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Maternal ingestion of folic acid (FA) reduces neural tube defects, which are associated with high homocysteine levels. Present study evaluated the effects of FA and homocysteine on cell proliferation and cell adhesion, as well as on apoptosis, throughout the development of the spinal cord and mesenchyme of chicken embryos. Normal closure of the neural tube and a regular distribution of the mesenchymal cells were observed in control and FA-treated embryos. All homocysteine-treated embryos and also 6 of 10 embryos treated with FA+homocysteine showed failure of closure of the neural tube. Homocysteine decreased the thickness of the mantle and marginal layers of the spinal cord, and FA did not prevent this effect. FA treatment reversed the decrease of proliferating cells in the spinal cord induced by homocysteine. FA-treated embryos showed the highest numerical density of apoptotic cells. Homocysteine treatment reduced NCAM expression in both spinal cord and mesenchymal tissue, and FA prevents this effect. These results are important because they demonstrate in situ that the imbalance between FA and homocysteine levels can lead to disruptions in spinal cord development, changing proliferation, apoptosis, and cell adhesion and consequently changing the arrangement of the spinal cord layers.

Background: Studies on migration often ignore the health and social impact of migrants returning to their rural communities. Several studies have shown migrants to be particularly susceptible to HIV infection. This paper investigates whether migrants to rural households have a higher risk of dying, especially from HIV, than non-migrants., Methods: Using data from a large and ongoing Demographic Surveillance System, 41,517 adults, enumerated in bi-annual rounds between 2001 and 2005, and aged 18 to 60 years were categorized into four groups: external in-migrants, internal migrants, out-migrants and residents. The risk of dying by migration status was quantified by Cox proportional hazard regression. In a sub-group analysis of 1212 deaths which occurred in 2000 - 2001 and for which cause of death information was available, the relationship between migration status and dying from AIDS was examined in logistic regression., Results: In all, 618 deaths were recorded among 7,867 external in-migrants, 255 among 4,403 internal migrants, 310 among 11,476 out-migrants and 1900 deaths were registered among 17,771 residents. External in-migrants were 28% more likely to die than residents [adjusted Hazard Ratio (aHR) = 1.28, P < 0.001, 95% Confidence Interval (CI) (1.16, 1.41)]. In the sub-group analysis, the odds of dying from AIDS was 1.79 [adjusted Odd ratio (aOR) = 1.79, P = 0.009, 95% CI (1.15, 2.78)] for external in-migrants compared to residents; there was no statistically significant difference in AIDS mortality between residents and out-migrants, [aOR = 1.25, P = 0.533, 95% CI (0.62-2.53)]. Independently, females were more likely to die from AIDS than males [aOR = 2.35, P < 0.001, 95% CI (1.79, 3.08)]., Conclusion: External in-migrants have a higher risk of dying, especially from HIV related causes, than residents, and in areas with substantial migration this needs to be taken into account in evaluating mortality statistics and planning health care services.

Introduction: The Partners with Transdisciplinary Tobacco Use Research Centers (TTURCs) initiative was a transdisciplinary team-building program, funded by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, to expand the policy research capacity of the TTURCs. EXPANSION INTO POLICY RESEARCh: Policy research activities at the TTURCs fell into four broad domains: (a) health services research, (b) examination of the business case for cessation treatment and funding, (c) collaborative teams with key stakeholders, and (d) direct assessment of smoking-related policies. Examples of each domain are presented., Outcomes: Goals of the initiative included efforts to foster collaborative, transdisciplinary research, to bring new investigators into the field, to develop programs of policy research, to answer next-step translational questions, and to enhance awareness of policy relevance. Success at meeting each of these goals is discussed., Recommendations: We offer recommendations for incorporating programs of policy research into full-spectrum transdisciplinary research initiatives, including the roles of research teams, senior researchers, infrastructure, stakeholders, and communications activities., Conclusions: The TTURC Partners initiative represented a first-generation effort to fill the gap between scientific discovery and research translation through expansion into policy studies. While all aspects of the effort were not equally successful, the effort demonstrated that it is possible to develop successful collaborations that extend more basic and applied research into studies that examine their policy and practice implications.

Lead intoxication affects the central nervous system and produces structural disorders and behavioral deficits in several animal species. Although lead neurotoxicity is a well-reported phenomenon, studies on the developmental neurotoxicity induced by this metal in avian are scarce. The aim of this study was to evaluate how a single dose of 28 mug lead acetate administered into the yolk sac on the fifth incubation day of Gallus domesticus can affect the behavior and the brain tissue in the first postnatal week. Several behavioral tests, mainly those related to the motor and exploratory functions were evaluated at fifth and sixth postnatal days (PN). The lead deposition into mesencephalon and cerebellum was investigated by autometallography (AMG) method. Congenital anomalies, as failure on closure of body's ventral midline and leg dysfunction, were observed in treated chicks. During the first postnatal week, inactivity and anomalous movements were significantly high in lead treated chicks in comparison to control animals. Lead impregnation was observed in both mesencephalon and cerebellum and the cerebellar molecular layer presented higher lead deposition in comparison to granular layer and Purkinje cells. Our results indicate that the in ovo exposure to lead induces important deficits on motor behavior of chicks during the first postnatal week and such phenomena are related to lead deposition in the cerebellar tissue during embryonic development. The proposed exposure schedule represents an interesting experimental approach for studding behavioral and cellular mechanisms related to lead-induced developmental neurotoxicity.

