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This study was conducted during 2018 and 2019 seasons to determine the effect of foliar applications of both zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnONPs) at concentrations of 60, 120, 240 and 480 mgL -1 , and zinc chelated at 1.5 gL -1 as well as without zinc application (control) for seven-years old Flame Seedless grapevines. The chosen vines were trellised by Spanish Parron supporting system, grown in a clay loam soil, spaced at 2 x 3 meters apart, irrigated under surface irrigation system, and spur-pruned at the third week of Dec. According to the results which appear that foliar applications of ZnONPs or chelated zinc enhanced vegetative growth characteristics and quality of berries. On the other hand, the increasing ZnONPs up to 480 mgL -1 reducing the most mentioned characters compared with control or convential zinc source in both seasons. Eventually, foliar spraying of ZnONPs, at rate of 240mgL ‑1 gave the highest values of total gross return, net return and beneficial cost ratio. From results of the present study, it could be recommended the foliar application of ZnONPs for Flame Seedless grapevines to improving yield quantitatively and qualitatively, thus economic return.

This research was conducted during the 2018 and 2019 seasons on 9-year-old Washington navel orange trees budded on Sour orange rootstock planted 5 x 5 meters apart under the surface irrigation of a private orchard in Manzala Village, Toukh Area, Qalubia Governorate, Egypt. The five treatments used in this experiment is defined as follows: T1-100% of chemical NPK, T2 - 50% of chemical NPK + compost @ 2 ton /fed, T3 - 50% of chemical NPK + compost @ 2 tons/fed. + EM @ 20ml per tree, T4 – 50% of chemical NPK + compost @ 3 ton/fed and T5 - 50% of chemical NPK + compost @ 3 ton/fed + EM @ 20ml per tree. The main goal was directed towards increasing growth of Washington navel orange trees, and fruiting aspects associated with lower its production cost through investigating the minimizing of chemical NPK fertilizers by compost and EM. Data obtained showed that all the evaluated treatments increased the growth parameters as well as the total chlorophyll and nutritional status of the leaf were also positively responded, fruit set%, yield/tree and fruit quality were also improved. However, T1-100% of chemical NPK and T5- 50% of chemical NPK + compost @ 3 ton/fed. + EM @ 20ml per tree was statistically superior. Moreover, T4 - 50% of chemical NPK + compost @ 3 tons/fed ranked statistically second in this concern.

Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN) have an important potential in the biological control of agricultural soil pests. Efficacy and persistence of native EPN species from Turkey were investigated against Capnodis tenebrionis (L.) (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) larvae with different irrigation methods in a peach (Prunus persica L. Rosaceae) orchard for two years. Four native EPN species, Steinernema carpocapsae Weiser (Nematoda: Steinernematidae), S. feltiae Filipjev (Nematoda: Steinernematidae), S. affine Bovien (Nematoda: Steinernematidae) and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora Poinar (Nematoda: Heterorhabditidae), were applied to soil via drip irrigation, surface irrigation and soil injection methods to determine the mortalities of C. tenebrionis neonate larvae caused by these species naturally. In all applications, EPNs were applied as 50 IJs/cm2. Mortalities were calculated on the 1st, 3rd, 5th and 7th days of the experiment. The results of the study indicated that on the first day of surface irrigation, the highest mortality was found in H. bacteriophora with 87.5% and the lowest mortality was found in S. feltiae with 16.6% in 2018. In 2019, however, the highest mortality on the first day was from S. affine with 91% and the lowest was from both S. carpocapsae and S. feltiae with 33.3%. EPN persistence in soil was found to be 90 days in 2018, while it was 150 days in 2019. In all EPN treatments, 100% mortality was reached on the fifth day indicating all EPN treatments were highly effective. Based on the study results, it can be concluded that farmers might be able to control C. tenebrionis damage by using EPN in their regular irrigation calendar.

Management of plant nutrition using fertilizers is an approach to deal with drought and to increase water productivity in paddies. The aim of this study, therefore, was to investigate the effects of nitrogen and potassium fertilizers and drought stress on water use efficiency (WUE) and physiological traits of Gilaneh rice in split-plot experiments based on a randomized complete block design with three replications. Experimental treatments were irrigation intervals (flood irrigation and irrigation at 10 days) as the main factor and different levels of nitrogen (0, 60, and 120 kg ha−1) and potassium (0, 80 and 160 kg ha−1) fertilizers as a subfactor. Results showed that WUE and proline content increased by changing the moisture regime from flood irrigation to 10 days in all levels of fertilizers. The highest WUE (0.764 kg m−3) was observed in the treatment of N fertilizer of 60 kg ha−1 with 160 kg ha−1 of K fertilizer in the 10-day irrigation. The highest plant proline content (16.3 mg g−1 FW) was observed in 160 kg ha−1 of K fertilizer during 10-day irrigation. On the other hand, relative water content, chlorophyll a and b contents, carotenoids, maximum leaf area, and leaf area duration decreased with drought stress at all fertilizer levels. At the stress level, however, the application of fertilizers, in particular N fertilizer treatment, led to improvements in these traits. Given the scarcity of water resources in the country, therefore, WUE and other inputs can be improved in such strategic crops as rice with proper management of plant nutrition.

