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Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a common mycotoxin that contaminates cereals. Therefore, the development of sensitive and efficient detection methods for DON is essential to guarantee food safety and human health. In this study, an enzyme cascade amplification-based immunoassay (ECAIA) using a dual-functional alkaline phosphatase-linked single-chain fragment variable fusion tracer (scFv-ALP) and MnO2 nanosheets was established for DON detection. The scFv-ALP effectively catalyzes the hydrolysis of ascorbyl-2-phosphate (AAP) to produce ascorbic acid (AA). This AA subsequently interacts with MnO2 nanosheets to initiate a redox reaction that results in the loss of oxidizing properties of MnO2. In the absence of ALP, MnO2 nanosheets can oxidize 3,3′,5,5′-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) to produce the blue oxidized product of TMB, which exhibits a signal at a wavelength of 650 nm for quantitative analysis. After optimization, the ECAIA had a limit of detection of 0.45 ng/mL and a linear range of 1.2–35.41 ng/mL. The ECAIA exhibited good accuracy in recovery experiments and high selectivity for DON. Moreover, the detection results of the actual corn samples correlated well with those from high-performance liquid chromatography. Overall, the proposed ECAIA based on the scFv-ALP and MnO2 nanosheets was demonstrated as a reliable tool for the detection of DON in corn samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Co‐contamination of mycotoxins produced by fungi in foodstuffs and feeds causes a tremendous health risk to humans and animals. The simultaneous detection of multiple mycotoxins using a cost‐effective and point‐of‐care technology is key to ensuring food safety. In this study, a disposable biosensor with two individual sensing channels is prepared on an affordable cellulose paper substrate and used to simultaneously detect fumatoxin B1 (FB1) and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). The biosensor pattern is outlined by polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and the hydrophobic interface of the sensing channels is created using octadecyltrichlorosilane (OTS). Semiconducting single‐wall carbon nanotubes (s‐SWCNTs) are deposited onto the central zones to serve as the sensing elements and SWCNTs are deposited into the bilateral areas as wire. After functionalization of the s‐SWCNTs, anti‐FB1 and anti‐AFB1 are separately immobilized on the different sensing regions to capture the targeted mycotoxins. Under the optimal conditions, this developed s‐SWCNTs‐based biosensor array achieved a limit of detection (LOD) of 8.23 pg mL−1 for FB1 and 7.48 pg mL−1 for AFB1. As a demonstration, spiked corn samples are measured using this biosensor and recovery rates are not inferior to commercial enzyme‐linked immune sorbent assay (ELISA) kits. Overall, the cost‐effective, highly sensitive, and multiplexed biosensor platform fabricated by this approach shows great potential for detecting multiple mycotoxins.

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a secondary metabolite of Fusarium fungi and belonged to trichothecenes, and it widely presents in various food commodities. Previous studies have highlighted its potent toxicity, adversely affecting the growth, development, and reproductive in both humans and animals. However, the potential impact of DON on porcine oocyte organelles remains elusive. In present study, we delved into the toxic effects of DON on mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi during the porcine oocyte maturation. Our findings revealed that DON exposure significantly impeded granulosa cell diffusion and the expulsion of the first polar body. Additionally, mitochondrial fluorescence intensity and membrane potential underwent notable alterations under DON exposure. Notably, lysosomal fluorescence intensity decreased significantly, suggesting protein degradation and potential autophagy, which was further corroborated by the enhanced fluorescence intensity of LC3. Furthermore, endoplasmic reticulum fluorescence intensity declined, and DON exposure elevated endoplasmic reticulum stress levels, evident from the upregulated expression of GRP78. Concurrently, we observed disruption in the fusiform cortex distribution of the Golgi apparatus, characterized by reduced Golgi apparatus fluorescence intensity and GM130 expression. Collectively, our results indicate that DON exposure profoundly affects the fundamental functions of porcine oocyte organelles during meiosis and maturation.

ABSTRACT This study investigated the occurrence of mycotoxins in wet brewers’ grains (WBG) treated with salt (sodium chloride) and the intake, nutrient digestibility, and nitrogen use efficiency in lamb diets. Two experiments were conducted: first, WBG was distributed in plastic boxes and treated with no additive (control), sodium formate (3 g/kg of WBG), or three levels of salt—25, 30, and 35 g/kg of WBG. The WBG were stored at room temperature (17.7±4.6 ℃) for 27 days. In the second experiment, eight six-month-old male lambs were allotted to one of four total mixed ration (TMR) diets in a 4 × 4 double Latin square: 0, 10, 20, and 30% of WBG replacing corn silage and soybean meal. In the first experiment, the concentration of mycotoxins throughout the experiment was lower than the tolerance levels accepted by the European Community and Food and Drug Administration for animal feedstuffs. However, the control and sodium formate groups showed visual fungal development on the WBG surface from the sixth day and presented an unpleasant smell from day 12. In the salt treatments, fungal growth was observed on top of the WBG from day 12 and an unpleasant smell from day 15. Salt-treated WBG showed a lower pH than the control and sodium formate groups and decreased dry matter deterioration. In the second experiment, including up to 30% WBG in the TMR did not affect dry matter, organic matter, neutral detergent fiber, and acid detergent fiber intake or digestibility in lambs. However, the N digestibility and N use efficiency increased with WBG inclusion. These results suggest that salt can be used to increase the storage time of WBG up to 15 days and the inclusion of up to 30% WBG in TMR for lambs can improve N use efficiency without negatively affecting nutrient intake and digestibility.

ABSTRACT: Notoginseng Radix et Rhizoma (Sanqi in Chinese) is a precious traditional Chinese herbal medicine. It has the effect of dispersing blood stasis and stopping bleeding, reducing swelling and fixing pain. However, it tends to contaminate with harmful fungi during storage, which may make it much less effective. In order to understand the fungal contamination of Notoginseng Radix et Rhizoma and master its composition of the exogenous fungi. The surface fungi of Notoginseng Radix et Rhizoma samples collected from six Chinese provinces and districts were investigated by using dilution plate method. Detection of aflatoxins by UPLC-MS/MS. The results showed that Penicillium citrinum was dominantly isolated from Notoginseng Radix et Rhizoma samples from No.1 to No.4. Aspergillus flavus, which produces aflatoxin, was dominantly isolated from Notoginseng Radix et Rhizoma samples from No.5 and No.6. In addition, kinds of mycotoxin were assayed which were produced by three of those identified A. flavus. All three fungi strains produced aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and one strain HBSQ1-5 additionally produced other three kinds of mycotoxin, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2. It is the results implied that it will be very important to take serious cautions when using Notoginseng Radix et Rhizoma. As well as, understanding the composition of the exogenous fungi of Notoginseng Radix et Rhizoma and the strains of toxin-producing fungi, which can play an important role in guiding the storage of Notoginseng Radix et Rhizoma..

