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This article is focusing on the etiology of the multiple sclerosis (MS). MS is the disease of autoimmune origin, concerning mainly young people with its complicated nature. The course of the degenerative and inflammatory process is variable and unexpected, from featureless to the vast and rapidly progressing nature, leading to the considerable disability. The etiological factors are not still well known. We can distinguish different agents: genetic, immunological and environmental, among them tobacco smoking also. Authors survey the etiopathological basis of the disease.

The purpose of the study was to measure the concentration of lead and cadmium in urine of women who smoked, were exposed to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) and were unexposed during pregnancy. The correlations between exposition to tobacco smoke and socioeconomic factors, course of pregnancy and health status of newborns were estimated. The subjects of the study were 231 pregnant women. Information about exposition to tobacco smoke, socioeconomic state, course of pregnancy and health status of newborns was collected from self-created questionnaire. The estimation of tobacco smoke exposition of the women was based on the questionnaire data and their urine cotinine concentration. The urine concentration of lead and cadmium was measured by atomic absorption spectrometry with graphite furnace. The mean urine lead concentration of women who smoked, were exposed to ETS and unexposed to tobacco smoke during pregnancy were respectively: 38.2 +/- 59.1; 36.2 +/- 50.1; 32.7 +/- 53.5 ng/ mg of creatinine, and mean cadmium concentration were respectively: 1.9 +/- 1.6; 1.1 +/- 1.2; 1.3 +/- 1.5 ng/mg of creatinine. The correlation between the urine concentration of cadmium and cotinine was statistically significant. Increased frequency of tobacco smoking was in the group of the women aged less than 25 years, that finished primary or vocational school, had monthly income less tan 500 zł/family member, and have smoking partners. In the group of women who smoked during pregnancy the childbirth was statistically more often by caesarian and supported delivery. The newborns of mothers who smoked and were exposed to ETS had birth weight respectively 348.5 g and 281.1 g smaller than newborns of unexposed mothers. The length of newborns of smoking and ETS exposed mothers were respectively 2.8 cm and 0.7 cm shorter then newborns of unexposed mothers.

In Poland, tobacco smoking by women in a procreational age as well as the pregnant women is a common phenomenon. The aim of the conducted research was to assess the usefulness of cotinine markers in different biological materials--mother and newborn's urine, cord blood se. rum, placenta--as a biomarker of tobacco smoking by delivering women, and dependence between these biomarkers and the newborn's health state. 218 pregnant women (117 smokers and 101 non-smokers), who were checked in at the Perinatology and Gynecology Clinic of the University of Medical Sciences in Poznan, took part in the first stage of the research (period between the twelfth and sixteenth week of pregnancy) carried out between years 2004-2006. In the second stage, 201 pairs of women (89 smokers and 112 non-smokers) and their newborns were checked after the women came to hospital to deliver. The research that was conducted showed that both cotinine in the urine of delivering women and in the urine of newborns as well as in the cord blood serum may be used as a biomarker of exposure of a foetus to tobacco smoke. For practical reasons, it must be assumed that the delivering women urine should be the material from choice. The research did not indicate the usefulness of the determination of cotinine in the placenta, in order to assess the exposure of the foetus to the components of tobacco smoke. On the other hand, again it confirmed the influence of tobacco smoking on the newborn's birth parameters, a correlation between the birth weight, body length and cotinine concentration in the urine of a mother makes it possible to predict the lowering of the antropometric parameters of the newborn as a result of tobacco smoking by pregnant women.

An important problem, particularly from the point of view of the medicine, is active tobacco smoking and passive exposure to tobacco smoke of pregnant women and unfavourable health aftermath for the foetus and a newborns resulting from this. The aim of this study was to evaluate the exposure of smoking mothers to tobacco-specific N-nitrosamines, through the measurement of 4-(metylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol (NNAL) in urine. The evaluation of tobacco smoking was performed on the basis of questionnaire studies and determination of cotinine in urine. The questionnaire studies that have been carried out, allowed the patients to be divided into two groups: women who do not smoke and are not exposed to ETS (17 women), and the ones who smoke (14 women). The women who smoked 11-15 cigarettes a day and more than 16 cigarettes constituted the largest percentage. The conformance of the declaration with the real exposure to tobacco smoke within the group of non-smoking women was 88%. Within the group of non-smoking women, the level of cotinine in 15 cases was 0 ng/ mg of creatinine, whereas in two cases, it amounted to 19.4 and 215.4 ng/mg of creatinine respectively. Among the persons, who were smoking, there were 4 cases, where the biomarker's level was 0 ng/mg of creatinine, and in 10 cases, the mean concentration of cotinine was 169.1 +/- 121.8 ng/mg of creatinine. The measurement of the content of tobacco-specific N-nitrosamines (NNAL- metabolite of NNK) in the urine of pregnant woman was carried out by means of the liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS). The analysis of obtained results showed that the mean concentration of NNAL in urine of smoking women was 59.2 +/- 40.2 pg/ ml. In the case of two patients, who declared to be non-smokers, and in the case of whom, the presence of cotinine was detected (19.4 and 215.4 ng/mg of and 88.4 pg/ml. The presence of 4-(metylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol in the mother's urine, speaks volumes for the possible risk of exposure of a foetus to the cancerogenic components of tobacco smoke. The applied LC/MS/ MS method of determination of NNAL in urine, which allows the quantity of several pg/ml of the smoker's urine to be determined, can be used to mark the biomarker of exposure to the tobacco-specific N-nitrosamines. The lack of correlation between cotinine and NNAL concentration in urine, and the number of smoked cigarettes, speaks volumes for the lapse of quite a long time from the moment of cigarette smoking to the moment of collection of the biological material for research and the possible incredible declaration as to the number of smoked cigarettes. Only a slight tendency for the increase in the concentration of NNAL as well as the increase in the cotinine level could be caused by the difference in pharmacokinetic parameters of marked metabolites at the moment of smoking cessation.