Aims The aims of this study were to: (i) estimate the effectiveness of ultraviolet radiation (UV) and sulphuric acid‐based fertilizer (SA), at reducing levels of generic Escherichia coli in surface irrigation water and on produce and surface soil in open produce fields; and (ii) describe the population dynamics of generic E. coli in produce fields. Methods and Results Spinach and cantaloupe plots were randomly assigned to control, UV or SA treatment groups. Irrigation water was inoculated with Rifampicin‐resistant E. coli prior to treatment. More than 75% of UV‐ and SA‐treated tank water samples had counts below the detection limit, compared to a mean count of 3·3 Log10 CFU per ml before treatment. Levels of Rifampicin‐resistant E. coli in soil and produce both increased and decreased over 10–15 days after irrigation, depending on the plot and time‐period. Conclusions UV and SA treatments effectively reduce the levels of E. coli in surface irrigation water. Their effectiveness at reducing contamination on produce was dependent on environmental conditions. Applying wait‐times after irrigation and prior to harvest is not a reliable means of mitigating against contaminated produce. Significance and Impact of the Study The results are of timely importance for the agricultural industry as new FSMA guidelines require producers to demonstrate a low microbial load in irrigation water or allow producers to apply a wait‐time to mitigate the risk of contaminated produce.

Two field experiments were conducted to determine the optimum irrigation method and drip fertigation rate in menthol mint during the spring of 2015 and 2016. Experiment I comprised combinations of four drip irrigation rates [60, 80, 100, and 120% of crop evapotranspiration (ETC)] and three fertigation rates [60, 80, and 100% of the recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF), i.e. 75 kg N and 40 kg P2O5 ha−1] with an additional control (furrow irrigation and soil application of RDF). Experiment II had a split-plot design, with three irrigation methods [sprinkler, drip, and furrow irrigated raised bed (FIRB)] used in main plots and four irrigation regimes [(120, 100, 80, and 60% of cumulative pan evaporation (CPE)] for drip and sprinkler methods while maintaining irrigation water (IW): CPE of 1.2, 1.0, 0.8, and 0.6 for FIRB in subplots. Drip irrigation at 120% ETc resulted in significantly higher fresh herb and oil yield than at 100, 80, and 60% ETc. While being statistically similar with each other, fertigation with 100 and 80% RDF recorded significantly higher oil yield than that with 60% RDF. Drip irrigation at 100 or 120% ETc and fertigation with 60, 80, and 100% RDF recorded significantly higher oil yield than the control treatment. Drip irrigation led to 51.4 and 135.0% higher oil yield than FIRB and sprinkler irrigation, respectively. Drip irrigation at 120% ETc with fertigation at 80% RDF resulted in 25.4% higher oil yield, 10.1% higher biophysical water productivity, 27.1% higher economic water productivity, and saving of 34.4% IW and 20% fertilisers than the control treatment.

Drip irrigation and fertigation, being advocated for higher crop and water productivity require optimization of irrigation and fertilization schedules. Field experiments were conducted during 2016–2018 to evaluate water and energy-efficient drip irrigation and fertigation schedules for higher productivity and profitability from oilseed rape. The treatments comprised of a combination of three levels of drip irrigation {60, 80 and 100% of cumulative pan-evaporation (CPE)} and three levels of fertigation {60, 80 and 100% recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF)} along with one absolute control (flood irrigation and soil application of RDF). The yields of crop under drip irrigation at 100 and 80% of CPE were statistically similar but significantly higher than irrigation at 60% of CPE. The irrigation use efficiency (IUE) and water use efficiency (WUE) were maximum at 80% of CPE followed by 100 and 60% of CPE. Drip irrigation at 80% of CPE resulted in 18% higher yield along with a water-saving of 35.4% than absolute control. Energy use efficiency (EUE) was higher at 100% of CPE followed by 80 and 60% of CPE. Whereas, energy productivity at 100 and 80% of CPE being statistically similar but significantly higher than 60% of CPE. Highest benefit: cost (B:C) ratio and net returns were obtained with drip irrigation at 100% of CPE and lowest at 60% of CPE. Fertigation at 100 and 80% RDF recorded significantly higher seed yield than 60% RDF and absolute control.

Soil water uptake is a function of root growth and distribution. Therefore, restrictions on root system growth may reduce water and nutrient uptake, which results in slower plant growth. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of different irrigation strategies, nitrogen application rates, and planting methods on the winter wheat root growth. The experimental factors included two irrigation strategies (variable alternate furrow irrigation defined as partial root-zone irrigation and ordinary furrow irrigation), two planting methods (in-furrow planting and on-ridge planting), and three nitrogen (N) application rates (0, 150, and 300 kg N ha−1) in 2015–2016 and 2016–2017 growing seasons. Results indicated that the in-furrow planting decreased mean root length density and root mass density (8% and 10%, respectively, in the fertilized treatments) compared to that obtained in the on-ridge planting. The partial root-zone irrigation reduced root length density by about 5% and 7% in the fertilized treatments compared to that obtained in full irrigation in the first and second year, respectively; however, these reductions were not statistically significant. Furthermore, the results implied that nitrogen fertilizer application increased root length density by 48% and 24% in the first and second year, respectively. Likely, root mass density increased by 32% and 5% in the first and second year, respectively. The exponential decaying relationship between root length density and soil depth indicated that the in-furrow planting with 300 kg N ha −1 produced the highest root density at the soil surface layer and reduced deep root penetration compared to the on-ridge planting and the other N treatments. Further analysis revealed that grain yield linearly correlated with root length density and root mass density in the first year. However, a polynomial (quadratic) relationship was obtained in the second year. Consequently, increasing the main root traits, including root length and root mass, enhanced winter wheat grain yield until it reached a threshold value. Higher values negatively affected grain yield, which might be due to allocating carbon to roots instead of grains.