Background and Aim: Mycotoxins such as aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A (OTA) are secondary metabolites in molds that grow in raw materials or commercial feed. This interaction has a synergistic effect on mortality, body weight, feed intake, embryo abnormalities, egg production, and lymphoid organ atrophy. This study was conducted to determine the effect of a mycotoxin detoxifier on the blood profile of broilers that were given feed contaminated with mycotoxin, such as the number of heterophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH), and MCH concentration (MCHC). Materials and Methods: A total of 20 day-old chicks (DOC) of Cobb broilers were given four treatments with five replicates. The number of chickens used in this research was determined using statistical calculations, and the data obtained was homogeneous so that the population was represented. Treatments included negative control with basal feed (C-), positive control with mycotoxins contamination (C+), treatment 1: Mycotoxins contamination and mycotoxin detoxification 1.1 g/kg (T1), and treatment 2: Mycotoxins contamination and mycotoxin detoxification 1.6 g/kg (T2). Mycotoxin contamination comprised 0.1 mg/kg aflatoxin B1 and 0.1 mg/kg OTA. The treatment period for chickens was 28 days, from 8 to 35 days. A battery cage was used in this study. Chickens were kept in a closed, ventilated room and the room temperature (27°C) was monitored during the treatment period. Results: Based on the results of statistical data processing, a significant difference (p < 0.05) was observed between chickens fed mycotoxin-contaminated feed (C+) and chickens not fed mycotoxin-contaminated feed (C-) and chickens given 1.6 g/kg mycotoxin detoxification (T2). Mycotoxin detoxification at a dose of 1.6 g/kg had a significant (p < 0.05) effect on the heterophil, lymphocyte, and heterophil lymphocyte ratio, leukocyte, erythrocyte, and hemoglobin levels of the blood broiler in this experiment. On other parameters such as monocytes, MCH, and MCHC, treatment 2 at dose 1.6 g/kg was the best treatment, although there was no significant effect with C- and T1. Conclusion: The administration of mycotoxin detoxifiers at a dose of 1.6 g/kg increased the number of heterophils and the ratio of heterophil lymphocytes, leukocytes, erythrocytes, and hemoglobin in broilers fed mycotoxin-contaminated feed.

The productivity of domestic animals and the safety of food products derived from them are jeopardised by mycotoxins in animal feed. To control them, feed additives are used, which limit the absorption of mycotoxins in the gastrointestinal tract of animals by binding to them. The study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of a new in vitro model in experiments on the binding of mycotoxins from buffers and contaminated feed and to confirm the effect of a single sorbent or mixture in binding them.

ObjectiveThe concentration of enniatins （ENNs） in wheat flour from Gansu Province in 2022 was investigated.MethodsTotally 80 wheat flour samples were collected from 15 cities in the Gansu Province. The samples were statistic with national handbook for monitoring food contamination and hazardous factors. The data were analyzed by correlation analysis.ResultsThe detection rates of four toxins in wheat flour sold in Gansu Province were ENNB13.75% （11/80，13.75%），ENNB1 （9/80，11.25%）， ENNA and ENNA1（6/80，7.50%）. Non of ENNs was detected in the wheat flour samples from Wuwei， Baiyin and Dingxi in Gansu Province， and at least one ENNs was detected in the other 12 regions.ConclusionFour kinds of ENNs were detected in wheat flour in Gansu Province， but the contents were lower than that reported all of the world， which proved that the pollution degree of ENNs in wheat flour sold in Gansu Province was low.

Fusarium head blight (FHB) is a major disease affecting wheat production worldwide, caused by multiple Fusarium species. In this study, seven Fusarium strains were isolated from wheat fields across the Western Cape region of South Africa and identified through phylogenetic analysis. The strains were classified into three species complexes: the Fusarium graminearum species complex (FGSC), Fusarium incarnatum-equiseti species complex (FIESC), and Fusarium tricinctum species complex (FTSC). Disease severity was highest in the South coast regions of Swellendam (42.73%) and Caledon (38.00%), with the dough stage of wheat development showing the highest disease rate (0.3 in Swellendam and Caledon). The phylogenetic analysis showed distinct clustering of these isolates with known species from the NCBI database, confirming their classification. F. ipomoeae was uniquely found in Swellendam and Caledon, while F. tricinctum occurred only in Klipheuwel and Caledon, highlighting geographical variation in species distribution. Mycotoxin profiling revealed that F. culmorum and F. pseudograminearum produced zearalenone, F. culmorum and F. tricinctum produced 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (15-ADON), while F. pseudograminearum produced nivalenol (NIV). These findings provide significant insights into the distribution of Fusarium species and their associated trichothecene chemotypes in the Western Cape, which is crucial for developing effective FHB management strategies and ensuring food security and safety.

