Search

Compares the efficacy of hydrogenated and nonhydrogenated plant sterol esters, on circulating cholesterol levels in humans. Effects of margarines containing plant sterols on circulating lipoprotein cholesterol in hypercholesterolemic subjects; Differences in dietary effects on carotene levels between males and females.

Two recent reports confirm the role of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) consumption in risk reduction for sudden death. The mechanism likely involves an antiarrhythmic effect, further supporting the role of dietary n-3 PUFA in maintenance of human health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: To assess the association between biomarkers of thyroid status and 5α-stanols in patients with sitosterolemia treated with ezetimibe (EZE).Study Design: Eight patients with sitosterolemia (16-56 years of age) were studied during 14 weeks off EZE therapy and 14 weeks on EZE (10 mg/day). Serum thyroid biomarkers (free triiodothyronine [FT3], free thyroxine [FT4], FT3/FT4 ratio, thyroid-stimulating hormone), 5α-stanols (sitostanol and cholestanol), and cholestanol precursors (total cholesterol and its synthesis marker lathosterol, and 7α-hydroxy-4-cholesten-3-one cholestenol) were measured at baseline and during the 14 weeks off EZE and on EZE.Results: EZE increased FT3/FT4 (10% ± 4%; P = .02). EZE reduced plasma and red blood cells sitostanol (-38% ± 6% and -20% ± 4%; all P < .05) and cholestanol (-18% ± 6% and -13% ± 3%; all P < .05). The change in plasma cholestanol level on EZE inversely correlated with the change in FT3/FT4 (r = -0.86; P = .01). EZE lowered total cholesterol (P < .0001) and did not affect 7α-hydroxy-4-cholesten-3-one cholestanol. EZE increased (P < .0001) lathosterol initially, but the level was not sustained, resulting in similar levels at week 14 off EZE and on EZE.Conclusion: In patients with STSL, 5α-stanols levels might be associated with thyroid function. EZE reduces circulating 5α-stanols while increasing FT3/FT4, implying increased conversion of T4 to T3, thus possibly improving thyroid hormone status.Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.govNCT01584206. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Editorial. Comments on the role of apolipoprotein E genotype in influencing dietary modification of circulating cholesterol concentrations. Characterization of structure and function of apolipoprotein E; Distinct and independent effects of manipulations of dietary fat and cholesterol intakes on serum lipid concentrations.

Abstract: Plant sterols/stanols-enriched foods possess well-documented low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol−lowering effect. However, the relative efficacy of plant sterols/stanols as supplements (tablets/capsules) compared with other dietary forms still needs to be determined. Our aim was to precisely identify and quantify the LDL-cholesterol−lowering effect of plant sterols/stanols as supplements in contrast to food-based approaches. Eight eligible clinical trials published from January 1992 to April 2013 were identified from five databases. A random effect model was used to calculate weighted mean effect sizes for net differences in LDL-cholesterol concentrations. Among the included trials with the duration between 4 and 6 weeks, plant sterol/stanol dose ranged from 1.0 to 3.0 g/day administrated mainly with the main meals (2 or 3 times/day). Intake of plant sterol/stanol supplements decreased LDL-cholesterol concentrations by 12 mg/dL (0.31 mmol/L) (95% CI −0.39 to −0.23; P<0.000) compared with placebo. The test of heterogeneity was not significant (χ2 , P=0.50, I 2=0%). Further analysis showed no significant difference between the LDL-cholesterol−lowering action of plant sterols/stanols supplements (−12 mg/dL [−0.31 mmol/L]; 95% CI −0.39 to −0.24; P<0.0001) vs foods enriched with plant sterols/stanols (−12 mg/dL [−0.31 mmol/L]; 95% CI −0.35 to −0.27; P<0.0001). Plant sterol/stanol supplements as part of a healthy diet represent an effective means of delivering LDL-cholesterol−lowering similar to plant sterols/stanols delivered in various food formats. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Plant sterols combined with exercise beneficially alter lipid levels in hypercholesterolemic adults. The effect of this combination therapy on other indicators of coronary heart disease risk, however, has yet to be determined. The objective of this trial was to investigate the effect of plant sterols and exercise, alone and in combination, on levels of apolipoprotein (apo) A1 and B, adiponectin, ghrelin, and growth hormone in previously sedentary hypercholesterolemic adults. In an 8 week, parallel-arm trial, 84 subjects were randomized to 1 of 4 groups: combination, exercise, plant sterols, or control. Body mass decreased by 1.1% (p < 0.01) and 0.9% (p < 0.05) in the combination and exercise group, respectively. Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels decreased (p < 0.01) by 0.30 mmol/L in the combination group and by 0.49 mmol/L in the plant sterol group. High-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels increased by 7.5% and 9.5% (p < 0.01) in the combination and exercise groups, respectively. Plant sterols increased (p < 0.05) adiponectin levels by 16%. No change in apoA1, apoB, ghrelin, or growth hormone levels were noted in any intervention group. ApoA1 was correlated with high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (r = 0.33, p = 0.01), whereas apoB was weakly related to low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels (r = 0.13, p = 0.002). Adiponectin was associated with body mass index (r = –0.10, p = 0.006) and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (r = 0.17, p = 0.0003). These findings suggest that plant sterols can increase adiponectin levels, thereby possibly reducing the risk of future coronary heart disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: At present, dyslipidemia is most commonly treated with lipid-altering pharmacological therapies. However, safety concerns regarding the use of these agents have prompted the need for safe and efficacious nonpharmacological lipid-altering interventions. One such natural therapy is the combination of plant sterols and endurance training. This combination lifestyle intervention has been shown to decrease total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations while increasing high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol concentrations. However, the mechanisms that underlie these positive lipid alterations have yet to be clarified. Thus, the purpose of this review is to evaluate individual effects of plant sterols and exercise training on lipid levels while attempting to elucidate the possible independent and synergistic mechanisms of action responsible for these modulations. Results reveal that plant sterols decrease both total and LDL cholesterol levels by reducing exogenous cholesterol absorption by way of cholesterol displacement in the intestinal lumen. Additionally, the intestinal membrane transport proteins, ABCG5, ABCG8, as well as NPC1L1, have also been implicated in plant sterol-mediated cholesterol lowering. Conversely, exercise decreases triglyceride levels by reducing hepatic very low-density lipoprotein secretion and increasing skeletal lipoprotein lipase activity. In addition, endurance training was shown to increase HDL cholesterol levels by way of HDL subfraction alterations, in conjunction with changing reverse cholesterol transport enzyme activities. Moreover, plant sterols and exercise may work synergistically to alter lipid levels by modulating lipoprotein transport, composition, release and metabolism. In sum, the present review lends further insight as to the metabolic benefits of adopting a healthy lifestyle, including plant sterols and endurance training, in the treatment of dyslipidemia. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Policosanols are a mixture of aliphatic alcohols derived from purified sugar cane. When administered at 5 to 20 mg/day, policosanols have been shown to decrease the risk of atheroma formation by reducing platelet aggregation, endothelial damage, and foam cell formation in animals. Additionally, policosanols have been shown to lower total and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels by 13 to 23% and 19 to 31%, respectively, while increasing high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol from 8 to 29%. Policosanols are thought to improve lipid profiles by reducing hepatic cholesterol biosynthesis while enhancing LDL clearance. When compared with statins, policosanols exhibit comparable cholesterol-lowering effects at much smaller doses. The mixture is well tolerated when administered to animals; however, a more precise safety profile is needed for humans. In summary, policosanols are a promising resource in the prevention and therapy of cardiovascular disease (CVD), but these results need to be confirmed in independent laboratories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Epidemiologic data suggest an inverse relationship between the consumption of soy isoflavones and cardiovascular disease risk. The aims of this review are to determine if isoflavones play a role in the hypocholesterolemic effect of soy and whether the studies realized with that scope were adequately designed. In humans, most studies have been performed in postmenopausal women. The results are inconsistent, however; some studies show a decrease in total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein concentrations, and an increase in high-density lipoprotein levels, and other investigations fail to show any beneficial effect of soy isoflavones on lipid profiles. In most studies, beneficial effects could not be attributed with certainty to soy isoflavones. If these components have any health-protecting effect in humans, it is small in comparison with the effect of soy protein itself. There are currently not enough data to recommend the consumption of isofla-vone supplements to lower plasma cholesterol levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Determines the effects of equivalent diet- or exercise-induced weight loss and exercise without weight loss on subcutaneous fat, visceral fat, skeletal muscle mass, and insulin sensitivity in obese men. Reduction in obesity and insulin resistance in men due to weight loss induced by increased daily physical activity without caloric restriction; Tendency of exercise without weight loss to reduce abdominal fat.