In Pakistan, orchards are irrigated using flood irrigation system that is considered sub-economical regarding water use efficiency. Considering the importance of natural water resources, there was a need to devise the method of applying irrigation water that would save water consumption, environmentally friendly and easily adopted by the growers. Thus, a research trial was conducted at Citrus Research Institute, Sargodha, Pakistan on 0.41 ha area of Kinnow mandarin. The total area was divided into two parts, half of the area was used for furrow irrigation system and the remaining half was used for flood irrigation system. Tensiometers were installed in the soil in furrow and flood irrigation system to assess the moisture condition in the soil. Irrigations were applied when tensiometer readings reached 40 centibars. The quantity of water used for irrigation was measured with a flume meter and then percentage of water saving was calculated. The study revealed that furrow irrigation system significantly improved the number of fruits per tree (1153), fruit yield (179.89 kg per plant) and juice percentage (48.38%) compared with flood irrigation system where the number of fruits per tree were711, fruit yield was 110.61 kg per plant and juice percentage was 46.31%. However, TSS/acidity ratio, and peel and rag percentage were not affected by the different irrigation systems. In furrow irrigation system 24 irrigations were applied per year with average water saving of 46.14% and water use efficiency (WUE) was 4.58 kg m-3 whereas in flood irrigation system average numbers of irrigations were 15 per year and WUE was 2.34 kg m-3only. Therefore, furrow irrigation system is recommended for the citrus growers to improve the water use efficiency, yield and fruit quality of Kinnow mandarin.

Accurate estimation of irrigation return flow plays an important role in the effective management of groundwater, especially in arid and semiarid irrigation regions. However, there is a lack of sufficient research to clarify hydrological process dynamics associated with irrigation return flow. In this study, first, a two-dimensional/three-dimensional model, HYDRUS-2D/3D, was adopted to analyze two different irrigation types in the Delingha Depression, which is located at the northeastern margin of the Qaidam Basin, China. Then, a 3D saturated flow model was established. This study determined the effect of agricultural water application on the dynamics of irrigation return flow. A large difference in the irrigation return-flow coefficient (IRFC) was seen during the growing season; an IRFC of 0.3 was obtained using flood irrigation, whereas ditch irrigation resulted in an IRFC of only 0.1. The lag time of recharge was approximately 150 days. It was necessary to consider the lag time for the 3D numerical model to obtain satisfactory results. Flood irrigation led to a groundwater recharge rate of 90 mm/year. These results indicate that the lag time should be considered when groundwater recharge is estimated or modeled.

High water consumption and inefficient irrigation management in the agriculture sector of the middle and lower reaches of the Amu Darya River Basin (ADRB) have significantly influenced the gradual shrinking of the Aral Sea and its ecosystem. In this study, we investigated the crop water consumption in the growing seasons and the irrigation water requirement for different crop types in the lower ADRB during 2004–2017. We applied the FAO Penman-Monteith method to estimate reference evapotranspiration (ET0) based on daily climatic data collected from four meteorological stations. Crop evapotranspiration (ETc) of specific crop types was calculated by the crop coefficient. Then, we analyzed the net irrigation requirement (NIR) based on the effective precipitation with crop water requirements. The results indicated that the lowest monthly ET0 values in the lower ADRB were found in December (18.2 mm) and January (16.0 mm), and the highest monthly ET0 values were found in June and July, with similar values of 211.6 mm. The annual ETc reached to 887.2, 1002.1, and 492.0 mm for cotton, rice, and wheat, respectively. The average regional NIR ranged from 514.9 to 715.0 mm in the 10 Irrigation System Management Organizations (UISs) in the study area, while the total required irrigation volume for the whole region ranged from 4.2×109 to 11.6×109 m3 during 2004–2017. The percentages of NIR in SIW (surface irrigation water) ranged from 46.4% to 65.2% during the study period, with the exceptions of the drought years of 2008 and 2011, in which there was a significantly less runoff in the Amu Darya River. This study provides an overview for local water authorities to achieve optimal regional water allocation in the study area.

The nitrogen cycle is the basis for understanding nitrogen dynamics in soil fertility and ecosystem health. Nitrification and denitrification are key nitrogen cycle components that influence nitrogen uptake in food crops, thus critical to food security. Rice (Oryza sativa) is comparatively unique in that the nitrification-denitrification sequence is a perceived loss of available nitrogen for plant uptake and the production of nitrous oxide (N2O) has severe implications in climate change. This review focuses on recent research involving nitrification and denitrification, with an emphasis on rice. The review also focuses on the emerging irrigation strategies associated with furrow irrigation and alternating wetting-drying irrigation. With growing global interest in reducing irrigation water application, new research paradigms are emerging to perfect these reduced water applications systems to guarantee food security and farm profitability.