Genetic variation on the non-recombining portion of the Y chromosome contains information about the ancestry of male lineages. Because of their low rate of mutation, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are the markers of choice for unambiguously classifying Y chromosomes into related sets of lineages known as haplogroups, which tend to show geographic structure in many parts of the world. However, performing the large number of SNP genotyping tests needed to properly infer haplogroup status is expensive and time consuming. A novel alternative for assigning a sampled Y chromosome to a haplogroup is presented here. We show that by applying modern machine-learning algorithms we can infer with high accuracy the proper Y chromosome haplogroup of a sample by scoring a relatively small number of Y-linked short tandem repeats (STRs). Learning is based on a diverse ground-truth data set comprising pairs of SNP test results (haplogroup) and corresponding STR scores. We apply several independent machine-learning methods in tandem to learn formal classification functions. The result is an integrated high-throughput analysis system that automatically classifies large numbers of samples into haplogroups in a cost-effective and accurate manner.

Stalled fertility declines have been identified in several regions across the developing world, but the current conceptualization of a stalled fertility decline is poorly theorized and does not lend itself to objective measurement. We propose a more rigorous and statistically testable definition of stalled fertility decline that can be applied to time-series data. We then illustrate the utility of our definition through its application to data from rural South Africa for the period 1990-2005 collected from a demographic surveillance site. Application of the approach suggests that fertility decline has indeed stalled in rural KwaZulu-Natal, at about three children per woman. The stall, some 20 percent above the replacement fertility level, does not appear to be associated with a rise in wanted fertility or attenuated access to contraceptive methods. This identification of a stalled fertility decline provides the first evidence of such a stall in southern Africa, the region with the lowest fertility levels in sub-Saharan Africa.

Objectives: To measure HIV incidence in a rural area of South Africa with high HIV prevalence and to analyze risk factors for acquisition of HIV using a prospective population-based cohort study., Methods: Data from two rounds (2003-2005) of a large prospective population-based HIV survey in rural KwaZulu-Natal were used to calculate HIV incidence by sex and 5-year age group. Multiple imputations (MI) were used to adjust for selection effects and risk factors for acquiring HIV were examined in Weibull multiple regression., Results: During 5253 person-years at risk, 170 individuals became seropositive. The crude HIV incidence rate per 100 person-years was 3.8 [95% confidence interval (CI), 3.2-4.6] in women aged 15-49 years and 2.3 (95% CI, 1.8-3.1) in men aged 15-54 years. MI significantly increased the HIV incidence rates both in women and men [7.9/100 person-years (95% CI, 7.4-8.4) and 5.1/100 person-years (95% CI 4.1-6.2), respectively]. When holding other factors constant in Weibull multiple regression, the hazard of HIV seroconversion was approximately twice as high in people who were currently unmarried but had a partner than among people who were currently married (P < 0.001) and increased with increasing distance from a government health clinic (P = 0.051) and decreasing distance from a primary road (P = 0.002)., Conclusion: In this high HIV prevalence community in rural South Africa HIV incidence is very high. The present focus on antiretroviral treatment needs to be balanced with a renewed emphasis on HIV prevention for both sexes.

Purpose: The orbitoblepharophimosis syndrome is an autosomal-dominant congenital malformation involving the orbitopalpebral region. The condition is associated with orbital phimosis, upper eyelid ptosis, epicanthus and telecanthus., Material and Methods: We retrospectively reviewed the records of 60 patients with blepharophimosis who underwent surgery in the Hospital of Plastic Surgery in Polanica Zdrój from January 1975 to January 2006. The study population consisted of 23 (38.3%) females and 37 (61.7%) males patients whose age at the time of first surgical stage ranged from 1 to 48 years (mean 8 years). Surgical management consisted of epicanthus correction using modified technique of Mustardé followed by eyelid suspension to the frontalis muscle with using temporal fascia. In patients with orbitoblepharophimosis type II, correction of the lower lid ectropion and antimongoid slanting palpebral fissures, were performed before or after Mustardé procedure., Results: In our series of 60 patients, good result of treatment was obtained in 80.1% and satisfactory in 18.3% of patients. Poor outcome was obtained only in one patient with orbitoblepharophimosis type II., Conclusions: Orbitoblepharophimosis management should consists of gradual and complex surgical treatment. During the first stage epicanthus correction is performed. As a second stage, blepharoptosis is treated by frontalis suspension technique with using temporal fascia.

Purpose: Retrospective analysis of the results in the treatment of congenital blepharoptosis., Material and Methods: We retrospectively reviewed the records of 389 patients with blepharoptosis who underwent surgical treatment in the Hospital of Plastic Surgery in Polanica-Zdrój, from January 1976 to January 2005. The age of patients, degree of malformation and unilateral or bilateral occurrence of ptosis, was analyzed. Moreover, we studied treatment results of patients with blepharoptosis treated in our hospital and patients treated elsewhere, before admission to our hospital., Results: 218 patients from 327 operated in our hospital had levator muscle resections. After 6 months of observation 39 patients were qualified for surgical re-correction. 12 months after surgery 4 patients had recurrence of ptosis. Frontalis suspension technique with using the temporal fascia, was performed in 109 patients. After 6 months observation, 8 patients were qualified for surgical re-correction., Conclusions: For patients with maintained function of the levator muscle the most effective and physiological procedure, is the muscle shortening. Frontalis suspension technique with use of the temporal fascia should be limited to treat failure cases and patients with poor or absent function of the levator muscle.