Mycotoxins are potent fungal toxins that frequently contaminate agricultural crops and foods. Mycotoxin exposure is frequently reported in humans, and children are known to be particularly at risk of exceeding safe levels of exposure. Urinary biomonitoring is used to assess overall dietary exposure to multiple mycotoxins. This study aims to quantify multi-mycotoxin exposure in UK children and to identify major food groups contributing to exposure. Four repeat urine samples were collected from 29 children (13 boys and 16 girls, aged 2.4–6.8 years), and food diaries were recorded to assess their exposure to eleven mycotoxins. Urine samples (n = 114) were hydrolysed with β-glucuronidase, enriched through immunoaffinity columns and analysed by LC-MS/MS for deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol (NIV), T-2/HT-2 toxins, zearalenone (ZEN), ochratoxin A (OTA) and aflatoxins. Food diaries were analysed using WinDiet software, and the daily intake of high-risk foods for mycotoxin contamination summarised. The most prevalent mycotoxins found in urine samples were DON (95.6% of all samples), OTA (88.6%), HT-2 toxin (53.5%), ZEN (48.2%) and NIV (26.3%). Intake of total cereal-based foods was strongly positively associated with urinary levels of DON and T-2/HT-2 and oat intake with urinary T-2/HT-2. Average daily mycotoxin excretion ranged from 12.10 µg/d (DON) to 0.03 µg/d (OTA), and co-exposure to three or more mycotoxins was found in 66% of samples. Comparing mycotoxin intake estimates to tolerable daily intakes (TDI) demonstrates frequent TDI exceedances (DON 34.2% of all samples, T-2/HT-2 14.9%, NIV 4.4% and ZEN 5.2%). OTA was frequently detected at low levels. When mean daily OTA intake was compared to the reference value for non-neoplastic lesions, the resulting Margin of Exposure (MoE) of 65 was narrow, indicating a health concern. In conclusion, this study demonstrates frequent exposure of UK children to multiple mycotoxins at levels high enough to pose a health concern if exposure is continuous. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mycotoxins, toxic secondary metabolites produced by certain fungi, pose significant threats to global food safety and public health. These compounds can contaminate a variety of crops, leading to economic losses and health risks to both humans and animals. Traditional lab analysis methods for mycotoxin detection can be time-consuming and may not always be suitable for large-scale screenings. However, in recent years, machine learning (ML) methods have gained popularity for use in the detection of mycotoxins and in the food safety industry in general due to their accurate and timely predictions. We provide a systematic review on some of the recent ML applications for detecting/predicting the presence of mycotoxin on a variety of food ingredients, highlighting their advantages, challenges, and potential for future advancements. We address the need for reproducibility and transparency in ML research through open access to data and code. An observation from our findings is the frequent lack of detailed reporting on hyperparameters in many studies and a lack of open source code, which raises concerns about the reproducibility and optimisation of the ML models used. The findings reveal that while the majority of studies predominantly utilised neural networks for mycotoxin detection, there was a notable diversity in the types of neural network architectures employed, with convolutional neural networks being the most popular. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foodborne diseases can be attributed not only to contamination with bacterial or fungal pathogens but also their associated toxins. Thus, to maintain food safety, innovative decontamination techniques for toxins are required. We previously demonstrated that an atmospheric-pressure dielectric-barrier discharge (APDBD) plasma generated by a roller conveyer plasma device is effective at inactivating bacteria and fungi in foods. Here, we have further examined whether the roller conveyer plasma device can be used to degrade toxins produced by foodborne bacterial pathogens, including aflatoxin, Shiga toxins (Stx1 and Stx2), enterotoxin B and cereulide. Each toxin was spotted onto an aluminum plate, allowed to dry, and then treated with APDBD plasma applied by the roller conveyer plasma device for different time periods. Assessments were conducted using a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The results demonstrate a significant time-dependent decrease in the levels of these toxins. ELISA showed that aflatoxin B1 concentrations were reduced from 308.6 µg/mL to 74.4 µg/mL within 1 min. For Shiga toxins, Stx1 decreased from 913.8 µg/mL to 65.1 µg/mL, and Stx2 from 2309.0 µg/mL to 187.6 µg/mL within the same time frame (1 min). Enterotoxin B levels dropped from 62.67 µg/mL to 1.74 µg/mL at 15 min, and 1.43 µg/mL at 30 min, but did not display a significant decrease within 5 min. LC-MS/MS analysis verified that cereulide was reduced to below the detection limit following 30 min of APDBD plasma treatment. Taken together, these findings highlight that a range of foodborne toxins can be degraded by a relatively short exposure to plasma generated by an APDBD using a roller conveyer device. This technology offers promising advancements in food safety, providing a novel method to alleviate toxin contamination in the food processing industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alternaria is an important toxigenic fungal genus endangering the quality of cereal grains. No data are available in the literature regarding the composition of Alternaria species in wheat from the main wheat‐cultivating regions of China. In this study, a total of 282 strains were isolated from wheat kernels collected in various provinces. Phylogenetic characterization was performed using two informative loci, ASA10 and ASA19, demonstrating that all strains belonged to A. alternata. A low molecular diversity was observed, which did not appear to be influenced by geographic origin. The secondary metabolite profile of the strains was evaluated in rice culture. Altertoxin I was synthesized at a high concentration by the majority of the strains, while the accumulation of altenuene was lower in both frequency and level than that of alternariol and its derivative. A. alternata did not cause readily observable symptoms on wheat spikes after spraying of the conidia at anthesis, but a higher quantity of altertoxin I and Alternaria DNA were detected in inoculated grains. Artificial inoculations of apple fruit showed that all examined strains were capable of causing typical rot symptoms and producing all four toxins to a certain degree. The widespread occurrence of A. alternata on wheat grains and its ability to synthesize various toxic metabolites may pose a serious hazard for both growers and consumers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alternaria alternata, as a main decay fungus of goji berry, can produce mycotoxins such as alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), and tenuazonic acid (TeA). Carvacrol (CVR) has exhibited a broad-spectrum antifungal activity in vitro. We assumed that CVR can also be applied to control Alternaria rot on goji berries and mycotoxins produced by the pathogens. To investigate whether CVR impacts the accumulation of mycotoxins and cell membrane damage of A. alternata, the antifungal activity of CVR on the fungal growth and mycotoxin production was evaluated in this study. The results showed that the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of CVR against A. alternata was 0.12 µL/mL. Meanwhile, the destruction of plasma membrane integrity, cytoplasmic leakage, intracellular oxidative damage, and inhibitory effect in vivo were also observed in A. alternata treated with CVR. Moreover, CVR significantly reduced the accumulation of AOH, AME, and TeA. Transcriptomic profiling was performed by means of comparative RNA-Seq analysis to research the gene expression level of A. alternata, which attested to significant changes in nitrogen metabolism, carbon utilization, fatty acid oxidation, and antioxidant enzymes in CVR-treated A. alternata. This study suggests a new understanding of the molecular mechanism of response to CVR treatment in A. alternata, indicating that CVR is a novel antifungal agent with the potential to be applied to various fungi. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, bacteria residing in the gut of the rice weevils (Sitophilus oryzae L.) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) feeding on aflatoxin-contaminated corn kernels were isolated and evaluated for their ability to suppress Aspergillus flavus and to remove/degrade aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). Four morphologically distinct S. oryzae gut-associated bacterial isolates were isolated and identified as Bacillus subtilis (RWGB1), Bacillus oceanisediminis (RWGB2), Bacillus firmus (RWGB3), and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (RWGB4) based on 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis. These bacterial isolates inhibited A. flavus growth in the dual culture assay and induced morphological deformities in the fungal hyphae, as confirmed by scanning electron microscopy. All four bacterial isolates were capable of removing AFB1 from the nutrient broth medium. In addition, culture supernatants of these bacterial isolates degraded AFB1, and the degradation of toxin molecules was confirmed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. The bacterial isolates, B. subtilis RWGB1, B. oceanisediminis RWGB2, and P. aeruginosa RWGB4, were capable of producing antifungal volatile organic compounds that inhibited A. flavus growth. These results suggest that the bacterial isolates from S. oryzae gut have the potential to bind and/or degrade AFB1. Further research on their application in the food and feed industries could enhance the safety of food and feed production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Maize (Zea mays L.) is an important staple food due to its good nutritional profile. Unfortunately, maize can be vulnerable to contamination by fungi, which are capable of producing mycotoxins that have an impact on human and animal health, crop productivity and lead to economic losses. In addition, the ubiquitous presence of mycotoxin-producing fungi in maize poses significant challenges to food safety and economic stability. Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by certain fungi, which, when ingested by humans or animals through contaminated maize products can lead to a variety of health issues. There is a shift of nonpathogenic microbes to pathogenic state due to unfavourable conditions arising. The aim of this study was to characterize and identify fungi that have the potential to produce mycotoxins isolated from maize husks. The study identified Fusaria sp., Aspergillus and Penicillium sp. as target species since they are often regarded as primary mycotoxin producing fungi, which often contaminates the maize plants. Ten (n=10) healthy (disease-free) and mature maize samples were obtained, and a total of 200 maize husk segments were utilized to isolate eighty-four (n=84) endophytic fungi. Preliminary identification was conducted using macroscopic and microscopic characteristics. Molecular processes using the Internal transcribed spacer region (ITS1 and ITS4) were used for PCR amplification as a confirmatory test. A total of 13 isolates were identified by macroscopic and microscopic characterization based on morphological features and their identification was confirmed using molecular techniques. Fusaria sp. were found to be predominant (46%), followed by Aspergillus sp. (39%) and Penicillium sp. (15%). The findings suggest a community of mycotoxin producing fungi inhibited within the maize husks. Under unfavourable conditions, these fungi might be the source of contamination and produce mycotoxins. In the face of changing environmental conditions and evolving fungal threats, our research serves as a valuable resource for understanding and addressing the challenges posed by mycotoxin contamination in maize. Effective strategies and interventions are essential to mitigate the impact of these fungi on food security, human health, and the global maize industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mycotoxins are a class of exogenous metabolites that are major contributors to foodborne diseases and pose a potential threat to human health. However, little attention has been paid to trace mycotoxin co-exposure situations in vivo. To address this, we devised a novel analytical strategy, both highly sensitive and comprehensive, for quantifying 67 mycotoxins in human plasma samples. This method employs isotope dilution mass spectrometry (IDMS) for approximately 40% of the analytes and utilizes internal standard quantification for the rest. The mycotoxins were classified into three categories according to their physicochemical properties, facilitating the optimization of extraction and detection parameters to improve analytical performance. The lowest limits of detection and quantitation were 0.001–0.5 μg/L and 0.002–1 μg/L, respectively, the intra-day precision ranged from 1.8% to 11.9% RSD, and the intra-day trueness ranged from 82.7–116.6% for all mycotoxins except Ecl, DH-LYS, PCA, and EnA (66.4–129.8%), showing good analytical performance of the method for biomonitoring. A total of 40 mycotoxins (including 24 emerging mycotoxins) were detected in 184 plasma samples (89 from infertile males and 95 from healthy males) using the proposed method, emphasizing the widespread exposure of humans to both traditional and emerging mycotoxins. The most frequently detected mycotoxins were ochratoxin A, ochratoxin B, enniatin B, and citrinin. The incidence of exposure to multiple mycotoxins was significantly higher in infertile males than in healthy subjects, particularly levels of ochratoxin A, ochratoxin B, and citrinin, which were significantly increased. It is necessary to carry out more extensive biological monitoring to provide data support for further study of the relationship between mycotoxins and male infertility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a mycotoxin that widely distributes in various foods and seriously threatens food safety. To minimize the consumers' dietary exposure to DON, there is an urgent demand for developing rapid and sensitive detection methods for DON in food. In this study, a bifunctional single-chain variable fragment (scFv) linked alkaline phosphatase (ALP) fusion protein was developed for rapid and sensitive detection of deoxynivalenol (DON). The scFv gene was chemically synthesized and cloned into the expression vector pET25b containing the ALP gene by homologous recombination. The prokaryotic expression, purification, and activity analysis of fusion proteins (scFv-ALP and ALP-scFv) were well characterized and performed. The interactions between scFv and DON were investigated by computer-assisted simulation, which included hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions, and van der Waals forces. The scFv-ALP which showed better bifunctional activity was selected for developing a direct competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (dc-ELISA) for DON in cereals. The dc-ELISA takes 90 min for one test and exhibits a half inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 11.72 ng/mL, of which the IC50 was 3.08-fold lower than that of the scFv-based dc-ELISA. The developed method showed high selectivity for DON, and good accuracy was obtained from the spike experiments. Furthermore, the detection results of actual cereal samples analyzed by the method correlated well with that determined by high-performance liquid chromatography (R2=0.97165). These results indicated that the scFv-ALP is a promising bifunctional probe for developing the one-step colorimetric immunoassay, providing a new strategy for rapid and sensitive detection of DON in cereals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fluorescence induced by the excitation of a fluorophore with plane-polarized light has a different polarization depending on the size of the fluorophore-containing reagent and the rate of its rotation. Based on this effect, many analytical systems have been implemented in which an analyte contained in a sample and labeled with a fluorophore (usually fluorescein) competes to bind to antibodies. Replacing antibodies in such assays with aptamers, low-cost and stable oligonucleotide receptors, is complicated because binding a fluorophore to them causes a less significant change in the polarization of emissions. This work proposes and characterizes the compounds of the reaction medium that improve analyte binding and reduce the mobility of the aptamer–fluorophore complex, providing a higher analytical signal and a lower detection limit. This study was conducted on aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), a ubiquitous toxicant contaminating foods of plant origins. Eight aptamers specific to AFB1 with the same binding site and different regions stabilizing their structures were compared for affinity, based on which the aptamer with 38 nucleotides in length was selected. The polymers that interact reversibly with oligonucleotides, such as poly-L-lysine and polyethylene glycol, were tested. It was found that they provide the desired reduction in the depolarization of emitted light as well as high concentrations of magnesium cations. In the selected optimal medium, AFB1 detection reached a limit of 1 ng/mL, which was 12 times lower than in the tris buffer commonly used for anti-AFB1 aptamers. The assay time was 30 min. This method is suitable for controlling almond samples according to the maximum permissible levels of their contamination by AFB1. The proposed approach could be applied to improve other aptamer-based analytical systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Attapulgite is a naturally available hydrated magnesium‐aluminum silicate mineral with onedimensional nanorod-like morphology, regular nanochannels, permanent structural negative charges and surface active groups. As a functional feed raw material, attapulgite can improve feed mechanical strength and animal breeding environment, adsorb mycotoxins and heavy metal ions, promote intestinal health, and enhance animal production performance. After being modified, attapulgite is endowed with functions of antioxidation, broad-spectrum antibacterial activity, etc. to be served as an alternative to antibiotics. Focusing on the high-value application of attapulgite in healthy animal husbandry, this article reviews the latest research progress of attapulgite in mycotoxin adsorbent, antibacterial material, feed binder and environmental purification material, and the outlook on the future research focus is proposed. It is expected to promote the efficient applications of attapulgite in animal production and provide new ideas for healthy and safe animal breeding in Chination and provide new ideas for healthy and safe animal breeding in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Herbal medicines are widely used for clinical purposes worldwide. These herbs are susceptible to phytopathogenic fungal invasion during the culturing, harvesting, storage, and processing stages. The threat of fungal and mycotoxin contamination requires the evaluation of the health risks associated with these herbal medicines. In this study, we collected 138 samples of 23 commonly used herbs from 20 regions in China, from which we isolated a total of 200 phytopathogenic fungi. Through morphological observation and ITS sequencing, 173 fungal isolates were identified and classified into 24 genera, of which the predominant genera were Fusarium (27.74%) and Alternaria (20.81%), followed by Epicoccum (11.56%), Nigrospora (7.51%), and Trichocladium (6.84%). Quantitative analysis of the abundance of both Fusarium and Alternaria in herbal medicines via RT-qPCR revealed that the most abundant fungi were found on the herb Taraxacum mongolicum, reaching 300,000 copies/μL for Fusarium and 700 copies/μL for Alternaria. The in vitro mycotoxin productivities of the isolated Fusarium and Alternaria strains were evaluated by using liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), and it was found that the Fusarium species mainly produced the acetyl forms of deoxynivalenol, while Alternaria species mainly produced altertoxins. These findings revealed widely distributed fungal contamination in herbal medicines and thus raise concerns for the sake of the quality and safety of herbal medicines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mealworm Tenebrio molitor L. (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) feeds on wheat bran and is considered both a pest and an edible insect. Its larvae contain proteins and essential amino acids, fats, and minerals, making them suitable for animal and human consumption. Zearalenone (ZEA) is the mycotoxin most commonly associated with Fusarium spp. It is found in cereals and cereal products, so their consumption is a major risk for mycotoxin contamination. One of the most important effects of ZEA is the induction of oxidative stress, which leads to physiological and behavioral changes. This study deals with the effects of high doses of ZEA (10 and 20 mg/kg) on survival, molting, growth, weight gain, activity of antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione S-transferase (GST), and locomotion of mealworm larvae. Both doses of ZEA were found to (i) have no effect on survival, (ii) increase molting frequency, SOD, and GST activity, and (iii) decrease body weight and locomotion, with more pronounced changes at 20 mg/kg. These results indicated the susceptibility of T. molitor larvae to high doses of ZEA in feed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of high concentration-short time (HCST) and low concentration-long time (LCLT) gaseous ozone treatments on growth and aflatoxin B1 production of Aspergillus flavus in semi-dried red pepper are presented for the first time in this paper. Potato dextrose agar (PDA) media and peppers were inoculated with a toxigenic strain of A. flavus and exposed to either HCST (1500 μL L−1 for 1–8 h) or LCLT (0.1 μL L−1 for 8 d) ozone treatments. Both treatments significantly inhibited A. flavus growth in PDA and peppers (p < 0.05). In pepper samples, fungal count reductions obtained by HCST and LCLT ozone treatments were around 1.57 and 1.66 log, respectively. However, the inhibitory effect decreased in time which shows that the fungus rapidly develops a resistance to ozone. The amounts of aflatoxin B1 produced in PDA and pepper were also significantly reduced (by more than 85%) by the treatments (p < 0.05). These results demonstrate the potential of ozone treatments in preventing fungal contamination and aflatoxin production in red pepper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ustilaginoidea virens is a common rice pathogen that can easily lead to a decline in rice quality and the production of toxins pose potential risks to human health. In this review, we present a comprehensive literature review of research since the discovery of rice false smut. We provide a comprehensive and, at times, critical overview of the main results and findings from related research, and propose future research directions. Firstly, we delve into the interaction between U. virens and rice, including the regulation of transcription factors, the process of U. virens infecting rice panicles, and the plant immune response caused by rice infection. Following that, we discuss the identification and characterization of mycotoxins produced by the pathogenic fungus, as well as strategies for disease management. We emphasize the importance of comprehensive agricultural prevention and control methods for the sustainable management of U. virens. This knowledge will update our understanding of the interaction between U. virens and rice plants, offering a valuable perspective for those interested in U. virens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A unique luminescent lanthanide metal–organic framework (LnMOF)–based fluorescence detection platform was utilized to achieve sensitive detection of vomitoxin (VT) and oxytetracycline hydrochloride (OTC‐HCL) without the use of antibodies or biomolecular modifications. The sensor had a fluorescence quenching constant of 9.74 × 106 M−1 and a low detection limit of 0.68 nM for vomitoxin. Notably, this is the first example of a Tb‐MOF sensor for fluorescence detection of vomitoxin. We further investigated its response to two mycotoxins, aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A, and found that their Stern–Volmer fluorescence quenching constants were lower than those of VT. In addition, the fluorescence sensor realized sensitive detection of OTC‐HCL with a detection limit of 0.039 μM. In conclusion, the method has great potential as a sensitive and simple technique to detect VT and OTC‐HCL in water. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is the most toxic mycotoxin and is widespread in moldy feed. The use of biological removal methods to reduce AFB1 has become a research hotspot. This study aimed to isolate lactic acid bacteria (LAB) capable of removing AFB1 from moldy feeds and assessed the removal capacity under various environmental conditions. A strain named Lactobacillus brevis DN-1 was isolated from feed samples and showed 71.38% AFB1 percent removal. Furthermore, DN-1 showed good antifungal activity against Aspergillus flavus BNCC336156 and Aspergillus parasiticus BNCC335939. The optimum growth temperature and pH of DN-1 were 37 °C and 6.0, respectively, and DN-1 grew well in the concentration range of 0–20 µg/L AFB1. Under a temperature of 20–40 °C, pH of 3.0–9.0, and anaerobic conditions, the percent removal of AFB1 was more than 60%. An analysis of the different components of DN-1 showed that cell wall adsorption was the main removal method and suggested the pathway for AFB1 removal by LAB. In addition, strain DN-1 was used as a biological preservative in artificially contaminated peanut and sunflower cakes, which significantly inhibited the growth of mold and production of AFB1. In brief, this study highlights the potential use of DN-1 as a preventive agent against aflatoxicosis via strong removal capability in the application of fermented feed or food. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mycotoxins pose a major problem to poultry production as a result of feed contamination which has deleterious consequences such as production losses and human health risks. A total of 158 chicken feed samples were randomly collected from 46 consenting poultry farms in Oyo State throughout the wet season (April–October; 91 samples) and the dry season (November–March; 67 samples), including compounded feed (n = 129) and feed ingredients (n = 29). Samples were promptly transported to the laboratory in sterile plastic vials for lateral flow assay for mycotoxins using six different commercial mycotoxin test kits each for aflatoxin B1, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, ochratoxin A, fumonisin, and T-2 toxin/HT-2 toxin. Summary values of mycotoxin levels (µg/kg) in the feedstuffs were represented as frequency or median (and range). Fisher exact or Mann-Whitney U tests were carried out where appropriate at α = 0.05. Every sample contained at least four mycotoxins. Aflatoxins and fumonisin co-occurred in 80% of the samples. Aflatoxin and fumonisin concentrations were above the permissible limits in 32.9% and 18.4% respectively in feedstuff sampled in the dry season while the values were 17.1% and 6.3% respectively during the wet season. Among feed ingredients, peanut cake and maize had the highest median concentration of aflatoxin and fumonisin, respectively. Median aflatoxin concentration in the feedstuff was significantly higher than the permissible limit irrespective of season. There is a need to frequently monitor mycotoxin levels of feed and feed ingredients and improve storage system for feed ingredients in order to reduce the risk associated with high mycotoxin intake in poultry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mycotoxins are toxins produced by various types of fungi, including Fusarium, which can produce different types of mycotoxins, such as Deoxynivalenol (DON), Zearalenone, T-2 toxin, and Fumonisins (FUM). Mycotoxins have the potential to reduce the quality of crops and pose health risks to both humans and animals. This can result in reduced animal production and substantial economic consequences on a global scale. Extensive research has been carried out to investigate the high incidence of contamination in grains by Fusarium fungi. In this study, 80 samples of maize from silos of dairy farms in Fars province, Iran were collected and examined for fungal contamination by Fusarium and potential production of DON and FUM. For this purpose, identification using specific primers for different genes was carried out by polymerase chain reaction test and gel electrophoresis with agarose (1%). Among different counties, the silos in Kharameh with 47.05% and Jahrom with 46.15% had the highest contamination rates, and the lowest contamination rate belonged to Kazeroon with 27.27%. Out of the 30 positive samples contaminated by Fusarium, 21 produced FUM, 4 produced DON, and 5 produced both toxins. Fusarium species that contaminated the maize samples were also identified, including 13, 10, and 7 samples contaminated by F. proliferatum, F. verticillioides, and F. graminearum, respectively. As a conclusion, the findings of the study indicated that 37.5% of the corn samples from dairy farm silos in Fars province were contaminated with the Fusarium fungus, which had the potential to produce the toxic mycotoxins, deoxynivalenol, and fumonisins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mycotoxins, highly toxic and carcinogenic secondary metabolites produced by certain fungi, pose significant health risks as they contaminate food and feed products globally. Current mycotoxin detection methods have limitations in real-time detection capabilities. Aptasensors, incorporating aptamers as specific recognition elements, are crucial for mycotoxin detection due to their remarkable sensitivity and selectivity in identifying target mycotoxins. The sensitivity of aptasensors can be improved by using upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs). UCNPs consist of lanthanide ions in ceramic host, and their ladder-like energy levels at f-orbitals have unique photophysical properties, including converting low-energy photons to high-energy emissions by a series of complex processes and offering sharp, low-noise, and sensitive near-infrared to visible detection strategy to enhance the efficacy of aptasensors for novel mycotoxin detection. This article aims to review recent reports on the scope of the potential of UCNPs in mycotoxin detection, focusing on their integration with aptasensors to give readers clear insight. We briefly describe the upconversion photoluminescence (UCPL) mechanism and relevant energy transfer processes influencing UCNP design and optimization. Furthermore, recent studies and advancements in UCNP-based aptasensors will be reviewed. We then discuss the potential impact of UCNP-modified aptasensors on food safety and present an outlook on future directions and challenges in this field. This review article comprehensively explains the current state-of-the-art UCNP-based aptasensors for mycotoxin detection. It provides insights into potential applications by addressing technical and practical challenges for practical implementation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rice serves as a staple food across various continents worldwide. The rice plant faces significant threats from a range of fungal, bacterial, and viral pathogens. Among these, rice false smut disease (RFS) caused by Villosiclava virens is one of the devastating diseases in rice fields. This disease is widespread in major ricegrowing regions such as China, Pakistan, Bangladesh, India, and others, leading to significant losses in rice plantations. Various toxins are produced during the infection of this disease in rice plants, impacting the fertilization process as well. This review paper lightens the disease cycle, plant immunity, and infection process during RFS. Mycotoxin production in RFS affects rice plants in multiple ways, although the exact phenomena are still unknown. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this in vivo study was to investigate the effects of a novel mycotoxin detoxifier whose formulation includes clay (bentonite and sepiolite), phytogenic feed additives (curcumin and silymarin) and postbiotics (yeast products) on the health, performance and redox status of weaned piglets under the dietary challenge of fumonisins (FUMs). The study was conducted in duplicate in the course of two independent trials on two different farms. One hundred and fifty (150) weaned piglets per trial farm were allocated into two separate groups: (a) T1 (control group): 75 weaned piglets received FUM-contaminated feed and (b) T2 (experimental group): 75 weaned piglets received FUM-contaminated feed with the mycotoxin-detoxifying agent from the day of weaning (28 days) until 70 days of age. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARSs), protein carbonyls (CARBs) and the overall antioxidant capacity (TAC) were assessed in plasma as indicators of redox status at 45 and 70 days of age. Furthermore, mortality and performance parameters were recorded at 28, 45 and 70 days of age, while histopathological examination was performed at the end of the trial period (day 70). The results of the present study reveal the beneficial effects of supplementing a novel mycotoxin detoxifier in the diets of weaners, including improved redox status, potential hepatoprotective properties and enhanced growth performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drug discovery was initially attributed to coincidence or experimental research. Historically, the traditional approaches were complex, lengthy, and expensive, entailing costly random screening of synthesized compounds or natural products coupled with in vivo validation largely depending on the availability of appropriate animal models. Currently, in silico modeling has become a vital tool for drug discovery and repurposing. Molecular docking and dynamic simulations are being used to find the best match between a ligand and a molecule, an approach that could help predict the biomolecular interactions between the drug and the target host. Beauvericin (BEA) is an emerging mycotoxin produced by the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana, being originally studied for its potential use as a pesticide. BEA is now considered a molecule of interest for its possible use in diverse biotechnological applications in the pharmaceutical industry and medicine. In this manuscript, we provide an overview of the repurposing of BEA as a potential therapeutic agent for multiple diseases. Furthermore, considerable emphasis is given to the fundamental role of in silico techniques to (i) further investigate the activity spectrum of BEA, a secondary metabolite, and (ii) elucidate its mode of action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Fungal keratitis (FK) is a kind of infectious keratopathy with a high rate of blindness worldwide. Deoxynivalenol (DON) has been proven to have multiple toxic effects on humans and animals. Objectives: The aim of this study was to explore a possible pathogenic role of DON in FK. Methods: We first made an animal model of FK in New Zealand white rabbits, and then attempted to detect DON in a culture medium in which Fusarium solani had been grown and also in the corneal tissue of the animal model of Fusarium solani keratitis. Next, a model of DON damage in human corneal epithelial cells (HCECs) was constructed to evaluate effects of DON on the activity, migration ability, cell cycle, and apoptosis in the HCECs. Then, putative the toxic damaging effects of DON on rabbit corneal epithelial cells and the impact of the repair cycle were studied. The expression levels of inflammatory factors in the corneas of the animal model and in the model of DON-damaged HCECs were measured. Results: The Fusarium solani strain used in this study appeared to have the potential to produce DON, since DON was detected in the corneal tissue of rabbits which had been inoculated with this Fusarium solani strain. DON was found to alter the morphology of HCECs, to reduce the activity and to inhibit the proliferation and migration of HCECs. DON also induced the apoptosis and S-phase arrest of HCECs. In addition, DON was found to damage rabbit corneal epithelial cells, to prolong the corneal epithelial regeneration cycle, and to be associated with the upregulated expression of inflammatory factors in HCECs and rabbit corneas. Conclusions: DON appears to have a toxic damaging effect on HCECs in FK, and to induce the expression of inflammatory factors, leading to the exacerbation of keratitis and the formation of new blood vessels. Future studies will explore the possibility of developing a test to detect DON in ophthalmic settings to aid the rapid diagnosis of FK, and to develop DON neutralizers and adsorbents which have the potential to improve keratocyte status, inhibit apoptosis, and alleviate inflammation, therein providing new thinking for therapy of clinical FK. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The fungal plant pathogen Slafractonia leguminicola produces two mycotoxins that affect animals: slaframine, which causes slobbers, and swainsonine, which causes locoism. Slafractonia leguminicola contains the swainsonine-associated orthologous gene clusters, "SWN", which include a multifunctional swnK gene (NRPS-PKS hybrid), swnH1 and swnH2 (nonheme iron dioxygenase genes), swnN and swnR (reductase genes), and swnT (transmembrane transporter). In addition to these genes, two paralogs of swnK, swnK1 (paralog1) and swnk2 (paralog2), are found in S. leguminicola. cDNAs from total mRNA were isolated from the S. leguminicola mycelia grown in the culture plates as well as from leaves inoculated with the fungal mycelia at different time points, and expression pattern of the SWN genes were analyzed using RT-qPCR. The concentrations of swainsonine and slaframine production from this fungus at different time points were also examined using liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry. The timing of gene expression was similar in cultured fungus and inoculated leaves and agreed with our proposed biosynthetic pathway. Substantially more swainsonine was produced than slaframine during time course studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mycotoxins are toxic mycological products that when consumed, absorbed or inhaled cause sickness or even the death of humans. Therefore, the present study aimed to evaluate the contamination levels of mycotoxins (aflatoxins, AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2, and ochratoxin A, OTA) in selected medicinal herbs and shrubs using thin‐layer chromatography (TLC) and high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). A total of 15 samples of medicinal herbs and shrubs were selected. Among them, four samples were aflatoxin contaminated while two samples were ochratoxin A contaminated. The highest level of aflatoxin was detected in Justicia adhathoda (4,704.94 ppb) through HPLC (153.4 ppb) and through TLC, while the lowest level of aflatoxin was detected in Pegnum harmala (205.1 ppb) through HPLC. Similarly, the highest level of OTA was detected in Dodonia viscosa (0.53 ppb) through HPLC (0.5 ppb) and through TLC, while the lowest level was detected in J. adhathoda (O.11 ppb) through HPLC (0.4 ppb) and through TLC. The OTA concentration was very low, being negligible and below permissible limits. The present study concludes that there is a potential risk for the consumption of herbal decoctions. Therefore, regular monitoring and proper management of mycotoxins, including aflatoxins and OTA, in herbal medicines are needed to ensure the safety of herbal drugs to protect consumers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mycotoxins that contaminate grain can cause the devaluation of agricultural products and create health risks for the consumer. Fumonisins are one such mycotoxin. Produced primarily by Fusarium verticillioides (Hypocreales: Nectriaceae) (Nirenberg, 1976) on corn, fumonisins' economic impact can be significant by causing various diseases in livestock if contaminated corn is not monitored and removed from animal feed. Finding safe alternatives to the destruction and waste of contaminated grain and restoring its economic value is needed for a sustainable future. Safe reintroduction into the farm food web may be possible through a consumable intermediary such as insects. This study demonstrates the suitability of the house cricket, Acheta domesticus L. as an alternative protein source in domestic animal feed by quantifying fumonisin B1 (FB1) levels in their subsequent insect meal and frass. Small colonies of 2nd instar A. domesticus were reared to 5th instar adults on nutrient-optimized corn-based diets treated with 4 levels of FB1 from 0 to 20 ppm. Increasing levels of FB1 had no adverse effects on the survivorship or growth of A. domesticus. Insect meals prepared from A. domesticus had significantly lower levels of FB1, at 3%–5% of their respective diets, while frass did not differ significantly from their diet. The successful rearing to adulthood of A. domesticus on fumonisin-contaminated diet paired with lower levels of FB1 in their processed insect meal supports the idea that more sustainable agricultural practices can be developed through remediation of low-value mycotoxin-contaminated grain with safer, higher-value insects as livestock feed components. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The objective of this work was to investigate the influence of the reproductive stage of closed-flowering barley on Fusarium graminearum infection and to evaluate the efficacy of pre-inoculation fungicide application in controlling Fusarium head blight (FHB) and reducing grain contamination with the deoxynivalenol (DON) mycotoxin. Two experiments, in a completely randomized design with eight replicates, were conducted in a growth chamber at different temperatures. The statistical analysis was nonparametric, using the Kruskal-Wallis test. Potted plants of the BRS BRAU barley cultivar were inoculated by spraying a conidial suspension at the following three reproductive stages: anthesis halfway, grain at medium milk, and soft dough. The tebuconazole fungicide was sprayed 48 hours before pathogen inoculation. The FHB symptoms caused by the inoculation with F. graminearum at the medium milk stage are fully visible, although fungicide application before pathogen inoculation controls the disease, but mild at the anthesis halfway and soft dough stages. Inoculation at the three stages results in grain contamination with DON, which is reduced by pre-inoculation fungicide application.

Mycotoxins can be defined as toxic secondary metabolites that are formed and released by many fungal species, which widely exist in agricultural products and their by-products, resulting thus in a serious threat to human and animal health. In recent years, the removal of mycotoxins has been extensively investigated in the literature. This work mainly focuses on the research progress of the pollution characteristics, limit standards and removal technologies of mycotoxins. The research progress of fungus physical adsorption detoxification technology based on graphene, metal organic framework and magnetic nanomaterial adsorbent is systematically summarized, especially. The development of new types of functional nanomaterials with enhanced properties is undoubted of great importance for mycotoxin prevention applications by using physical adsorption technology.

Fusarium infection of wheat can lead to scab, mycotoxin contamination and yield reduction. Fusarium is a serious threat to food security. In this study, the Fusarium strains in wheat were isolated and identified. The three strains N1, N2 and N3 belonged to Fusarium graminearum, Fusarium asiaticum and Fusarium culmatum, respectively. The production of zearalenone, vomitoxin and fumonisin by the three strains was analyzed by toxin-producing gene detection and mycotoxin detection. The results showed that N1 and N3 could produce zearalenone and vomitoxin, but did not produce fumonisin, while N2 did not produce these three toxins. In this study, ozone and chlorine dioxide were further used for gas fumigation to explore the effect of gas fumigation on the three strains isolated. By observing the spore morphology, mycelium length and mycelium morphology, the results showed that chlorine dioxide fumigation could effectively inhibit the growth of mycelium and spore germination, while ozone could only inhibit spore germination and had no obvious inhibitory effect on the growth of mycelium.

Objectives: To update recent information on contamination levels of mycotoxins in South Korea. Materials and methods: A total of 208 samples sourced from the feeds of swine farms were collected. The contamination levels of mycotoxins, which are aflatoxin (Afla), ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), fumonisin (FUM), and T-2 toxin, were investigated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs). Results: The detection levels of the total samples were 78.91% for DON, 75.24% for Afla, 47.02% for ZEN, 68.31% for FUM, and 5.94% for OTA and T-2, which were not detected at all. Most of the analyzed mycotoxins showed significant high occurrences in 47.02%–78.91% of the swine feed samples. 11 of the 152 alfa-positive samples exceeded the maximum residue limit (MRL) of Afla proposed by the Korean regulation. In the analysis of mycotoxin detection levels by growth stage, ZEN was found in the nursery stage at a remarkably high concentration level (126.46 ± 63.76 ppb), exceeding the MRL of ZEN for piglets proposed by the European Commission. This mycotoxin was also found in the samples from the gestation barn (89.04 ± 46.05 ppb) and the farrowing house (105.58 ± 94.12) at a high concentration level. Afla was found in the nursery stage at a high concentration (8.00 ± 2.22 ppb), approaching the MRL (10 ppb) of Afla proposed by the Korean regulation. Conclusion: These results indicate that many swine farms in South Korea are still exposed to mycotoxin risk, and special attention and surveillance are necessary for these mycotoxin risks in swine farms. [J Adv Vet Anim Res 2024; 11(1.000): 125-131]

Fusarium is one of the most important plant pathogens in the world, affecting plant growth and development and posing a serious threat to global food security and biodiversity. Almost all Fusarium species produce fungal toxins, which are diverse and highly toxic. On the one hand, they can participate in the pathogenic process of Fusarium as one of the pathogenic factors, and on the other hand, they can contaminate food and feed, leading to related diseases in humans and animals. Previous studies have shown that different types of mycotoxins produced by Fusarium infection not only poison plant cells and cause necrosis of plant tissues, but also accelerate the infection of pathogenic fungi. At the same time, in response to the mycotoxins produced by pathogenic fungi, plants activate defense enzymes and initiate the expression of defense related genes, or convert the pathogenic factors into non-toxic or low toxic substances and transport them out of the cell, or directly inhibit the biosynthesis of pathogenic mycotoxins by secreting secondary metabolites. To comprehensively analyze the role of Fusarium mycotoxin in pathogen infection of plants and improve their resistance to pathogens, this article reviews the types, toxicity mechanisms, and roles of mycotoxins in the interaction between plants and pathogens in Fusarium. It also discusses the defense response strategies of plants to mycotoxins, with an aim to provide references for future research on the pathogenic mechanism and pathogen control strategies of Fusarium mycotoxins.

ObjectiveTo compare the levels of contamination of seven mycotoxins， including deoxynivalenol （DON）， zearalenone（ZEN）， fumonisin B1（FB1）， tenuazonic acid（TeA）， alternariol monomethvl ether（AME）， T-2 Toxin（T-2）， ochratoxin A（OTA） in organic and conventional wheat flour sold in Shanghai City， and analyze the cumulative contamination of Fusarium toxin， Alternaria toxin and OTA.MethodsSamples were extracted with acetonitrile， and the contents of the seven mycotoxins were detected using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The calibration curves for all mycotoxins were linear， with correlation coefficients above 0.99. The average recoveries of the spiked samples ranged from 80.13% to 122.86%， with relative standard deviations from 1.91% to 17.14%. This method is simple and rapid， with high accuracy and precision， and meets the requirements for mycotoxin analysis in flour.ResultsT-2 and FB1 were not detected in organic or conventional flours. The contamination levels of DON， ZEN， AME and OTA in organic flour were higher than those in conventional flour. The existence of at least two mycotoxins was observed in 97.5% of the flour samples， with DON+ZEN+OTA having the highest coexistence rate at 18.75%.ConclusionThe rate and level of mycotoxin contamination in organic wheat flour were higher than those in conventional wheat flour. The cumulative contamination of Fusarium toxins （DON， ZEN）， Alternaria toxins （TeA， AME） and OTA were also observed.

This study used Armillaria mellea 07-22 as the experimental strain to degrade zearalenone (ZEN) by fungal biological fermentation. The degradation effects of Armillaria mellea on ZEN were studied, including the degradation effects of different concentrations of ZEN by the strain and the effects of different culture time, culture temperature, initial pH value and inoculation amount on the degradation of ZEN by the strain. Then the degradation mechanism was explored, the degradation effects of mycelium, fermentation supernatant and cell contents on ZEN were analyzed, and the effects of different fermentation time, pH values, and metal ions on degradation of ZEN by fermentation supernatant were studied, and the correlation between degradation effect and laccase production activity of the strain was illustrated. The results showed that Armillaria mellea 07-22 had a good degradation effect on ZEN. When the ZEN concentration was 5 μg/mL, the optimal degradation conditions were culture time of 8 days, culture temperature of 27 ℃, initial pH of 7.0, and inoculation amount of 10%. At this time, the degradation rate of ZEN was 78.72%. The degradation rates of ZEN by mycelium, fermentation supernatant and cell contents were 47.42%, 37.05% and 13.08% respectively. The extracellular enzymes secreted by Am-07-22 were the main way to degrade ZEN, and the mycelium cells also had a certain adsorption effect on ZEN. In addition, the correlation between the degradation rate of ZEN by fermentation supernatant and laccase activity was 0.973, and Cu2+ had the best promoting effect on the degradation of ZEN by fermentation supernatant.

Mycotoxins are toxic, which can endanger health of animals and humans, causing a lot of economic losses to the food industry. Cold plasma is an emerging non-thermal technology featuring green and high efficiency, which can degrade mycotoxin in an effective way. To provide a theoretical reference for the application of cold plasma in the degradation of food mycotoxins, this paper first summarized the mycotoxins degradation mechanisms after cold plasma treatment. The key point is the structure of degradation products and possible degradation pathways of aflatoxin, deoxynivalenol, and zearalenone after cold plasma treatment under different discharge modes and treatment conditions. What’s more, the degradation effect of cold plasma on pure mycotoxins and mycotoxins on food matrix were reviewed. Finally, the safety and feasibility of cold plasma treatment was talked about from the perspective of toxicity, which was separated into structural, cellular and animal toxicity of the mycotoxin degradation products.