It is necessary to study Economic For Systems Of Field Irrigation the production of onion in Reclaimed Soils in Fayoum Governorate, The study has adopted a descriptive and quantitative statistical analysis method A sample of 210 farmers from new reclaimed farms in Fayoum governorate has been tested, The questionnaire has been collected during the agricultural season 2019/2020The findings of the study have indicated the relative importance of the production costs’ items of the onion crop and that the total irrigation costs are at the forefront of the variable production costs’ items and are estimated at 3297,3 pounds per feddan, at a rate of 30,2% of the variable costs in the drip irrigation system, Having studied the effect of using different irrigation systems on the production costs as well as the total revenue per feddan of the onion crop, it has been found that with respect to the cost of human work when using drip irrigation, the product achieves an estimated savings of about 410 pounds per feddan, at a rate of about 12,7%, As for the cost of the machine work, it has been found that using drip irrigation achieves for the product an estimated savings of about 72 pounds per feddan, at a rate of about 8,5%, With regard to the total revenue, it has been found that using drip irrigation achieves for the product an increase in total revenue estimated at 9973 pounds per feddan, at a rate of about 37,8%, Finally, concerning the net return, it has been found that the use of drip irrigation achieves for the product an increase in the net yield estimated at about 9155,7 pounds per feddan, at a rate of about 61,1%, compared to the flood irrigation system, The production functions have been estimated in their linear and double logarithmic image, Then the image that conforms to the economic logic has been chosen, through which it has been found that the most important factors affecting the Ibrahim et al. FJARD VOL. 35, NO. 1. PP.190-198 (2021)

A field experiment was conduct at Agronomy Research farm, Acharya Narendra Dev University of Agriculture and Technology, Kumarganj, Ayodhya, (U.P.) during Rabi season of two combined year of 2017-18 and 2018-19 with an objective of to find out the suitable wheat two varieties with moisture regime and different sowing method system. Eighteen treatment combination consisted of two wheat variety (PBW-343 and HUW-234) and three moisture regimes (irrigation at 0.8 IW/CPE, 1.0 IW/CPE ratio and irrigation at CRI late jointing and flowering stage allotted in main plots and three sowing methods system (Broad casting, seed drill and FRIB) in sub-plots. The experiment was conducted in split plot design (SPD) with 3 replication on silty loam soil having low organic carbon (0.33% and 0.32%) and available nitrogen (137.60 kg ha-1 and 136.82 kg ha-1) medium in phosphorus (15.20 kg ha-1 and 14.70 kg ha-1) and available potassium (249.30 kg ha-1 and 248.32 kg ha-1) and soil pH is high (8.30 and 8.20). The crop was show on November 25 in the first and second both years, respectively using a seed rate of 125 kg ha-1 with row sowing of 22.5 (cm) apart. The crop was harvest on April 17 and April 19 during 2018 and 2019 respectively. The growth parameters character like plant height (cm), dry matter accumulation (gm-2), LAI as well as attributing are spike length (cm), number of grain Spike-1, test weight (g) were found significantly high with variety PBW-343along with moisture regime 1.0 IW/CPE and wheat sown by FIRB (Furrow irrigation raised bed) method over rest of the treatments during both year. The biological yield were also followed the same trend as of growth and yield attributes during both the year. The highest gross income (₹ 125203.80 and 134785.75 ha-1), net return (₹ 91728.80 and 98485.75 ha-1) and benefit: cost ratio (2.74 and 2.71 ₹-1 invested) was obtained with the PBW-343 and Irrigation at 1.0 IW/CPE ratio along with furrow irrigated raised bed method during 2017-18 and 2018-19, respectively.

Soil salinization is a key problem limiting the sustainable development of agriculture in arid areas. To explore the quantitative influence of irrigation on soil salinity and groundwater quality, spatial variability of salt at different soil depths and total dissolved solids in groundwater before and after irrigation was analysed in the Hetao Irrigation District, China. The spatial variability of soil salinity before and after irrigation was moderate, with high coefficients of variation observed in shallow soil. After irrigation, amounts of salt were transferred into the groundwater, leading to the deterioration of groundwater quality, the average salt flux through each interface was −153.66, 169.12, 130.13 and 318.48 g/m2, for 20, 50, 100 and 150 cm soil depths, respectively. All salt moved downward vertically except for 0–20 cm soil layer, and the average soil salt flux of shallow layers was significantly lower than that of deep layers. Compared soils of different depths and land types, salt discharge occurred in cultivated land, while salt accumulation occurred in shallow soil in wasteland after irrigation. Irrigation could help remove salt from cultivated land and deeper soil; however, it had almost no effect on shallow soil of other land uses. HIGHLIGHTS There was a positive correlation between variations in soil moisture and salinity at the shallower depths.; Irrigation activities had more effect on the spatial variability of shallow soil but less on the salinity of deep soil.; The average salt storage showed that salt accumulation still existed in the shallower soil layer.; The ions Cl− and Na+ played the dominant role in the variation of soil salinity.