A 52-year-old woman with a history of depression and personality disorders, hypertension, coronary disease and asthma was admitted to the Department of Clinical Toxicology after taking 60 tablets of Staveran (immediate release verapamil), and 4 tablets of acetaminophen. One and a half hours after ingestion her condition was critical. She required endotracheal intubation and artificial respiration. Her heart rate was 75 beats per minute, (bpm) and her blood pressure dropped from 70/50 to 50/00 mmHg. Additionally, drowsiness and headache were observed. On admission, R-(+)- and S-(-)-verapamil serum concentrations were 2252 ng/ml and 810 ng/ ml, respectively. Monitoring of the verapamil serum concentration was carried out over 74 h. Terminal elimination half-lives were 18.7 (21.3) and 17.0 (18.5) hours, respectively, for R-(+)- and S-(-)-verapamil. Monitoring of verapamil enantiomers concentrations in serum indicated a higher concentration of the less active form and slightly faster elimination of the more active enantiomer. The data-support a stereoselective difference between first pass clearance and later systemic clearance of verapamil, when taken in overdose.

An essential problem related to tobacco smoking is exposure of children in the foetal period and early childhood to toxic compounds. The aim of this paper was to assess the exposure of pregnant women and their newborns to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons as a consequence of tobacco smoking. The exposure to tobacco smoke was determined through surveys and cotinine measurement in the urine of pregnant women and newborns, and the exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons has been determined by measure of 1-hydroxypyrene in the same biological material. The cotinine concentration in the urine of smoking women and their newborns was respectively 416.0 +/- 319.9 ng/mg of creatinine and 46.5 +/- 37.2 ng/mg of creatinine. In case of non-smoking as well as non-exposed patients and their newborns, the concentration of cotinine was 0. The correlation between the concentration of cotinine in the urine of smoking women and their newborns was shown. The mean concentration of 1-hydroxypyrene in the urine of smoking patients was 0.65 +/- 0.45 ng/mg of creatinine, whereas in the urine of newborns, it was 0.46 +/- 0.41 ng/mg of creatinine. The concentration of 1-hydroxypyrene in the urine of smokers was increased together with the increase of cotinine, and the correlation factor was 0.5128. Such dependence was not indicated for concentrations of these compounds in the urine of newborns of these women. Within the group of non-smoking women, the concentration of 1-hydroxypyene urine of women was 0.25 +/- 0.29 ng/mg of creatinine, whereas among children 0.20 +/- 0.23 ng/mg of creatinine. In both examined group (smoking and non-smoking women) there is a dependence between the concentration of 1-hydroxypyrene in the urine of women and their newborns. The research concerning the assessment of exposure of pregnant women and their newborns to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons was conducted, and at the same time it was proven, that the placenta does not constitute a barrier for these compounds, which may freely get into the fetus. Probably for the first time a relatively large group of patients took part in this research. The directly proportional dependence between the concentrations of 1-HP in a mother and a newborn and significantly lower concentrations of this biomarker among the persons who are not exposed to tobacco smoke, indicate that the pro-health behaviours of the future mother (no tobacco smoking) significantly lowers the exposure of foetus to the carcinogenic compounds.

Maternal smoking during pregnancy is associated with not only low birth weight and intrauterine fetal growth retardation or sudden infant death syndrome but also causes complications in postnatal growth and development. The aim of the study was to estimate the effect of tobacco smoking during pregnancy on development of the fetus, newborn and child. We conclude that active and passive smoking during pregnancy is a risk factor for the child.