One of the initial goals of the Transdisciplinary Tobacco Use Research Center (TTURC) initiative was to broaden the traditional model of how research results are communicated, going beyond scholarly journals, as a way to accelerate the discovery-to-dissemination process. A strategy in meeting this goal was the establishment of a communications program at the seven initially funded TTURCs. This paper reports the results of the communications efforts from the TTURC initiative. Specific communications activities are described, highlighting efforts to reach broad audiences and increase the impact of the research. We present lessons learned from this effort to enhance knowledge translation through the development of communications infrastructure and dissemination activities, focusing especially on the guidance they offer for the development of future research-communications partnerships.

Chelating therapy has been reported as a useful approach for counteracting mercurial toxicity. Moreover, 2,3-dimercapto-1-propanesulfonic acid (DMPS), a tissue-permeable metal chelator, was found to increase urinary mercury excretion and decrease mercury content in rat brain after methylmercury (MeHg) exposure. We evaluated the capability of DMPS to reduce MeHg-induced motor impairment and cerebellar toxicity in adult mice. Animals were exposed to MeHg (40 mg/L in drinking water, ad libitum) during 17 days. In the last 3 days of exposure (days 15-17), animals received DMPS injections (150 mg/kg, i.p.; once a day) in order to reverse MeHg-induced neurotoxicity. Twenty-four hours after the last injection (day 18), behavioral tests related to the motor function (open field and rotarod tasks) and biochemical analyses on oxidative stress-related parameters (cerebellar glutathione, protein thiol and malondyaldehyde levels, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase activities) were carried out. Histological analyses for quantifying cellular damage and mercury deposition in the cerebellum were also performed. MeHg exposure induced a significant motor deficit, observed as decreased locomotor activity in the open field and decreased falling latency in the rotarod apparatus. DMPS treatment displayed an ameliorative effect toward such behavioral parameters. Cerebellar glutathione and protein thiol levels were not changed by MeHg or DMPS treatment. Conversely, the levels of cerebellar thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), a marker for lipid peroxidation, were increased in MeHg-exposed mice and DMPS administration minimized such phenomenon. Cerebellar glutathione peroxidase activity was decreased in the MeHg-exposed animals, but DMPS treatment did not prevent such event. Histological analyses showed a reduced number of cerebellar Purkinje cells in MeHg-treated mice and this phenomenon was completely reversed by DMPS treatment. A marked mercury deposition in the cerebellar cortex was observed in MeHg-exposed animals (granular layer>Purkinje cells>molecular layer) and DMPS treatment displayed a significant ameliorative effect toward these phenomena. These findings indicate that DMPS displays beneficial effects on reversing MeHg-induced motor deficits and cerebellar damage in mice. Histological analyses indicate that these phenomena are related to its capability of removing mercury from cerebellar cortex.

Background: Health Related Quality of Life (HRQoL) is an important outcome in times of Highly Active Antiretroviral Treatment (HAART). We compared the HRQoL of HIV positive patients receiving HAART with those awaiting treatment in public sector facilities in the Free State province in South Africa., Methods: A stratified random sample of 371 patients receiving or awaiting HAART were interviewed and the EuroQol-profile, EuroQol-index and Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) were compared. Independent associations between these outcomes and HAART, socio-demographic, clinical and health service variables were estimated using linear and ordinal logistic regression, adjusted for intra-clinic clustering of outcomes., Results: Patients receiving HAART reported better HRQoL for 3 of the 5 EuroQol-dimensions, for the VAS score and for the EuroQol index in bivariable analysis. They had a higher mean EuroQol index (0.11 difference, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.04; 0.23), and were more likely to have a higher index (odds ratio 1.9, 95% CI 1.1; 1.3), compared to those awaiting HAART, in multivariate analysis. Higher mean VAS scores were reported for patients who were receiving HAART (6.5 difference, 95% CI 1.3; 11.7), were employed (9.1, 95% CI 4.3; 13.7) or were female (4.7, 95% CI 0.79; 8.5)., Conclusion: HAART was associated with improved HRQoL in patients enrolled in a public sector treatment program in South Africa. Our finding that the EuroQol instrument was sensitive to HAART supports its use in future evaluation of HIV/AIDS care in South Africa. Longitudinal studies are needed to evaluate changes in individuals' HRQoL.

We use an empirically calibrated model to estimate the cost-effectiveness of cervical cancer prevention in Brazil, a country with a high cervical cancer burden. Assuming 70% coverage, HPV 16, 18 vaccination of adolescent girls is expected to reduce the lifetime risk of cancer by approximately 42.7% (range, 33.2-53.5%); screening three times per lifetime is expected to reduce risk by 21.9-30.7% depending on the screening test, and a combined approach of vaccination and screening is expected to reduce cancer risk by a mean of 60.8% (range, 52.8-70.1%). In Brazil; provided the cost per vaccinated woman is less than I$ 25, implying a per dose cost of approximately I$ 5, vaccination before age 12, followed by screening three times per lifetime between ages 35 and 45, would be considered very cost-effective using the country's per capita gross domestic product as a cost-effectiveness threshold. Assuming a coverage rate of 70%, this strategy would be expected to prevent approximately 100,000 cases of invasive cervical cancer over a 5-year period. Vaccination strategies identified as cost-effective may be unaffordable in countries with similar socioeconomic profiles as Brazil without assistance; these results can provide guidance to the global community by identifying health investments of highest priority and with the greatest promise.

Background: To present and compare population-based and antenatal-care (ANC) sentinel surveillance HIV prevalence estimates among women in a rural South African population where both provision of ANC services and family planning is prevalent and fertility is declining. With a need, in such settings, to understand how to appropriately adjust ANC sentinel surveillance estimates to represent HIV prevalence in general populations, and with evidence of possible biases inherent to both surveillance systems, we explore differences between the two systems. There is particular emphasis on unrepresentative selection of ANC clinics and unrepresentative testing in the population., Methods: HIV sero-prevalence amongst blood samples collected from women consenting to test during the 2005 annual longitudinal population-based serological survey was compared to anonymous unlinked HIV sero-prevalence amongst women attending antenatal care (ANC) first visits in six clinics (January to May 2005). Both surveillance systems were conducted as part of the Africa Centre Demographic Information System., Results: Population-based HIV prevalence estimates for all women (25.2%) and pregnant women (23.7%) were significantly lower than that for ANC attendees (37.7%). A large proportion of women attending urban or peri-urban clinics would be predicted to be resident within rural areas. Although overall estimates remained significantly different, presenting and standardising estimates by age and location (clinic for ANC-based estimates and individual-residence for population-based estimates) made some group-specific estimates from the two surveillance systems more predictive of one another., Conclusion: It is likely that where ANC coverage and contraceptive use is widespread and fertility is low, population-based surveillance under-estimates HIV prevalence due to unrepresentative testing by age, residence and also probably by HIV status, and that ANC sentinel surveillance over-estimates prevalence due to selection bias in terms of age of sexual debut and contraceptive use. The results presented highlight the importance of accounting for unrepresentative testing, particularly by individual residence and age, through system design and statistical analyses.

Objective: To estimate the prevalence of HIV and associated sociodemographic factors including mobility and migration in a rural population in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa., Methods: A household-based HIV serosurvey of a population that has been under longitudinal demographic surveillance since 2000. All residents (women aged 15-49 years; men aged 15-54 years) and a sample of non-residents ('migrants') who return periodically to their households in the area were identified and approached for finger-prick HIV testing., Results: A total of 8325/11 505 male and 11 542/14 396 female residents were traced. Of these, 4692 men and 6859 women consented to HIV testing. Overall, 27% of female and 13.5% of male residents were HIV infected. HIV prevalence peaked at 51% among resident women aged 25-29 years and 44% among resident men aged 30-34 years, with the highest infection rates of 57.5% among 26-year-old women. The female: male infection ratio for residents aged 15-19 years was 13.0. Many factors, including increased mobility, associated with an increased risk of HIV infection among residents, were also associated with non-participation. Among non-residents, 34% of men aged 15-54 years and 41% of women aged 15-49 years were HIV infected., Conclusion: The extremely high prevalence of HIV suggests an urgent need to allocate adequate resources for HIV prevention and treatment in rural areas. Effective monitoring of the epidemic in Africa needs to include efforts to strengthen sentinel surveillance in rural areas and strategies for the surveillance of migrants and mobile individuals.

As long as resection of sagittal suture eliminates craniostenosis it leads to desired cranium broadening and shortening solely in the case of children under six months of age. In the majority of cases, especially in older children, boat-shaped cranium remains rather unchanged and its effective modeling requires extensive dissection and osteotomy of the whole cranium vault (e.g., frontal, occipital and parietal bones). Lauritzen's method is an alternative solution. It consists of distraction of cranium vault bones with the aid of steel springs. In order to simplify and improve the efficacy of treatment since 2002, the authors originated the application of titanium-nickel rings to model the cranium. After the sparing excision of cranium vault sutures in the shape of letter "H" the compressed ring is given in the sagittal axis oval shape and in this form it is fixed to osseous margins. The ring's expansion at the same time broadens and shortens the cranium vault. Material was analyzed from 7 children (range, 9 months to 4 years of age), who were treated in the years 2002-2006 because of sagittal craniostenosis. Observations made so far and good treatment results indicate purposefulness of discussed treatment continuation.

Dupuytren's contracture is a common condition leading to impairment of the function of the hand which affects from 2 to 12 % of the population, mainly males, and presents as progressive contracture of fingers caused by shortening of the palmar aponeurosis. The objective of the work was to present our own approach to managing Dupuytren's disease and evaluate treatment results in patients with hypertrophy of the palmar aponeurosis. Material and method 288 patients with Dupuytren's disease were treated at the Plastic Surgery Hospital in Polanica Zdroj over a period of 25 years (1977-2002). The present paper is a retrospective analysis of treatment results in 253 patients for whom complete medical documentation was available. All patients were operated in local anaesthesia in ischemia. A Bunnell flap skin incision was followed by a fasciectomy of the hypertrophied segment of the palmar aponeurosis. The skin wound was closed using V-Y plasty. Postoperative management involved hand elevation and early rehabilitation. Results Restoration of the full range of motion and total extension in the MP joint and the interphalangeal joints were achieved in 70% and 68% of patients, respectively. Of 145 patients who were professionally active, 132 were able to return to work. Finger amputation was necessary in 2 patients, one patient suffered from arthrodesis and two other developed skin necrosis which was removed with the wound closed by skin grafts. A follow-up examination 6 months after the operation revealed a recurrence in 8 patients and deterioration of hand dexterity with finger stiffness in 4. Conclusions A low complication rate and good treatment results are arguments in favour of the approach adopted at our hospital, i.e. surgery in local anaesthesia in ischemia with compressive bandaging, using a Bunnell flap skin incision followed by radical fasciectomy and V-Y plasty.

Subtle cellular phenotypes in the CNS may evade detection by routine histopathology. Here, we demonstrate the value of primary culture for revealing genetically determined neuronal phenotypes at high resolution. Gamma neurons of Drosophila melanogaster mushroom bodies (MBs) are remodeled during metamorphosis under the control of the steroid hormone 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E). In vitro, wild-type gamma neurons retain characteristic morphogenetic features, notably a single axon-like dominant primary process and an arbor of short dendrite-like processes, as determined with microtubule-polarity markers. We found three distinct genetically determined phenotypes of cultured neurons from grossly normal brains, suggesting that subtle in vivo attributes are unmasked and amplified in vitro. First, the neurite outgrowth response to 20E is sexually dimorphic, being much greater in female than in male gamma neurons. Second, the gamma neuron-specific "naked runt" phenotype results from transgenic insertion of an MB-specific promoter. Third, the recessive, pan-neuronal "filagree" phenotype maps to singed, which encodes the actin-bundling protein fascin. Fascin deficiency does not impair the 20E response, but neurites fail to maintain their normal, nearly straight trajectory, instead forming curls and hooks. This is accompanied by abnormally distributed filamentous actin. This is the first demonstration of fascin function in neuronal morphogenesis. Our findings, along with the regulation of human Fascin1 (OMIM 602689) by CREB (cAMP response element-binding protein) binding protein, suggest FSCN1 as a candidate gene for developmental brain disorders. We developed an automated method of computing neurite curvature and classifying neurons based on curvature phenotype. This will facilitate detection of genetic and pharmacological modifiers of neuronal defects resulting from fascin deficiency.

Physical access to health care affects a large array of health outcomes, yet meaningfully estimating physical access remains elusive in many developing country contexts where conventional geographical techniques are often not appropriate. We interviewed (and geographically positioned) 23,000 homesteads regarding clinic usage in the Hlabisa health sub-district, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. We used a cost analysis within a geographical information system to estimate mean travel time (at any given location) to clinic and to derive the clinic catchments. The model takes into account the proportion of people likely to be using public transport (as a function of estimated walking time to clinic), the quality and distribution of the road network and natural barriers, and was calibrated using reported travel times. We used the model to investigate differences in rural, urban and peri-urban usage of clinics by homesteads in the study area and to quantify the effect of physical access to clinic on usage. We were able to predict the reported clinic used with an accuracy of 91%. The median travel time to nearest clinic is 81 min and 65% of homesteads travel 1h or more to attend the nearest clinic. There was a significant logistic decline in usage with increasing travel time (p < 0.0001). The adjusted odds of a homestead within 30 min of a clinic making use of the clinics were 10 times (adjusted OR = 10; 95 CI 6.9-14.4) those of a homestead in the 90-120 min zone. The adjusted odds of usage of the clinics by urban homesteads were approximately 20/30 times smaller than those of their rural/peri-urban counterparts, respectively, after controlling for systematic differences in travel time to clinic. The estimated median travel time to the district hospital is 170 min. The methodology constitutes a framework for modelling physical access to clinics in many developing country settings.

This paper argues that tracking, object detection, and model building are all similar activities. We describe a fully automatic system that builds 2D articulated models known as pictorial structures from videos of animals. The learned model can be used to detect the animal in the original video--in this sense, the system can be viewed as a generalized tracker (one that is capable of modeling objects while tracking them). The learned model can be matched to a visual library; here, the system can be viewed as a video recognition algorithm. The learned model can also be used to detect the animal in novel images--in this case, the system can be seen as a method for learning models for object recognition. We find that we can significantly improve the pictorial structures by augmenting them with a discriminative texture model learned from a texture library. We develop a novel texture descriptor that outperforms the state-of-the-art for animal textures. We demonstrate the entire system on real video sequences of three different animals. We show that we can automatically track and identify the given animal. We use the learned models to recognize animals from two data sets; images taken by professional photographers from the Corel collection, and assorted images from the Web returned by Google. We demonstrate quite good performance on both data sets. Comparing our results with simple baselines, we show that, for the Google set, we can detect, localize, and recover part articulations from a collection demonstrably hard for object recognition.