A field experiment was conducted at the experimental farm of Nubaria Agricultural Research Station, Agricultural Research Centre, Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation, El-Behiera Governorate, Egypt, during the two successive winter seasons of 2017/2018 and 2018/2019 to study the effect of three irrigation treatments (I1: three, I2: two, and I3: one irrigation after sowing irrigation) on the physiological response, productivity, amounts of applied irrigation water, water consumption, and productivity of irrigation waterof three faba bean varieties (Nubaria 3, Nubaria 1, and Giza 716). Results could be summarized as follows: - Deficit irrigation treatment (I3) significantly decreased leaves chlorophyll content, seed protein content, plant height (cm), number of branches/plant, number of pods/plant, number of seeds/plant, seed yield/plant, seed yield, relative water content (RWC), and transpiration rate (TR) in both seasons. While, proline content, total soluble carbohydrate of leaves and stomatal resistance were significantly increased. - Increasing irrigation water led to decrease in water use efficiency values. Maximum productivity of irrigation water (PIW) values were obtained from applying I3 irrigation treatment with Giza 716 variety. - Regarding the effect of varieties, Nubaria 3 recorded the highest values of protein percentage (%), total soluble carbohydrates, chlorophyll content, and RWC. However, the highest values for proline content, number of seeds/plant and seed yield (ardab/fed) were recorded from Nubaria 3 and Giza 716 varieties. The maximum values of stomatal resistance (SR) were recorded for Nubaria 3 followed by Giza 716, and Nubaria 1. An opposite trend was observed for transpiration rate (TR). - The interaction effects between irrigation treatments and varieties were found to be significant in all tested traits. Maximum values of protein of seeds content, plant height, no of pods/plant, no of seed/plant, and RWC were obtained when Nubaria 3 and Giza 716 varieties irrigated with three irrigations after sowing irrigation (I1). Nubaria 1 recorded the highest number of branches/plant under such treatment. The highest accumulation of total soluble carbohydrates and proline contents in leaves, the highest values of stomatal resistance and lowest transpiration rate recorded in Nubaria 1 variety under the dry treatment (I3). - In the light of the present study, the maximum faba bean yield and its components were obtained from Nubaria 3 and Giza 716 irrigated by treatment I1 (three irrigations after sowing irrigation) followed by medium treatment I2 (two irrigations after sowing irrigation) with insignificant difference. On the other hand, the maximum values of Productivity of irrigation water (PIW) were obtained from Giza 716 followed by Nubaria 3 under I2 (two irrigations after sowing irrigation) compared to Nubaria 1. However, sowing Nubaria 3 and Giza 716 varieties irrigated with two irrigations after sowing irrigation is recommended under calcareous soil conditions and surface irrigation system, while if irrigation water is the limiting factor for faba bean production, or if the farmer is facing water scarcity, we recommend sowing Nubaria 3 variety with only one irrigation, which gave an average seed yield 7.82 (ard/fad) (2.88 ton/hectare) for the two years, and saved about 412 m3 of irrigation water compared to three irrigations after sowing irrigation.

The hilly area of Southwest China is a typical rice production area which is limited by seasonal droughts and low temperature in the early rice growth period. A field experiment was conducted on three typical paddy fields (low-lying paddy field, medium-elevation paddy field, and upland paddy field) in this region. Nitrogen (N) treatment (180 kg N ha−1 year−1) was compared to a control treatment (0 kg N ha−1 year−1) to evaluate the effects of integrated rice management (IRM) on rice growth, grain yield, and N utilization. Integrated rice management integrated raised beds containing plastic mulch, furrow irrigation, and triangular transplanting. In comparison to traditional rice management (TRM), IRM promoted rice tiller development, with 7–13 more tillers per cluster at the maximum tillering stage and 1–6 more tillers per cluster at the end of tillering stage. Integrated rice management significantly increased the rice aboveground biomass by 34.4%–109.0% in different growth periods and the aboveground N uptake by 25.3%–159.0%. Number of productive tillers significantly increased by 33.0%, resulting in a 33.0% increase in grain yield and 8.0% improvement of N use efficiency (NUE). Grain yields were significantly increased in all three paddy fields assessed, with IRM being the most important factor for grain yield and productive tiller development. Effects of paddy field type and N level on N uptake by aboveground plants were reflected in the rice reproductive growth period, with the effects of IRM more striking due to the dry climate conditions. In conclusion, IRM simultaneously improved rice yield and NUE, presenting a valuable rice management technique in the paddy fields assessed.

China has the world's highest nitrogen (N) application rate, and the lowest N use efficiency (NUE). With the crop yield increasing, serious N pollution is also caused. An in-situ field experiment (2011–2015) was conducted to examine the effects of three N levels, 0 (i.e., no fertilizer N addition to soil), 120, and 180 kg N ha−1 using integrated rice management (IRM). We investigated rice yield, aboveground N uptake, and soil surface N budget in a hilly region of Southwest China. Compared to traditional rice management (TRM), IRM integrated raised beds, plastic mulch, furrow irrigation, and triangular transplanting, which significantly improved rice grain yield, straw biomass, aboveground N uptake, and NUE. Integrated rice management significantly improved 15N recovery efficiency (by 10%) and significantly reduced the ratio of potential 15N loss (by 8%–12%). Among all treatments, the 120 kg N ha−1 level under IRM achieved the highest 15N recovery efficiency (32%) and 15N residual efficiency (29%), with the lowest 15N loss ratio (39%). After rice harvest, the residual N fertilizer did not achieve a full replenishment of soil N consumption, as the replenishing effect was insufficient (ranging from −31 to −49 kg N ha−1). Furthermore, soil surface N budget showed a surplus (69–146 kg N ha−1) under all treatments, and the N surplus was lower under IRM than TRM. These results indicate IRM as a reliable and stable method for high rice yield and high NUE, while exerting a minor risk of N loss. In the hilly area of Southwest China, the optimized N fertilizer application rate under IRM was found to be 100–150 kg N ha−1.