Background and aims Sitosterolemia displays high plasma total sterols [high plant sterols (PS) + normal to high total cholesterol (TC)] with normal to moderately elevated low-density lipoprotein (LDL) levels. High LDL, intermediate-density lipoprotein (IDL) and very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) particles, low high-density lipoprotein (HDL), and increased non-HDL and the ratios of TC and triglycerides (TG) to HDL can increase the risk for atherosclerosis. Ezetimibe (EZE) can reduce plasma PS and TC levels in sitosterolemia, but its effect on lipoprotein subclasses has not been previously reported. Methods Sitosterolemia patients (n = 8) were taken off EZE for 14 weeks (OFF EZE) and placed on EZE (10 mg/d) for 14 weeks (ON EZE). Serum lipids were measured enzymatically and lipoprotein subclasses were assessed by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Results EZE reduced ( p < 0.05) total sterols (−12.5 ± 4.1%) and LDL-sterol (−22.7 ± 5.7%) and its sterol mass of large VLDL (−24.4 ± 4.5%), VLDL remnants (−21.1 ± 7.9%) and large IDL (−22.4 ± 7.2%) compared to OFF EZE. EZE did not affect large LDL subclasses or mean LDL particle size (273.8 ± 0.6 vs. 274.6 ± 0.3 Å). EZE increased HDL-sterol (25.5 ± 8.0%, p = 0.008) including intermediate (34 ± 14%, p = 0.02) and large (33 ± 16%, p = 0.06) HDL. EZE reduced non-HDL-sterol (−21.8± 5.0%), total sterols/HDL (−28.2 ± 5.5%) and TG/HDL (−27.4 ± 6.5%, all p < 0.01). Conclusions EZE improves VLDL and HDL subfraction distribution, thereby reducing the atherogenic lipid profile, thus providing potential clinical benefit in sitosterolemia beyond TC and PS reduction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) is a novel circulating protein which plays an important role in regulation of cholesterol metabolism by promoting hepatic LDL receptor degradation. However, the action of dietary fat composition on PCSK9 levels remains to be fully elucidated. The objective was to investigate the action of different dietary oils on circulating PCSK9 levels in the Canola Oil Multicenter Intervention Trial (COMIT). COMIT employed a double-blinded crossover randomized control design, consisting of five 30-d treatment periods. Diets were provided based on a 3000 Kcal/d intake, including a 60 g/d treatment of conventional canola oil (Canola), a high oleic canola/DHA oil blend (CanolaDHA), a corn/safflower oil blend (CornSaff), a flax/safflower oil blend (FlaxSaff) or a high oleic canola oil (CanolaOleic). Plasma PCSK9 levels were assessed using ELISA at the end of each phase. Lipid profiles (n = 84) showed that CanolaDHA feeding resulted in the highest (P < 0.05) serum total cholesterol (TC, 5.06 ± 0.09 mmol/L) and LDL-cholesterol levels (3.15 ± 0.08 mmol/L) across all five treatments. CanolaDHA feeding also produced the lowest (P < 0.05) plasma PCSK9 concentrations (216.42 ± 8.77 ng/mL) compared to other dietary oil treatments. Plasma PCSK9 levels positively correlated (P < 0.05) with serum TC, LDL-cholesterol, apolipoprotein A, and apolipoprotein B levels but did not correlate to HDL-cholesterol levels. Results indicate that post-treatment response in PCSK9 may be altered with the CanolaDHA diet. In conclusion, the elevated LDL-C levels from a DHA oil treatment may not be relevant for the observed decline in PCSK9 levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Dietary energy restriction (ER) offers certain health benefits, particularly when ER is controlled through manipulation of dietary fats. Our hypothesis is that cellular immunity is modulated by dietary ER. Furthermore, we believe that the immune response may differ between spleen and colon because their lymphatic and vascular organization is different. The objective of the study was to test this hypothesis by determining the effects of dietary ER through manipulation of energy intake from high-fat (HF) diets on the expression and frequency of the CD4+ (T-helper/T-inducer) and CD8+ (T-cytotoxic/T-suppressor) cells, CD45RA (B-cell–specific marker), and immunoglobulins (Ig) A-, G-, and M-bearing cells in spleen and colon in rats by immunohistochemical method. Rats fed the HF diet had a significantly (P < .05) reduced number of immune cells as compared with those fed ER diets. Energy-restricted diet–fed rats showed higher (P < .05) numbers of CD4+, CD8+, IgA, IgM, IgG, and CD45RA cells in spleen and CD4+, IgA, and CD45RA cells in colonic lamina propria. The IgA-containing cells were markedly higher in the colon compared with the spleen. No change occurred in the number of IgM- and IgG-containing cells in colonic tissues between groups, except for the 20% ER group where IgM-labeled cells were higher (P < .05) compared with HF and 40% ER groups. These findings suggest that ER may modulate adaptive immune function and that CD4+ and IgA cells may serve as biological indicators for dietary energy-modulated immunoresponse in spleen and colon, respectively. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Objective: The aim of this study was to investigate the cholesterol-lowering mechanisms of corn fiber oil (CFO), ferulate phytostanyl esters (FPEs) and parent compounds of FPE, including sitostanol and ferulic acid, in hamsters. Method: Seventy male Golden Syrian hamsters were randomly assigned to six experimental diets for 4 weeks: (1) cornstarch–casein–sucrose-based control diet (control); and (2) control diet plus 0.1% (wt/wt) cholesterol (cholesterol–control). The remaining four groups were given cholesterol–control diet with: (3) 10% (wt/wt) CFO; (4) 0.5% (wt/wt) sitostanol; (5) 0.23% (wt/wt) ferulic acid; and (6) 0.73% (wt/wt) FPE. At the end of dietary intervention, total plasma cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations were determined. Parameters of cholesterol kinetics, including cholesterol absorption and synthesis, as well as mRNA expression of sterol transporters such as Niemann–Pick C1 like 1 (NPC1L1), ATP-binding cassette G5 (ABCG5) and ABCG8, were assessed. Results: Supplementation with CFO decreased (P<.0001) plasma total cholesterol levels by 29% as compared with the cholesterol–control group, while FPE and sitostanol reduced (P<.02) cholesterolemia by 15% and 14%, respectively. CFO and sitostanol decreased (P<.05) cholesterol absorption by 24% compared to the cholesterol–control group. Dietary intervention did not alter the intestinal gene expression of ABCG5, ABCG8 and NPC1L1. Conclusion: The present results show that the CFO-induced and sitostanol-induced decrease in cholesterol absorption is independent of intestinal enterocyte sterol transporters such as ABCG5, ABCG8 and NPC1L1 in hamsters. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Policosanol is a mixture of higher aliphatic alcohols shown to have beneficial effects on plasma lipid levels in animals and humans. Over 50 studies have reported significant reductions in plasma cholesterol using policosanol obtained from Cuban sugar cane (Dalmer, La Havana, Cuba). However, other research groups using policosanol from alternative sources have failed to reproduce the efficacy of these alcohols observed in earlier studies. Therefore, the objective of the present study was to compare the cholesterol-lowering effect of the Dalmer sugar cane policosanol (SCP) product versus an alternative mixture of similar policosanol composition. Forty-eight male Golden Syrian hamsters were randomly assigned to four groups and fed experimental diets ad libitum for a period of 4 weeks: (i) non-cholesterol control, (ii) 0.1% cholesterol control, (iii) 0.1% cholesterol diet supplemented with 275mg/kg diet of Dalmer Cuban sugar cane policosanol and (iv) 0.1% cholesterol diet supplemented with 275mg/kg diet of alternative sugar cane policosanol. Hamsters were sacrificed and blood was collected at the end of the feeding period. Body weights and food intakes were similar across study groups. Neither of the two policosanol treatments had any significant effect on plasma lipid levels, as compared to cholesterol control. The outcome of the present study questions the clinical usefulness of policosanol mixtures as cholesterol-lowering nutraceuticals. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Cholesterol absorption and synthesis contribute to maintaining cholesterol homeostasis. Several physiological and therapeutic factors affect cholesterol homeostasis, including: genetics, circadian rhythm, body weight, plant sterols, ezetimibe, and statin therapy. The present objective is to determine the main vector, i.e. cholesterol absorption or synthesis, affected by each of these factors, and to examine whether an alteration in one vector is linked to a reciprocal change in the other. Current techniques used to assess cholesterol absorption and synthesis are also reviewed. Review of physiological factors affecting cholesterol metabolism suggest a reciprocal relationship between these two vectors. Carriers of the E2 isoform of apolipoprotein E and ATP binding cassette (ABC) G8 19H (exon 1 mutation) show a decrease in cholesterol absorption accompanied by a corresponding increase in synthesis. Circadian rhythm affects cholesterol synthesis, however, its effect on absorption has yet to be established. Obese subjects show an increase in cholesterol synthesis with a subsequent decrease in cholesterol absorption. Weight loss down regulates cholesterol synthesis, but has little or no effect on absorption. In the case of therapeutic factors, plant sterols and stanols inhibit cholesterol absorption, which results in a compensatory increase in synthesis. Ezetimibe also decreases intestinal absorption, while reciprocally increasing synthesis. Statin therapy down regulates synthesis, which is accompanied by a rise in absorption. These findings suggest that a change in one vector, fairly consistently, results in a compensatory and opposing change in the other. An understanding of this reciprocal relationship between cholesterol absorption and synthesis may allow for the development of more effective interventions for dyslipidemic disorders. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Objective: The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of different phytosterols and their analogs on colonic mucosal cell proliferation in hamsters. Method: Hamsters (n=70) were randomly assigned to seven groups after a 2-week acclimation and fed the experimental diet for 5 weeks. Diets included (i) the semipurified diet with no cholesterol (Con), (ii) the Con diet plus 0.25% cholesterol (Ch-con), or the Ch-con diet with (iii) 1% phytosterols (Ste), (iv) 1% phytostanols (Sta), (v) 1.76% sterol esters (esterified to fish oil, SteF), (vi) 0.71% stanol esters (esterified to ascorbic acid [disodium ascorbyl phytostanol phosphate, FM-VP4], 0.7% StaA) and (vii) 1.43% stanol esters (1.4% StaA), respectively. After 5 weeks on experimental diet, hamsters were sacrificed, and colons were collected. Colonic mucosal cell proliferation was measured by immunohistochemistry using monoclonal antibodies against antigen Ki-67. Results: Colonic mucosal cell proliferation was 21.4% (P<.01) lower in the 0.7%, but not 1.4%, StaA relative to the Ch-con group. In addition, a lower (−13.9%) cell proliferation was observed in the SteF group in comparison to the Ch-con group; however, this difference achieved only a borderline level of statistical significance (P=.069). No differences were observed between Con and Ch-con, as well as among Ste, Sta, 1.4% StaA and Ch-con treatments. Conclusion: Plant stanols esterified to ascorbic acid may possess anticarcinogenic properties in the colon by suppressing colonic mucosa cell proliferation; however, this effect was not observed with free plant sterols or stanols. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The objective of this study was to examine the effects of the antioxidant α-lipoic acid (ALP) versus a medium chain triglyceride oil mixture (MCTo), which was designed to increase energy expenditure and to improve lipid profiles containing medium chain triglycerides, phytosterols, and omega-3 fatty acids in the form of flaxseed oil. A total of 48 hamsters were fed a) hypercholesterolemic (HC) control, b) HC MCTo, c) HC ALP, or d) HC MCTo/ALP diet for 4 weeks. No differences were observed on food intake, body weight, total body water, lean and fat mass, and tissue thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS). ALP alone had no effect on total cholesterol (TC); however, MCTo feeding increased TC with (P < 0.03) and without (P < 0.003) ALP when compared with control. ALP increased HDL levels compared with control (P < 0.04) and MCTo/ALP (P < 0.007) groups. MCTo, with (P < 0.0001) or without (P < 0.006) ALP, increased non-HDL cholesterol levels versus control. The non-HDL:HDL cholesterol ratio was decreased by ALP compared with MCTo (45%) and MCTo/ALP (68%) (P < 0.0001), a similar trend was seen when compared with the HC control (22%) group (P < 0.14). Triglyceride levels were not altered by any dietary treatment. Liver and heart tissue reduced glutathione (GSH) was increased (P < 0.05) by all three treatments when compared with control. Both tissues showed an increase (P < 0.05) in oxidized glutathione (GSSG) when fed ALP as compared with other treatments. Hamsters fed ALP had a lower (P < 0.05) GSH/GSSG ratio compared with other treatment groups. In conclusion, MCTo feeding does not elicit beneficial effects on circulating plasma lipids and measures of body composition. In addition, our results do not clearly support an improvement in oxidative status through supplementation of ALP. However, our results do support the existence of beneficial effects of ALP on circulating lipoprotein content in the hamster. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The extent to which sterols and stanols modulate LDL particle size is unknown. We examined the effects of supplementation with unesterified plant sterols and stanols on several LDL electrophoretic characteristics. Healthy hypercholesterolemic subjects (n = 14) consumed each of four experimental diets contained plant sterols (S), plant stanols (SN), a 50:50 mixture of sterols and stanols (SSN), or cornstarch (control) in a randomized crossover design. The butter component of the diet was blended with unesterified sterols and stanols at a dose of 1.8 g/d. The LDL particles were characterized by polyacrylamide gradient gel electrophoresis of whole plasma. LDL cholesterol (LDL-C) concentrations decreased by 8.8, 13.6, and 13.1% in the S, SN, and SSN groups, respectively (P < 0.01) with a significant increase of 4.3% in the control group. None of the treatments with sterols and stanols induced significant changes in LDL peak particle diameter or in the cholesterol levels of the small LDL subfraction (<25.5 nm). The reduction in plasma LDL-C levels with SN consumption was due mainly to a decrease (P < 0.05) in the concentration of cholesterol in the large subfraction (>26.0 nm). The significant reduction in plasma LDL-C concentrations by sterol and stanol consumption in subjects was not paralleled by any beneficial changes in LDL electrophoretic characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Medium-chain triglycerides (MCT) have been proposed as weight-lowering agents, although there is some concern regarding their hyperlipidemic effect. This study evaluates the effects of a combination of MCT oil, phytosterols and flaxseed oil [functional oil (FctO)] on plasma lipid concentrations and LDL particle size. Twenty-four healthy overweight men (body mass index 28.2 +/- 0.4 kg/m(2)) consumed controlled diets designed to maintain weight for two periods of 29 d each. Diets contained 40% of energy as fat, 75% of which was added fat, either FctO or olive oil (OL). Body composition and blood samples were analyzed at the baseline and the endpoint of each period. Total cholesterol concentration decreased 12.5% (-0.68 mmol/L; P < 0.05) when subjects consumed FctO and 4.7% when they consumed OL. Similarly, FctO consumption lowered LDL cholesterol concentrations by 13.9%, whereas OL consumption did not. There was no difference in absolute change in LDL-cholesterol between FctO and OL consumption. Peak LDL particle size was greater in those who consumed FctO than in those who consumed OL (P < 0.05), with no effect of diet on proportion of large, medium or small particles. We conclude that those who consume a diet containing FctO have a better lipid profile than those who consume a diet rich in OL, which also leads to a larger lipoprotein particle size. Functional oil consumption can therefore help reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To determine the daily energy requirements of professional soccer players during a competitive season, we measured total energy expenditure in seven players (age 22.1 ± 1.9 years, height 1.75 ± 0.05 m, mass 69.8 ± 4.7 kg; mean ±s) using the doubly labelled water method. Energy intake was simultaneously estimated from 7 day self-report dietary records. Mean total energy expenditure and energy intake were 14.8 ± 1.7 MJ · day[sup -1] (3532 ± 408 kcal· day[sup -1]) and 13.0 ± 2.4 MJ · day[sup -1] (3113 ± 581 kcal· day[sup -1]), respectively. Although there was a significant difference between total energy expenditure and energy intake (P < 0.01), there was a strong relationship between the two (r = 0.893, P < 0.01). Basal metabolic rate and recommended energy allowance calculated from the Recommended Dietary Allowances for the Japanese were 7.0 ± 0.3 MJ ·day[sup -1] (1683 ± 81 kcal· day[sup -1]) and 15.6 ± 0.8 MJ · day[sup -1] (3739 ± 180 kcal· day[sup -1]), respectively. A physical activity level (total energy expenditure/ basal metabolic rate) of 2.11 ± 0.30 indicated that, during the competitive season, professional soccer players undertake much routine physical activity, similar to that of competitive athletes during moderate training. Energy intake estimated using dietary records was under-reported, suggesting that its calculation from these data does not predict energy expenditure in soccer players. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]