Morphology, genetic conditioning, terminology, and the principles of treatment of Treacher Collins syndrome have been presented on the basis of our own material, as well as review of literature. Fifty patients (27 males, 23 females) were operated on at the Hospital of Plastic Surgery in Polanica Zdrój from 1976 to 2005. The patients were first seen when they were from 1 to 32 years of age (mean, 7). The disease was hereditary in 17 patients, while the remaining subjects did not reveal any genetic conditioning. The lifesaving surgical treatment was undertaken in 4 children with the most severe form of the disease who presented with dyspnea and paroxysmal apnea. In those cases, the treatment aimed at improving the respiratory function by restoring patency of the nostrils and distraction of the mandible. Twelve patients were operated on for cleft palate between 1 and 2 years of age. Twelve patients had eyelid correction with the use of musculocutaneous flap transposition from the upper eyelid (Z-plasty). The zygomatic bone and lateral wall of the orbit were reconstructed by means of iliac bone grafts in 26 patients. The auricular reconstruction was usually undertaken after 10 years of age. Nine patients underwent bilateral auricular reconstruction by means of a modified Brent method. Fifteen patients aged 12-14 had chin osteotomy according to the Obwegeser method. Nasal osteotomy was performed in 10 patients with characteristic broad, long, and hooked noses, who were operated on after 16 years of age and after completion of orthognathic treatment. In total, 258 surgical procedures were performed in 50 patients, an average of 5.2 operations per every patient. Apart from a multistage surgical treatment, the patients required a combined multidisciplinary approach, mainly due to hearing impairment and occlusal disturbances. The obtained outcome of treatment, although far from being perfect, but still beneficial, confirmed the correctness of applied approach but at the same time pointed to the necessity of introducing new methods of treatment aiming, among others, at compensating for the tissue deficiency by means of tissue engineering.

The aim of the study was to assess the outcome of treatment of entropion by means of mucous and cartilage grafts, harvested from the nasal septum. From 1989 to 2004 thirteen patients with entropion resulting from chemical and thermal burning or mechanical trauma were treated at the Hospital of Plastic Surgery in Polanica Zdr6j. Upper eyelid deformities were corrected in 14 cases, while the lower eyelid was repaired in 3 cases. Blepharotomy was performed by means of subciliary incision. Compound mucous and cartilage grafts harvested from the nasal septum, were sutured into the defects. Very good results and complete resolution of contractures were obtained in 15 cases, while 2 patients underwent a repeated surgery in which compound grafts were used again. According to the author's opinion, the above described method is an effective modality of treatment of cicatricial entropion.

Objective: To investigate the effect of adult death on household dissolution and migration., Design: Demographic surveillance of the population in a rural area of northern KwaZulu Natal, South Africa., Methods: Data on households resident in the surveillance area on 1 January 2000 were used to examine the effect of adult mortality and household risk factors on household dissolution and mobility between January 2000 and October 2002. Cox regression models were used to assess the risk of household dissolution and migration, controlling for multiple risk factors including causes of death, household composition and household assets., Results: By October 2002, 238 households (2%) had dissolved and 874 (8%) migrated out of the area; 21% (2179) of all households had at least one adult death (18 years and older). Households where one or more adult members died during the follow-up period were four times more likely to dissolve, after controlling for household and community level risk factors [4.3; 95% confidence interval, (CI), 3.3-5.7]. The risk of dissolution was significantly higher in households with multiple deaths (2.3; 95% CI, 1.3-4.3). There were no significant differential risks associated with cause of death, age or sex of the deceased. Adult mortality in the household was not associated with migration., Conclusions: Poorer households, as measured by asset ownership, and households trying to cope with adult deaths are vulnerable to dissolution. The dramatic increase in adult mortality attributable to AIDS will increase the number of households that do not survive as a functional and cohesive social group.

As part of the comprehensive project "Sustainable Health Care Waste Management in Gauteng" en elaborate environmental and financial feasibility study has been made for selected provincial healthcare waste management scenarios. Furthermore, the study assessed the health, safety and socioeconomic impacts of the scenarios qualitatively and comparison was made with the prevailing containerisation and treatment used currently in Gauteng Province. The findings of the feasibility study show that compared to today's system of predominantly using disposable carboard boxes that are incinerated in incinerators with no flue gas cleaning systems and limited control of the combustion process, significant reductions of the emissions to the atmosphere can be achieved by improving the emission standards for incinerators and/or introducing non-burn treatment technologies. Also, it is clearly demonstrated that introduction of safer and reusable containerisation has a significant environmental benefit while providing a better and more occupationally safe service at a similar or slightly reduced cost. Finally the feasibility study demonstrates that while the type and amounts of emissions from incinerators with flue gas cleaning devises and alternative non-burn treatment technologies are materially different in nature and type it is difficult to clearly determine which of the two types of treatment technologies is globally and overall the least damaging in environmental terms.

Cigarette smoking is the largest preventable cause of death and morbidity in the United States. Heightened recognition of this public health concern has led researchers from multiple and varied disciplines to address this complex and multidimensional behavior. The need for an alternative research paradigm, focusing on a transdisciplinary approach that integrates work across disciplines in order to advance the field most quickly, has been identified. This recognized need led to the development of the Transdisciplinary Tobacco Use Research Centers (TTURC) initiative, funded jointly by the National Cancer Institute, the National Institute on Drug Abuse, and The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. This paper discusses the formation and early implementation stages of the initiative, including meetings that led to the development of the TTURCs, funders' and research centers' perspectives on implementation, and early observations about the products of the initiative.