Sugarcane, an important agro-industrial crop in India, plays a pivotal role in Indian economy. Sugar industry is the second largest industry of India next to textile. In North India, rice–wheat is the predominant cropping system and Punjab has contributed 25.8% and 37.8% rice and wheat to central pool of the country during 2018–2019, respectively. But due to degradation of natural resources, over exploitation of underground water and monoculture limitations, there is need to diversify some area from rice to sugarcane which offers a good scope for diversification and to enhance profitability of the farmers. But, due to long tillering phase of sugarcane, during summer months irrigation water requirement of this crop is also high. So need of the hour is to study the water-saving technologies for getting more crop per drop. For this purpose, a field experiment was conducted for 3 years, i.e., 2014–2015, 2015–2016 (plant crop) and 2016–2017 (ratoon crop) at research farm of Punjab Agricultural University, Regional Research Station, Faridkot, Punjab, India. The experiment was laid out in split plot design keeping three irrigation schedules of drip irrigation at 60, 80 and 100% cumulative pan evaporation (CPE) to wide bed and furrow paired row planting (paired row trench planting) of sugarcane at 30–30: 120 cm row spacing in main plots and three fertigation levels of 60, 80 and 100% recommended N (RDN, 150 kg N/ha for plant crop and 225 kg N/ha for ratoon crop) in subplots, with an extra control of standard practice having flood irrigation and 100% RDN by line top dressing in three replications. Drip irrigation was applied at 3 days interval in paired row planting system, and fertigation was given in ten equal splits as per treatment. During 2014–2015 and 2015–2016, crop irrigated with drip at 100% CPE recorded the highest cane yield which was significantly better than drip irrigation at 60 and 80% CPE. Fertigation with 100% RDN recorded the highest cane yield which was significantly better than 80 and 60% RDN during 2014–2015 and 2015–2016, but during ratoon 2016–2017, cane yield was statistically at par between 80% RDN and 100% RDN. Drip irrigation at 100% CPE with 100% RDN recorded significantly higher cane yield than standard practice of surface flood irrigation and soil application of fertilizer to the tune of 15.6, 27.0 and 19.3% during 2014–2015, 2015–2016 (plant) and 2016–2017 (ratoon), respectively. The highest net returns of Rs. 150,900, 175808, 201666 per ha were recorded at 100% CPE and 100% RDN level during 2014–2015, 2015–2016 and 2016–2017, respectively.

The benefits of water-saving techniques such as alternate furrow and deficit irrigations need to be explored to ensure food security for the ever-increasing population within the context of declining availability of irrigation water. In this regard, field experiments were conducted for 2 consecutive dry seasons in the semiarid region of southwestern Ethiopia and investigated the influence of alternate furrow irrigation method with different irrigation levels on the yield, yield components, water use efficiency, and profitability of potato production. The experiment comprised of 3 irrigation methods: (i) conventional furrow irrigation (CFI), (ii) alternate furrow irrigation (AFI), and (iii) fixed furrow irrigation (FFI) combined factorially with 3 irrigation regimes: (i) 100%, (ii) 75%, and (iii) 50% of the potato water requirement (ETC). The experiment was laid out in randomized complete block design replicated thrice. Results revealed that seasonal irrigation water applied in alternate furrows was nearly half (170 mm) of the amount supplied in every furrow (331 mm). Despite the half reduction in the total amount of water, tuber (35.68 t ha−1) and total biomass (44.37 t ha−1) yields of potato in AFI did not significantly differ from CFI (34.84 and 45.35 t ha−1, respectively). Thus, AFI improved WUE by 49% compared to CFI. Irrigating potato using 75% of ETC produced tuber yield of 35.01 t ha−1, which was equivalent with 100% of ETC (35.18 t ha−1). Irrigating alternate furrows using 25% less ETC provided the highest net return of US$74.72 for every unit investment on labor for irrigating potato. In conclusion, irrigating alternate furrows using up to 25% less ETC saved water, provided comparable yield, and enhanced WUE and economic benefit. Therefore, farmers and experts are recommended to make change to AFI with 25% deficit irrigation in the study area and other regions with limited water for potato production to improve economic, environmental, and social performance of their irrigated systems.

The biggest responsibility of agriculture department is to produce food and cloth for huge population using the resource getting limited day by day. Water scarcity is most threatening among these limiting factors. New techniques are being developed day by day to increase the water use efficiency on farm level. Application of water directly in the plant root zone could save the water and curtail the losses pertinent to leach down and evaporation. Irrigation to soil does not control the climate variables and precipitation cannot be substituted to irrigation. Sprinkler irrigation system helps efficient utilization of water by using only when needed. This way not only losses made by leaching and evaporation are controlled but micro climate of the field is also ameliorated. Canals and tube well water is conventionally given to crop through flood irrigation. These fields are in direct threat of evaporation and leaching resulting in excess water losses and damaging the soil quality. The study was designed taking cotton as experimental crop to calculate comparisons in plant growth parameters and yields along with water saving ability of different irrigation system. Maximum income of Rs. 99403 was obtained from sprinkler irrigation while high yield of 990kg and 753 m3 in comparison to T4, 736 m3 in comparison to T3 and 113 m3in comparison to T2 was saved under drip irrigation system. The farmers are thus recommended to adopt sprinkler and drip irrigation system in order to get enhanced yields on sustainable bases and to curtail the water losses.

With the rapid growth of the world’s population, the shortage of freshwater resources becomes increasingly serious. Farmland irrigation would not survive without fresh water which comes from river nearby. The low irrigation efficiency of the existing irrigation system needs to be tackled for efficient and effective usage of freshwater with low-cost. It is recognised that the water-saving irrigation technologies, such as the drip irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, micro-irrigation, furrow irrigation in horizontal direction, plastic film mulching, ditch irrigation technology, etc. should be strongly promoted in order to develop water-saving agriculture. However all these measures require cutting-edge technologies and heavy investment, which poses a big problem particularly for the developing countries. On the other hand, if water and nutrients can be applied directly to the crop at root level, the positive effects on yield and water savings can be achieved, thereby increasing the irrigation performance. The water-yield relationship has been investigated using different methods of limited water applications and programs. Therefore, designing and fabricating technological irrigation system of low cost with maximising yield that can reasonably use water for agriculture is an urgent issue to today’s world. The intelligent irrigation system provides a potential solution to solve the water shortage problems. In this study, an intelligent water-saving irrigation system is designed using Solidworks and some parts of the system are fabricated using a home-made fused deposition modelling (FDM) 3D Printer. The intelligent irrigation for different plants is successfully achieved and the irrigation efficiency is significantly improved. The employment of the home-made 3D printer not only substantially reduces the manufacture costs, but also makes it possible to fabricate any “ad hoc” irrigation system.

Irrigation is one of energy-intensive operations in agriculture, which consumes great part of energy inputs and has harmful environmental effects. Thus, the goal of this study is to simulate application of photovoltaic (PV) system as an alternative clean energy supplier to achieve energy-environmental sustainability under two irrigation methods, namely, surface irrigation (SFI) and sprinkler irrigation (SPI) in barley cultivation. Data are collected during the growing season of 2018–2019 from a 100-ha farm located in central region of Hamedan province, Iran. Moreover, applying PV system to SFI and SPI scenarios, which are simulated by using TRNSYS software, generate SFI-PV and SPI-PV scenarios, respectively. After that, environmental damages for all scenarios are evaluated by ReCiPe2016 method of life cycle assessment. Results indicate energy use efficiencies are 2.85 and 2.80 in SFI and SPI, respectively. On-Farm emissions in all scenarios, electricity in SFI and SPI and PV panels SFI-PV and SPI-PV are the hotspots of environmental damages. Cumulative exergy demand (CExD) findings show that shares of Non-renewable, fossil for barley production mainly result from electricity and diesel fuel. It is concluded that energy and environmental damage indices can be enhanced remarkably via using renewable energy technologies.

Knowledge of the composition and volume of root-exuded organic substances is crucial for understanding the biochemical processes in the rhizosphere. The present study was undertaken to quantify organic acids from the roots of drought-tolerant and non-drought-tolerant rice cultivars (DTR and NDTR) and their response to irrigation during different growth periods. Alternating wetting and moderate drying with 4 cm water layer of flood irrigation until the soil water potential reaches −15 kilopascal (kPa) (WMD) significantly enhanced succinic, maleic, citric, malic, oxalic, tartaric, and total organic acids in the two rice cultivars during the trial by 80.59–86.68, 31.62–58.55, 16.55–43.00, 17.89–25.66, 13.68–29.70, 12.40–16.05, and 17.34–21.24%, respectively. Alternate wetting and severe drying with 4 cm water layer of irrigation until the soil water potential reached −30 kPa (WSD) notably decreased formation of maleic, citric, malic, oxalic, tartaric, and total organic acids in the two rice cultivars during the experiment by 5.19–25.15, 13.96–29.92, 20.81–34.88, 32.20–42.51, 12.79–24.66, and 6.67–24.22%, respectively. Acetic acid output between CF (continuous flooding with a 3–4 cm water layer) and WMD treatments in pads with two rice cultivars did not differ. The WSD treatment increased acetic acid exudation by 16.93–25.99% in two rice cultivars during the experiment. The high content of acetic and total organic acids in DTR should be responsible for the smaller loss of total organic acids in the WSD treatment and the high drought tolerance capacity. The results contribute to valuable background knowledge for exploring the role of root exudates in soil-plant relationships.

The experiment entitled “Effect of pruning severity and irrigation methods on flowering, fruit growth and yield of custard apple” was carried out during 2018-19 at Shivar block, Central Research Station, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola with the objectives to study the effect of severity of pruning on flowering, fruit growth and yield of custard apple, to study the effect of different methods of irrigation on flowering, fruit growth and yield of custard apple and to find out the suitable severity of pruning and irrigation method for better fruit growth and yield in custard apple. The experiment was laid out in Split Plot Design with three methods of irrigation viz., I1- no irrigation, I2- double furrow irrigation and I3- drip irrigation and severity of pruning are P1- no pruning (control), P2- light pruning, P3- medium pruning and P4- heavy pruning. The tree unit per treatment was two and it was replicated thrice with twelve treatment combinations. Light pruning (P2) showed the highest number of flowers per branch and minimum days to flowering was found in control trees (P1). Maximum number of fruits per plant, fruit yield (kg/tree), were recorded highest in treatment of light pruning (P2) and double furrow irrigation (I2) and maximum ‘A’ graded fruits/tree was produced in medium pruned (P3) trees with drip irrigation (I3). Irrigation does not show any significant effect except for days to harvesting in which unpruned and drip irrigated trees showed better result. The effect of interaction between severity of pruning and methods of irrigation on flowering, fruit growth and yield was found non-significant.

Pigeonpeais one of the major crops and grown in an area of 67,547 ha in drought prone Ananthapuramu district. However due usage of the long duration traditional Pigeonpea varieties and continuous failure of the NE monsoon coincides with the crop critical stages (Flower bud initiation, flowering, pod development in the district are the major drawbacks for the declined productivity. An attempt was done at Agricultural Research Station, Ananthapuramu on different options available for the irrigation to the pigeonpea crop during kharif,2016. Experimental results revealed that growth parameters like plant height and stem girth were higher with continuous irrigations whereas higher yield and yield attributing parameters were registered with flooding (irrigation at all five critical stages irrigations). Flood irrigation at 5 critical stages registered the highest additional net income of Rs 1,10,300 ha-1 which was closely followed by Drip irrigation at flowering and pod development stages with an additional net income of Rs 94,100, However higher BC ratio (7.63) was obtained with Drip irrigation at flowering and pod development stages. Drip irrigation at Flowering and Pod development registered higher water use efficiency (3.68 kg ha-1mm-1) on mean basis.

This study was conducted at the Ilu Gelan district Western Shewa zone of Oromia Regional State to evaluate the impacts of furrow dimensions on yield and water productivity of onion. The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design with three treatments replicated four times. The experimental treatments including farmer practice or T1 (farmer practice with top width of 23 cm, bottom width of 13 cm and depth of 11 cm without determined flow rate), T2 (Furrow with top width of 45 cm, bottom width of 20 cm and depth of 12 cm with determined flow rate) and T3 (Furrow with top width of 35 cm, bottom width of 14 cm and depth of 10 cm with determined flow rate) having a plot size of 8 m × 5 m with spacing of 0.5 m × 1 m between plots and replications respectively. The highest application efficiency of (75.87%) was recorded under treatment T2 and the lowest application efficiency of (56.17%) was recorded from T1 that is, farmer practice when compared with other treatments. The highest distribution uniformity of (89%) was recorded from treatment T2 and lowest (81%) was from treatment T1. In terms of water productivity and yield of onion the highest values of 5.2 kg/m3 and 1952 kg/ha were recorded from T2 respectively. Similarly, lowest values 3.11 kg/m3 and 15088 kg/ha were obtained from T1 respectively. There were significance differences in plant height among all treatments at significance level of 5%. The highest (41.525 cm) was recorded from T2 and the lowest (39.275 cm) was obtained from T1. Further research covering all soil types is recommended to be more inclusive. Key words: Furrow irrigation, furrow dimension, grain yield, irrigation efficiency, onion, water productivity.

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of different irrigation strategies, planting methods and various nitrogen application rates on water and solutes transport under the root zone. Furthermore, Hydrus-1D model was used to simulate the drainage water and soil nutrient (N, K) leaching by the drainage water in the experimental treatments. Results indicated that variable alternate furrow irrigation (VAFI) decreased drainage water by a mean value of 30% compared with that obtained in full irrigation (OFI); whereas, precipitation played a significant role in increasing drainage water. About 60% and 80% of drainage water occurred due to rainfall in the full irrigation strategy in the first and second year, respectively, and most of the drainage water in VAFI strategy occurred due to precipitation as 90% for both years. Additionally, precipitation during the low growth stages of winter wheat (fall and winter) had noticeable influence on solute transport. On average, 75%, and 65% of leached nitrate, and potassium, respectively, occurred due to rainfall in OFI method; however, about 85% of leached nitrate, and potassium in VAFI strategy occurred due to rainfall events. Application of 150 kg N ha−1 decreased about 40% nitrate leaching below the root zone in comparison with that obtained in 300 kg N ha−1 without significant difference in crop yield. Hydrus-1D model reasonably simulated solute transport especially nitrate and potassium. Therefore, Hydrus-1D could be a successful tool for predicting N, and K transport and making proper management decisions to improving environmental problems.

The present investigation was carried out in the farm of Nubaria Agricultural Research. Station during the two winter seasons 2016/2017 and 2017/2018 to study the effect of three surface irrigation treatments (I1=100%, I2= 80%, I3= 60% of ETp) and four potassium levels (control 0, 57.12, 114.24 and 171.36 K2O/ha) on fodder beet growth, physiological characters, productivity and forage quality under calcareous soil conductions. The main results were as follows: 1- Increasing irrigation levels up to 100% ETp led to significant increase in crop growth rate at the two periods (90-120) and (120-150 DAS), root diameter, leaf area per plant, root dry matter/ plant, root fresh weight/plant, total yield, crude protein percentage, digestive crude protein percentage, shoot K%, crude fiber percent and carbohydrate percent. There was insignificant difference between 100% and 80% ETp in leaves dry matter /plant, foliage fresh weight /plant, foliage yield (ton/ha) and K% in root. Whereas the total digestible nutrient percent and root length were significantly increased by increasing water stress. Medium treatment at 80% of ETp give the maximum values of water use efficiency (WUE). 2- Increasing potassium fertilization levels up to 171.36 kg K2O/ha significantly increased CGR at (90-120 and 120-150 DAS), root length, root diameter, leaf area, root dry matter /plant, leaves dry matter /plant, CP%, DCP%, CF% and carbohydrate % In root. