their first author. Furthermore, according to their geographical coordinates each reference was catalogued in accordance with the Koppen classification system. Results: A remarkable similarity in the distribution of references to anorexia nervosa for the two periods was observed as well as a differential association of anorexia nervosa to mid-latitudes climates in comparison to references to anxiety disorders and seasonal affective disorders. Discussion: The distribution of references for anorexia nervosa have remained considerably stable over the last 25 years associated to higher but not extreme latitudes and to climates with regular seasons with no severe temperature variations across seasons. The replication of the data for these two time periods implies that ambient temperature should be included in the list of environmental risk factors for anorexia nervosa.

Biological theories of crime in general include examining the role of heredity and genetics, brain glucose metabolism, and neurotransmitters. Psychological theories implicate psychoanalytic theory, differential association and differential reinforcement theories, Eysenck’s theory of crime, and cognitive theories. In sociology, relevant theories of crime are: functionalism, anomie, control theory, routine activities theory, Chicago School contributions, radical criminology and left realism, labelling theory, subculture and feminism. Regarding theories of homicidal poisoning of relevance to poisoning in general is a theory of delays in moral reasoning, rational choice theory, strain theory and aspects of a gendered view of poisonings. For serial poisoning, differential reinforcement theory, control theory, and labelling theory have relevance. With reference to ‘team poisoning’ (involving more than one perpetrator) work on subculture appears pertinent. A promising theme in theory relating to poison homicide is the shaping of behaviour and understanding over time.

The purpose of this study was to investigate effects of long term imprisonment on inmates. Our prime interest have ben to identify if eventual effects are considered positive or negative or even a combination of the two. To answer these questions we conducted observations of convicts in a high security prison in Sweden. The collected data were followed by interviews with individuals who have spent considerable time behind bars. We discovered several different behavioral effects whilst conducting our study. Most of them indicated negatively by alienating and suppressing the individual's development, distancing them further away from the community. Inmates tend to alter their behavior substantially when being locked up for longer periods of time in small places with other criminals. Hence their identities change to fit into the environment. Some individuals develop communicational skills to adapt and manage their lifestyle in prison. In general, incarcerated individuals develop special social skills that are crucially needed in prison environment but tend to be redundant in the social community. Key words - differential association, social bonds, communication, identity Sammanfattning Vi genomförde denna studie i syfte att utreda vilka tänkbara effekter ett långt fängelsestraff skulle kunna ha på den enskilda individen. En aktuell fråga för oss har därför varit huruvida fängelsestraffet genererar positiva eller negativa effekter på den enskilde eller möjligen en kombination av båda. För att undersöka detta har vi genomfört intervjuer och en observation av intagna på en säkerhetsanstalt i Sverige. Vi lyckades utifrån vårt studiematerial identifiera främst negativa effekter vilka indikerade på att individen distanserar sig allt längre ifrån samhället. Klienterna uppvisade bland annat beteenden och identitetsförändringar som riktade sig bort ifrån det rådande samhällets normer. Detta förväntades bero på att de intagna anpassat sig till livet i fängelset och på så sätt ersatt sina sociala färdigheter till den aktuella miljön. Vissa klienter har utvecklat nya sätt att kommunicera på genom den interaktionen som skett med andra intagna. Den kommunikationen symboliserades främst av ett känslolöst och tufft språkbruk vilket krävs för att klara sig på anstalten. Slutsatsen som vi kunnat ta utifrån vår studie är att det förekommer negativa effekter av ett långt frihetsberövande. Däremot konstaterade vi att det behövs mer forskning inom området för att dra konkreta slutsatser. Nyckelord - differentiell association, sociala band, kommunikation, identitet

Now that a clear typology for categories of police deviance has been identified, criminological evaluation of the sociological explanations for these different forms of misbehavior can be undertaken. Based on the noted patterns and trends in police deviance since the 1960s, a number of common theoretical explanations can be proposed. These theoretical analyses have indicated that many acts of police corruption can be explained through Merton’s strain theory, Sutherland’s differential association theory, or Becker’s rational choice theory; numerous incidents of police criminality can be explained through Becker’s rational choice theory or Sutherland’s differential association theory; many events involving police use of excessive force can be explained through trait theory resulting from individual biological, genetic, or psychological factors or through Widom’s social learning theory; numerous acts of police abuse of authority can be explained through Sykes and Matza’s neutralization theory or Widom’s social learning theory; and incidents involving police misconduct cannot be generally explained through criminological theory due to the plethora of behaviors that can violate agency policy and procedure. Further theoretical examination will be attempted for other significant acts of police deviance including the “blue wall of silence” and courtroom perjury.