The new method of treatment of addiction to nicotine "Reduce to Stop" constitutes new possibilities of using the Nicotine Replacement Therapy (NRT). This type of therapy consisting in a significant restriction of the number of cigarettes smoked per day with a simultaneous taking of nicotine preparations constitutes a chance of giving up a habit for smokers who want to quit smoking, but cannot do it or are not ready for it. The clinical research confirmed the effectiveness of this method not only in restricting smoking, but also in increasing the motivation to stop smoking or even total giving up of the habit.

Buprenorphine is a strong narcotic analgesic. It is also used in the substitution therapy for opium alkaloid addicts. The aim of this paper was to develop and validate a highly sensitive high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry method for simultaneous determination of buprenorphine and norbuprenorphine in human serum. The developed methodology was then applied to real clinical cases in a clinical toxicology setting. Extraction of analytes has been done using solid-phase extraction. Chromatographic separation was achieved on a LiChroCART column with a Purospher RP-18e cartridge, and for detection an LCQ mass spectrometer with an ion trap analyzer was used. Quantitation of buprenorphine and norbuprenorphine was performed in a single ion monitoring mode (m/z 468 buprenorphine, m/z 414 for norbuprenorphine) in order to increase the sensitivity of the method. The standard curves for both compounds were linear over the range of 0.2-10 ng/mL (r2 > 0.995). The quantitation limit was 0.2 ng/mL for both analytes. The method was used for quantitation of both buprenorphine and norbuprenorphine in the serum of 15 patients undergoing the buprenorphine substitution therapy. Serum concentrations ranged between 0.36 and 4.60 ng/mL for buprenorphine and 0.21 and 2.50 ng/mL for norbuprenorphine, with buprenorphine single dosages from 0.8 to 6.0 mg.

The objective of this study was to determine the impact of cigarette smoking in hyperthyroidism patients. The study group included patients with Graves-Basedow disease (GB): n = 317 (32.9%), patients with Graves' ophthalmopathy (GO): n = 108 (11.2%), patients with toxic nodular goiter (TNG) n = 511 (53%) and 28 (2.9%) patients with toxic adenoma (TA). Evaluation of tabacco smoking and exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) was performed on the base of questionnaire acording to Fagerström test. The comparison of GO and GB indicate increased tabacco smoking in GO (OR = 0.36; 95%CI: 0.22-0.59). The frequencies of tacacco smoking displayed significantly increased in GB and TNG patients (OR=0.39; 95%CI: 0.28-0.56). Further analys of patients with GO and TA presented statistcal significance in group of smoking and non-smoking (OR=0.26; 95%CI: 0,073-0,95). In other cases we didn't found a significant influence of tobacco smoking on thyroid disease. The effect of smoking was more pronounced in Graves' patients (particulary in the patients with GO) than in other thyroid patients. Smoking among patients with thyroid disease (GO and GB disease) is associated with developing of anxiety and fright, depression and problems with social relations sphere.

Tobacco smoke (TS) was described as a mixture of numerous cytochrome P450 (P450) substrates, inducers, and inhibitors. These inducers and inhibitors may modify drug clearance and xenobiotic or endogenous metabolism affecting P450s expression. In the present study, the effect of gestation and TS on: (1) cytochrome P450 CYP1A1, CYP1A2, and CYP2E1 protein expressions, and (2) cytochrome P450-linked microsomal enzyme activities, were studied in fetal rat liver, rat, and human placenta and in newborn and adult rat hepatic and extrahepatic tissues. Non-pregnant and pregnant 4-month-old female Wistar rats were exposed to TS (500, 1,000, or 1,500 mg carbon monoxide per m(3) air) in a toxicological chamber for 3 weeks (6 h daily, 5 days weekly). Human placentas were sampled from non-smoking, passive smoking, or active smoking primiparas. The efficacy of exposure was assessed by measuring urine cotinine levels. The TS-dependent inductory effect on the expression of CYP1A1 and 1A2 and related monooxygenase activities, and the inhibitory/inductory effect on CYP2E1 expression in rat tissues were observed. Pregnancy was associated with decreased levels of constitutive CYP1A1 and 2E1 in hepatic and extrahepatic tissues, TS-inducible CYP1A2 expression in the liver, and CYP1A1 expression in lungs and heart, but had no inhibitory effect on TS-inducible CYP1A1 and 2E1 expression, EROD, and P450-cooperated enzyme activities in the liver, kidney, and, in the latter case, in the heart. The presence of TS-induced CYP1A1 protein was confirmed in rat and human placenta and showed in newborn liver and lungs. CYP1A2 and 2E1 proteins were detectable in fetal rat liver. It was concluded that the expression of CYP1A1, 1A2, and 2E1, which metabolize some drugs and activate carcinogens, is controlled by age-, pregnancy-, and tissue-specific regulatory mechanisms in rats. Gestational differences in the regulation of expression of CYP1A subfamily members are not excluded. CYP1A1 and 2E1, but not CYP1A2 inductory mechanisms seem to be functional in fetal liver at day 21 of pregnancy but they appeared to be uninducible under a TS exposure. In TS-exposed pregnant females and fetuses the effects of metabolic activation of CYP1A1 and 1A2 substrates might be reduced because of lower CYP expressions or poor induction, respectively.

The aim of our study was an analysis of cotynine, the main nicotine metabolite in the urine among hyperthyroid patients. The study group included 39 females and 4 males. The mean age was 35.59+/-14.22 yrs. (range: 18-73 yrs.; median: 32 yrs) among hyperthyroid patients suffering from: Graves-Basedow disease (GB), Graves' Ophtalmopathy (GO) and toxic nodular goiter (TNG). To evaluate the nicotine smoking intensity and ETS Environmental Tobacco Smoke, the urine analysis of cotynine level were performed. According to the statistical analysis using the Mann-Whitney test, the statistically significant difference between the level of cotynine among smokers suffering from GO and Graves-Basedow disease was revealed (p = 0.03). Similar results were obtained among the GO and TNG (p=0.02) using t-Student test with Welsch correction. To compare, there was no stastistically significant difference between the GB and TNG series (p=0.4). In the group of smoking patients with GO we found out incresed level of urine cotinine than in smoking patients with GB and TNG. We didn't found differences between GB and TNG in depends on an urine analysis of cotynine level.

Muliple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic disorder of autoimmune origin, affecting young people. The aim of our study was to evaluate the tobacco smoking in the patients with MS in the period of beginning the disease. The study included 58 MS patients (31 females, 27 males, mean +/- SD: age 32.15 +/- 6.28) with varying degrees of severity and types of MS (A. RRMS relapsing- remitting MS, B. SPMS - secondary-progressive MS and C. PPMS primary - progressive MS). Smoking status was determined by medical history and Fagerström test. In the examined group 38 (65.51%) persons were tobacco smokers, among them 21 (55.26%) females and 17 (44.74%) males. This preliminary analysis needs further thorough studies, f.e. the urine level of cotinine - as a main marker of tobacco smoking in MS patients.

The aim of the study was to evaluate the exposure of smoking pregnant women (total number 52) to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) on the base of determination of 1-hydroxypyrene in urine. Standardised survey questionnaire and determination of cotinine in urine estimated the smoking habit. In the case of smoking women the mean concentration of cotinine was 362+/-320 ng/mg creatinine, passive smokers had cotinine concentration 32+/-6 ng/mg creatinine and non smokers below 5 ng/mg creatinine. In the urine of pregnant women, 1-hydroxypyrene a biomarker of PAH exposure was measured. The urine of smokers contained 0.17+/-0.18 micromol/mol creatinine, passive smokers 0.11+/-0.20 pmol/mol creatinine and nonsmokers 0.10+/-0.12 pmol/mol creatinine. The obtained results confirmed the higher risk of exposure to PAH in group of smoking pregnant women, however cigarette smoke are not only one source of these cancerogenic compounds.

Teachers are an important part of anti-tobacco education. The aim of this study was evaluation of the level of tobacco smoking among teachers as well as to check their knowledge on tobacco toxicity. The study group consisted of 745 teachers from whom 671 participated in the study. We found that 32% teachers were smokers and it was a higher level than average for Polish population. Two thirds of responders were smoking from 6 to 20 cigarettes per day. 35% of teachers pointed tobacco smoke tar as risk factor of tobacco-related diseases (e.g. lung cancer). Similar percentage of responders pointed on the correlation between tobacco smoking and osteoporosis. As a conclusion of this study we would like to stress that the knowledge on tobacco-related topics among teachers is insufficient for a proper anti-tobacco education. In the future a repeated courses for teachers on such issues should be prepared.

Tobacco smoking is one of the principal causes of morbidity and mortality in the worldwide. By the year 2030, more than four million people per year worldwide will die of tobacco-related cause. No other consumer product is as dangerous as many people. Tobacco causes more deaths than any other dependence-producing substances, e.g. poor diet, alcohol, bacterial infections, poisoning, firearms, and illicit drugs. The morbidity and the mortality associated with tobacco use is caused by several toxic substances (e.g. nicotine, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, aza-arenes, N-nitrosamines, aromatic amines, acrylonitrile, crotonaldehyde, vinyl chloride, formaldehyde, benzene, inorganic compounds). Tobacco smoking is a major independent risk factor for chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD), cancer (lung, larynx, pharynx, oesophagus, pancreas, kidney, urinary bladder, nasal cavity, uterine cervix), coronary heart disease (CHD) and reproduction. In 2004 42% of Polish man and 23% Polish women smoked. This publication presents a program that has been designed to educate medical students (fourth or fifth year) about tobacco in University of Medical Sciences. There are two parts in total six hours education. Part I is concerned with the epidemiology of smoking, the toxicology of tobacco smoke, the health effects of tobacco use, the process of smoking cessation, the treatment for smokers, and smoking prevention. Part II (workshops) deals with teaching medical students how to motivate patients to stop smoking. The second part consist of: identifying the smoker, taking a smoking history, evaluation of the level of dependence and assessing the smoker's readiness to stop smoking, motivating smokers to change, and preventing relapse. Both parts (theory and practical sessions), are scheduled to take three hours each.

The aim in this survey was analysis of contribution of exposure to tobacco smoke and selected socioeconomic factors in occurrence of low birth weight. The research was done on the group of 1528 pregnant women. Smoking habit was declared by 18.2% of women and passive exposure to tobacco smoke was stated by 31% of respondents. Significant association between active and passive smoking and socioeconomic status of respondents was observed. Cigarette smoking during pregnancy was the main cause of lower birth weight of newborns. The newborns of actively smoking mothers were lighter of about 332 g according to those ones of mothers who did not smoke and were not exposed to passive smoking, and were lighter than newborns of mothers who were not exposed to passive smoking of about 342 g.

Exposure to tobacco smoke impairs the antioxidant defense mechanisms. In female Wistar rats fed on regular rodent chow and supplemented with a flavonoids rutin, Trolox Equivalent Antioxidant Capacity (TEAC) was measured as an ABTS-radical cation reduction power in plasma, lungs, liver, brain and kidneys. Exposure to smoke reduced the TEAC values in the liver, brain and kidneys and enhanced antioxidant potential in lungs in comparison to control animals. In plasma no change of TEAC value was observed. Supplementation with rutin increased antioxidant status of plasma, but TEAC was reduced in kidneys, brain and liver of smoke-exposed animals when compared to the matched controls. In lung no change in TEAC was found. The results suggest a complex pattern of influence of tobacco smoke on blood and tissue antioxidant mechanisms. The enrichment of diet with non-nutrient antioxidant rutin did not result in direct improvement of tissue TEAC with the exception of blood plasma.

Tobacco smoke contain few thousands of chemical compounds, among them heavy metals. From toxicological point of view most important are lead, cadmium and radioactive polonium 210. The aim of the study was determination of cadmium in urine of tobacco smoking pregnant woman and checking if there is a correlation between the concentration of cadmium and cotinine, the most frequently used tobacco smoke biomarker. The study showed that concentration of cotinine in urine of smoking women was 702.5 +/- 1131.4 ng/mg creatinine and ranged from 50 to more than 6000 ng/mg creatinine. Cadmium concentration in smokers was 1.6 +/- 2.6 ng/ml and ranged from 0 to 11.5 ng/ml. In urine of woman who do not smoke and are not exposure to ETS was 1.1 +/- 2.2 ng/ml in the range 0-2.5 ng/ml and was not statistically different from concentration of cadmium in urine of smoking pregnant woman. In any one non-smoking woman, concentration of cadmium was not higher than 5 ng/ml, but in 11.8% of smoking women this level was exceeded. Calculations showed a weak correlation between concentration of cadmium and cotinine in urine of smoking pregnant women.

Activities of two antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) were determined in plasma of rats exposed to tobacco smoke (500, 1000 and 1500 mg CO/m3 air in 5 days) and to 1000 mg CO/m3 in 1, 2 and 3 weeks. When compared to controls, the SOD activity was decreased in the exposed animals, the lowest smoke dose gave the most pronounced effect and the highest dose revealed the least diminution. GPx activity was statistically higher in the rats inhaled with the highest smoke dose. Time of exposure did not effect GPx but SOD raised in correlation to week number, although it did not reach control values over the experiment period. The observed alterations in plasma probably mirror the organ adaptation to oxidative stress in animals exposed to tobacco smoke.

According epidemiological study tobacco smoking is popular addiction around the world. It was estimated, that one third of world population smoking tobacco. The statistical data from 2002 show that in Poland 42% of men and 22% of women smoke tobacco on a daily basis. As many as 60% of non-smokers are exposed to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS). The aim of the study was verification the answer on a standardised survey questionnaire (related to tobacco smoking) by laboratory method--determination of cotinine in urine. In the study participated 244 delivering women. In the tested group 23.8% of surveyed declared smoking during their pregnancy and around 28% of non-smoking women were exposed to passive inhalation of tobacco smoke. More than 15% of women, which declared non smoking has concentration of cotinine higher than 50 ng/mg creatinine (mean 227.3 ng/mg creatinine) what indicated active smoking of cigarettes. From these results we can conclude that as much as 35.6% of women smoking tobacco during pregnancy and is higher than suggested the questionnaire examination.

Nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) play a major role in pharmacotherapy of nicotine dependence. Currently various nicotine formulations are sold as over-the-counter (OTC) products in several European countries. The effectiveness and safety of nicotine formulation was proved in many countries in population studies. The most often used NRT products are nicotine chewing gum and Nicotine transdermal patch.

Despite of significant progress in the area of perinatal care, there have been numerous perinatal complications still existing. The health status of mother and newborn is affected by many factors, namely: socio-economical; medical prior to pregnancy and medical through the pregnancy; dietary customs, substance use, including tobacco smoking; health service quality; and risk factors that may occur through fertilization. The active and passive exposure to tobacco smoke in utero have been linked to numerous gestation and delivery complications, including low birth weight, preterm delivery and low Apgar score. In this survey, the awareness of health consequences of active and passive smoking in the population of pregnant women and access to the information of this consequence was assessed. Among of women smoking through their pregnancies, the only 19.7% got the information from their doctors about harmful effect of active and passive smoking, and 16.5% of respondents declared self-awareness on health effects of exposure to the tobacco smoke.

The aim of the studies was evaluation smoking habit by delivering woman using objective method--determination of cotinine in urine and placenta. In the study participated 93 woman delivering in Gynaecological-Obstetric Clinical Hospital of Medical University at Warsaw. Evaluation of tobacco smoking and exposure to ETS performed on the base of questionnaire and level of cotinine in urine. In the group of non smoking woman cotinine was not detected any in urine any in placenta. In the second group (19 patients), woman exposure to ETS concentration of cotinine in urine was 28.9 +/- 14.9 ng/mg of creatinine and only in two placentas was detected a low level of cotinine. In smoking delivering woman the urine concentration was 837.0 +/- 1324.5 ng/mg of creatinine and 21.3 +/- 7.5 ng/g placenta calculated from all results and 67.0 +/- 3.5 ng/g calculated only from positive results. A weak relation between concentration of cotinine in placenta and urine of smoking woman was shown.

Total antioxidant status was measured as the reduction of the ABTS radical cation as well as the activities of SOD and GPx in female rats exposed and non-exposed to the cigarette smoke, pregnant and non-pregnant. The assessment was done in lungs, plasma, kidneys, liver and placenta of Wistar rats exposed to the cigarette smoke (1500 mg CO/m3 air) for 21 days. Total antioxidant status was significantly elevated in lungs and plasma of smoke-exposed animals, pregnant and non-pregnant, when compared to the matched controls. In other examined tissues antioxidant capacity was diminished in all tested groups of animals. Activities of SOD and GPx were markedly decreased in tissues of all examined animals. Exposition to the cigarette smoke, despite some changes due to the adaptation to stress, diminishes the antioxidant capacities of the body and in the pregnant animals it may effect the pregnancy outcome.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the exposure of pregnant women to tobacco smoke on the basis of a standardised survey questionnaire, and determination of cotinine in urine. In the study participated 133 women delivering, checked in at the Obstetric Department of Independent Public Health Care Unit in Srem in 2003. The all women fill in the questionnaire forms referring smoking and exposure to ETS (Environmental Tobacco Smoke). In the tested group 22.6% were smoking during pregnancy. Only 5 pregnant women quit smoking, however around 60% of smokers reduced the number of cigarettes. Near 56% of women were exposed to ETS, mainly during social events. In case of women, who declared smoking the mean concentration of cotinine was 2164 ng/mg of creatinine. Passive smokers had cotinine concentration between 10 and 50 ng/mg of creatinine Cotinine may be used to validate tobacco smoke exposure assessment from surveys.

Unlabelled: The effects of cigarette smoking on the thyroid disease (Graves disease, toxic nodular goiter, toxic adenoma) have been studied for years. However, the effect of smoking on thyroid function is still controversial., Objectives: To determine the impact of cigarette smoking on the development of above-mentioned thyroid disease. PATIENTS METHODS: Study of 405 individuals with different thyroid disease. Information on thyroid disease and smoking habits was gathered by Fagerström questionnaire, and the patients' endocrinologist or general practitioner verified the diagnosis., Results: The effect of smoking was more pronounced in Graves' patients than in other thyroid patients. We found out significant number of patients with toxic nodular goiter., Conclusions: Smoking is associated with an developing clinically thyroid disease--especially Graves disease. We also suggest the connection between psychological traits and smoking in this group of patients, corresponding with our previous examinations.

In this survey, socio-economic status of pregnant women smoking during pregnancy and influence of this status on birth weight of their newborn were assessed. The research was done on the group of 1328 pregnant women. Smoking habit was declared by 18.6% of women and passive exposure to tobacco smoke was stated by 30.6% of respondents. Significant association between active and passive smoking and socioeconomic status of respondents was observed. Cigarette smoking during pregnancy was the main cause of lower birth weight of newborns. The newborns of actively smoking mothers were lighter of about 357 g according to those ones of mothers who did not smoke and were not exposed to passive smoking, and were lighter than newborns of mothers who were not exposed to passive smoking of about 330 g. The passive exposure to the tobacco smoke was not significant considering effect on the birth weight.

The use of exogenous surfactants has been introduced into the therapy of patients of different ages. Much better results have been obtained in the treatment of respiratory distress syndrome with surfactants enriched with surfactant proteins. In the following study we used protein-containing surfactants (survanta and curosurf). The aim of the following study was to determine the localisation of artificial surfactants in the lung tissue. Using the Immunogold Technique, biotinylated surfactant proteins were traced in the air-blood barriers. In all lungs the exogenous surfactant was present only in some alveoli. In these parts small areas of atelectasis as well as oedema and transudate accumulation were seen. These changes were less severe after biotinylated curosurf treatment. In electron microscope studies we found surfactant elements in the air-blood barrier and other structures of the alveolar septa. Immunogold studies confirm the presence of biotynylated surfactant in the elements of the air-blood barrier.

Zinc is involved in both psychopathology and treatment of depression. Since a considerable percentage of suicide victims had suffered from depression, we hypothesized that alteration in zinc homeostasis might occur in their brain tissue. We now report that zinc content is not altered in the hippocampal or cortical tissue of suicide victims (n = 10) compared to age-matched controls (n = 10). However, there is a statistically significant 26% decrease in the potency (increase in the IC(50) value) of zinc to inhibit [(3)H]MK-801 binding to NMDA receptors in the hippocampal but not cortical tissue of suicide subjects. The data represent the first demonstration that the alteration in zinc interaction with NMDA receptors may be involved in psychopathology underlying suicidal attempts.

The study attempts to evaluate whether it is possible to determine time and level of exposure of rats to tobacco smoke based on nicotine and cotinine content in urine. The animals were exposed to tobacco smoke by inhalation in a specially designed experimental chambers. The exposure to three different tobacco smoke levels (500, 1000 and 1500 mg CO/m3 of air) lasted 6 h per day, for one, three and five days. Nicotine and cotinine concentrations were measured in daily urine using high performance liquid chromatography procedure developed by the authors. It has been shown that cotinine but not nicotine can be used as a biomarker of time and extent of exposure to tobacco smoke.

The aim of the study was to evaluate the activity of the pro- and antioxidant systems in cervical mucus of healthy women and women with pathological of disorders cervical. After cervical mucus liquefaction, the activity of superoxide dismutase, catalase and xanthine oxidase was determined by means of chemiluminescence assays. The activity of the antioxidant system in cervical mucus of healthy women was higher as compared to the group with pathological cervical disorders. Moreover, in mucus samples obtained from women with dysplasia, the significantly heightened activity of xanthine oxidase (strong pro-oxidant) was observed. The antioxidant system present in cervical mucus may protect both the cells of the uterine cervix and the viable sperm.

Treatment of pre-term newborns with exogenous surfactant preparation is a well established part of the therapy for respiratory distress syndrome of the newborns (RDS). Since the introduction of surfactant into clinical practice in 1980, hundreds of studies have been published describing beneficial effects of such treatment. There is only limited number of morphological publications reporting adverse effects of surfactant administration. The aim of the present study is to describe morphological changes in the lung after surfactant administration to healthy newborn rats. Two types of surfactant were used: Exosurf (Glaxo Wellcome, England) and Survanta (Abbott Laboratories, USA). Surfactant preparation were given intratracheally in single dose (bolus) (100 mg of lipids per kg b.w.). Animals from control group received 0.9% saline in equivalent volume. Lung specimens were taken 15, 20, 25 and 30 minutes after drug administration and evaluated by light and electron microscopy. There was no damage in lungs from the control group. Tissue specimens from the Exosurf group revealed severe pathological changes: foci of atelectasis, frank edema in the parenchyma, focal disruption of air-blood barrier, hemorrhages in many alveoli, surfactant particles in many alveolar capillaries, and strongly activated alveolar macrophages. In this group changes appeared as early as 15 min after surfactant administration and intensity of lung injury increased with time. Also, Survanta administration caused damage to the lung tissue. However, the changes were less intense and appeared later (20-25 minutes after Survanta treatment). In conclusion, the presented morphological findings proved that exogenous surfactant administration to healthy rat newborns caused lung damage. Comparing two different surfactant preparation, Exosurf and Survanta, it was shown that the former one produced stronger and faster damage to lung alveoli than the latter one.

The exposition to tobacco smoke is overall: in home, work and public places. For the examination of the presence and concentration of environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) in indoor environments the nicotine and respirable suspended particulates (RSP) are determined. A variety of biomarkers (nicotine, cotinine, thiocyanate, carboxyhemoglobin, protein and DNA adducts) are propose for measurement of exposure to tobacco smoke. The most popular is measurement of cotinine concentration in body fluids (blood, urine, saliva). Plasma cotinine concentration correlated to numbers of cigarettes smoked and to various biological effects of cigarette smoking and exposure to ETS. Other biomarkers as carboxyhemoglobin, thiocyanate, and amines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons adduct can be also use.

The ahr gene product is a ligand-activated transcription factor which regulates the expression of a number of enzymes involved in the metabolism of aryl hydrocarbons and mediates the effects of dioxins on tumour promotion. We have assessed the cigarette smoke induced depression of the reproductive capacities in the ahr dd C57BL congenic mice and its crosses with C57BL ahr bb mice. The in vivo exposure of animals to toxic concentrations of cigarette smoke during the period of pairing and the early pregnancy was shown by us to affect the reproduction. The transmission of the ahr b and ahr d alleles was assessed by genotyping the STR polymorphism at D12Mit2 locus linked with the ahr gene. Following the exposure to cigarette smoke the changes in the reproductive capacity of the studied mice have been assessed in relation to the presence of the ahr d allele by measurements of the changes in the rates of conceptions, abortions, births and the number of newborns per female after pairings differing in ahr gene alleles and in the expected ahr d allele frequencies in the progeny. The results indicates that the low activity ahr d allele may decrease the abortive effects of cigarette smoke exposure, but does not confer resistance to the depression of births rates following this exposure.

In newborn rats we investigated the entrance of surfactant to the pulmonary capillaries a few minutes after the birth. Time is crucial for the process which can be called "drying" of the lung, when a large amount of intraalveolar fluid enters the pulmonary circulation. Ultrastructural studies have revealed bulk transport and endocytosis of surfactant via alveolar septa to the blood vessels, but it is still questionable whether the entrance of surfactant to pulmonary capillaries is related to its clearance or to "drying" of lung's alveoli.

This study has been aimed at showing the influence of tobacco smoke, together with low protein diet on the lungs of newborn rats. The studied animals were Wistar rats. They were exposed to the tobacco smoke for 11 weeks (6 weeks before mating, 12 days during mating, and 21 days of pregnancy). Morphological analysis and interpretation of 48 one-day old rats was based on observation under the light and electron microscope. The study showed atelectasis of the lungs: the lung tissue was insufficiently extended, the alveoli were geometrically irregular and the alveolar septa were thick. Many extravasated erythrocytes and edema (latent as well as overt) were also present. The II type pneumocytes and their surfactant were poorly developed. Tobacco smoke caused the serious pathological effects and together with poor protein diet all changes worsened. For comparison, the lungs of control group were studied (lack of exposure to tobacco smoke); they were well aerated and their structure well-developed.

The effect of tobacco smoke and low-protein diet on rat reproducibility and offspring was investigated in six litters of white rats. Smoke concentration was controlled by determining the air carbon oxide content which averaged 1000 mg/m3. During the experiments blood carboxyhemoglobin level was measured; by the end of exposure, each generation displayed closely similar concentrations amounting to 23.9-26.6%. There were no diet-related differences in blood carboxyhemoglobin concentrations.

In experiments on toxicity, IWiOL-3-n aerosol as well as vapours and gases obtained by heating the oil up to 500 degrees C were administered by inhalation to experimental animals. No deaths of animals were recorded however, a significant decrease of cholinesterase activity was noted. The experiments were carried out in the specially constructed experimental chambers and the method of determination IWiOL-3-n in the air was developed. After intratracheal insufflation of IWiOL-3-n, rapid decrease of cholinesterase activity in blood serum was also observed. Tests on dermal toxicity showed very good absorption of the oils through the untouched skin.

Results of neurotoxicity studies indicate that preparations IWiOL -3-n, IWiOL -3-e and OMTI administered intragastrically or intraperitoneally induce neurotoxic effects in hens. Those effects are, however, weaker than those of the standard substance, i.e. triorthocresyl . Yet, they get increased in result of IWiOL -3-e, as compared to IWiOL -3-n administration.

Oils IWiOL-3 and OMTI are used to cool the high-power turbines. Their toxicodynamic properties are little known, therefore the studies described herein have been undertaken. The studies did not reveal high acute toxicity, as A-DL50 was found to exceed 15 g/kg of body weight. The simultaneous measurements of cholinesterase activity demonstrated its clear decrease, The studies of subacute toxicity after Lim showed that OMTI after a year's exploitation is the most toxic fluid, as C-LD50 for this compound is 6,21 g/kg of body weight, whereas C-LD50 for the other oils is: 22.449 g/kg of body weight for IW i 02-3-n and 20.93 g/kg of body weight for IWiOL-3-e. Studies of chronic toxicity showed decreased cholinesterase activity and no significant changes in the measurements of certain biochemical and haematological. indices.

Metastases into the appendix vermiformis are very rare. The authors present a case of a secondary of gastric carcinoma into the appendix vermiformis. In the patient the malignant disease was manifested with the clinical picture of diffuse peritonitis caused by perforation of the aboral portion of the appendix vermiformis at the site of the exulcerated secondary of the carcinoma. The authors give also an account of secondaries into the appendix vermiformis described in the literature.