Treacher Collins syndrome (TCS) is caused by mutations in the TCOF1 gene. This gene encodes a serine/alanine-rich protein called treacle. The structure of the entire TCOF1 gene was investigated in a patient with TCS. We detected a novel deletion (376delAAGGTGAGTGGGACTGCC) spanning 3 bp of exon 4 and 15 bp of the adjacent intronic sequence. This mutation causes premature termination of translation, resulting in a truncated protein devoid of nucleolar localization signal, and potential phosphorylation sites. Real-time PCR analysis showed different melting temperatures of the amplified fragment containing normal allele and that harboring the 18 bp deletion, thus providing a rapid screening assay for this and other deletions of the TCOF1 gene., (Copyright 2003 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)

There is a considerable body of empirical research that has identified adolescent peer relationships as a primary factor involved in adolescent cigarette smoking. Despite this large research base, many questions remain unanswered about the mechanisms by which peers affect youths' smoking behavior. Understanding these processes of influence is key to the development of prevention and intervention programs designed to address adolescent smoking as a significant public health concern. In this paper, theoretical frameworks and empirical findings are reviewed critically which inform the current state of knowledge regarding peer influences on teenage smoking. Specifically, social learning theory, primary socialization theory, social identity theory and social network theory are discussed. Empirical findings regarding peer influence and selection, as well as multiple reference points in adolescent friendships, including best friendships, romantic relationships, peer groups and social crowds, are also reviewed. Review of this work reveals the contribution that peers have in adolescents' use of tobacco, in some cases promoting use, and in other cases deterring it. This review also suggests that peer influences on smoking are more subtle than commonly thought and need to be examined more carefully, including consideration of larger social contexts, e.g. the family, neighborhood, and media. Recommendations for future investigations are made, as well as suggestions for specific methodological approaches that offer promise for advancing our knowledge of the contribution of peers on adolescent tobacco use.

A neural network can learn color constancy, defined here as the ability to estimate the chromaticity of a scene's overall illumination. We describe a multilayer neural network that is able to recover the illumination chromaticity given only an image of the scene. The network is previously trained by being presented with a set of images of scenes and the chromaticities of the corresponding scene illuminants. Experiments with real images show that the network performs better than previous color constancy methods. In particular, the performance is better for images with a relatively small number of distinct colors. The method has application to machine vision problems such as object recognition, where illumination-independent color descriptors are required, and in digital photography, where uncontrolled scene illumination can create an unwanted color cast in a photograph.

We test a number of the leading computational color constancy algorithms using a comprehensive set of images. These were of 33 different scenes under 11 different sources representative of common illumination conditions. The algorithms studied include two gray world methods, a version of the Retinex method, several variants of Forsyth's gamut-mapping method, Cardei et al.'s neural net method, and Finlayson et al.'s Color by Correlation method. We discuss a number of issues in applying color constancy ideas to image data, and study in depth the effect of different preprocessing strategies. We compare the performance of the algorithms on image data with their performance on synthesized data. All data used for this study are available online at http://www.cs.sfu.ca/(tilde)color/data, and implementations for most of the algorithms are also available (http://www.cs.sfu.ca/(tilde)color/code). Experiments with synthesized data (part one of this paper) suggested that the methods which emphasize the use of the input data statistics, specifically color by correlation and the neural net algorithm, are potentially the most effective at estimating the chromaticity of the scene illuminant. Unfortunately, we were unable to realize comparable performance on real images. Here exploiting pixel intensity proved to be more beneficial than exploiting the details of image chromaticity statistics, and the three-dimensional (3-D) gamut-mapping algorithms gave the best performance.

Treacher Collins syndrome (TCS) is an autosomal dominant disorder of craniofacial development. The major features of the disease include midface hypoplasia, micrognathia, microtia, conductive hearing loss and cleft palate. Current procedures of surgical treatment of TCS are discussed and novel findings concerning the genetic background of TCS are described. The TCS locus has been mapped to chromosome 5q31.3-32. The TCOF1 gene contains 26 exons and encodes a 1411 amino acid protein named treacle. In the TCOF1 gene 51 mutations have been identified. Most of these mutations are insertions or deletions, which result in an introduction of a premature termination codon into the reading frame. Mutational spectra support the hypothesis that TCS results from haploinsufficiency of treacle.

We introduce a context for testing computational color constancy, specify our approach to the implementation of a number of the leading algorithms, and report the results of three experiments using synthesized data. Experiments using synthesized data are important because the ground truth is known, possible confounds due to camera characterization and pre-processing are absent, and various factors affecting color constancy can be efficiently investigated because they can be manipulated individually and precisely. The algorithms chosen for close study include two gray world methods, a limiting case of a version of the Retinex method, a number of variants of Forsyth's gamut-mapping method, Cardei et al.'s neural net method, and Finlayson et al.'s color by correlation method. We investigate the ability of these algorithms to make estimates of three different color constancy quantities: the chromaticity of the scene illuminant, the overall magnitude of that illuminant, and a corrected, illumination invariant, image. We consider algorithm performance as a function of the number of surfaces in scenes generated from reflectance spectra, the relative effect on the algorithms of added specularities, and the effect of subsequent clipping of the data. All data is available on-line at http://www.cs.sfu.ca/(tilde)color/data, and implementations for most of the algorithms are also available (http://www.cs.sfu.ca/(tilde)color/code).

The current 6-year study investigates the impact of the elementary (K-8)-to-high school (9-12) transition on the school completion outcomes of 107 adolescents from urban, minority, low-income status backgrounds. Descriptive findings provide a longitudinal profile of students' enrollment status throughout high school. Students who had graduated or were Active in the school system at the end of the study evidenced more marked change in perceptions of social support following the transition to the ninth grade compared to Inactive students, dropouts, who evidenced little change. With respect to academic performance, while both groups evidenced declines following the transition and failed to recover sustained losses, Inactive students declined more sharply in grades and attendance. Findings are discussed in terms of the mixed support for the transitional life events perspective. In addition, study limitations and directions for future research are discussed, including variables that should be considered in research with the targeted group.

Adult Gryllus assimilis given an analog of juvenile hormone exhibited reduced flight muscles and enlarged ovaries similar to those found in naturally occurring flightless individuals of species that are polymorphic for dispersal capability. Control and hormone-treated (flightless) G. assimilis did not differ in the amount of food consumed or assimilated on any of three diets that differed in nutrient quantity. Thus, enhanced ovarian growth of flightless individuals resulted from increased allocation of internal nutrients to reproduction (i.e., a trade-off) rather than from increased acquisition of nutrients. Compared with flight-capable controls, flightless G. assimilis also had reduced whole-organism respiration, reduced respiration of flight muscles, and reduced lipid and triglyceride (flight fuel) reserves. These differences are remarkably similar to those between naturally occurring flightless and flight-capable morphs of other Gryllus species. Results collectively suggest that the increased allocation of nutrients to ovarian growth in flightless G. assimilis and other Gryllus species results from reduced energetic costs of flight muscle maintenance and/or the biosynthesis or acquisition of lipids. Reduction in these energetic costs appears to be an important driving force in the evolution of flightlessness in insects. Respiratory metabolism associated with flight capability utilizes an increasing proportion of the energy budget of crickets as the quantity of nutrients in the diet is decreased. This leads to a magnification of greater ovarian growth of flightless versus flight-capable individuals on nutrient-poor diets.

Described an intervention program designed to prepare elementary school (K-8) eighth-grade students for their transition to high school the following year. Participants in the study were 145, predominantly Hispanic, inner-city public school adolescents. The experimental group received an augmented condition, consisting of Education and Peer Support Components. The control group received a minimal condition consisting of only the Education Component. While no group effects were observed, time effects indicated experimental and control students' improved perceptions of school readiness, but deteriorated perceptions of support from both home and school and diminished grade-point averages and attendance. Time effects also revealed variable changes in school perceptions. Findings are discussed in terms of a developmental perspective of the school transition process. Implications for high school transition programming with the target population and directions for future research are also addressed.

A comparison was made of the relative sensitivities of the cytokinesis-block micronucleus and the 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine assays for the assessment of X-ray and UV-induced genotoxicity in mouse splenocytes in vitro. A detectable (p < 0.05) increase in micronuclei occurred at about 1/5 the X-ray exposure required to induce a significant increase in the level of 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine. With UV radiation a significant (p < 0.05) rise in micronuclei was achieved at about 1/10th the dose needed to produce a detectable increase in 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine levels. The data confirm the value of the cytokinesis-block micronucleus technique for the detection of genotoxicity at low-level X-irradiation, and indicate that it is more sensitive for that purpose than the 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine assay. The data also demonstrate, for the first time, the production of 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine by UVA/B-irradiation of intact cells, but point again to a more sensitive assessment of UV-related genotoxicity by the cytokinesis-block micronucleus method.

ELISA was used to measure the amount and avidity of IgG antibodies to exotoxin A (ExA) and 7 Fisher's immunotypes of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in the sera of 13 patients with mild or moderate Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections. Changes in the specificity of tested sera during the course of infection were demonstrated. A statistically significant increase was seen in the amount and avidity of the antibodies to ExA in a majority of the sera, and an increase was seen in amount of antibodies to LPS immunotype 4 in the sera of patients with moderate infections.

On the basis of my own material, I discuss the problems and complications encountered in the course of performing 75 free transplantations of tissues. The causes and management of both common and uncommon complications occurring after incorrect as well as faultless surgery are discussed, and numerous examples are described.

It is the author's belief that poor healing due to deficient mesenchyme at the junction of the hard and soft palates probably constitutes the essential reason for some failures of palatoplasty. In order to provide extra tissue to reinforce the above-mentioned region and to facilitate efficient velar lengthening, the use of an extension of the vomer flap detached from the roof of the pharynx is proposed. Such extended vomer flaps have been applied successfully both on the oral and nasal sides in 50 patients. The necessity of further and longer observations is obvious.

A new method consisting of conversion of the retroauricular skin into an axial flap is described. During the first stage the superficial temporal vessels are transposed under the skin of the retroauricular region. The second operative step consists of elevation of the retroauricular-mastoid skin on the dissected axial pedicle. The secondary island flaps proved to be efficient in the repair of small and medium-sized defects of the facial region.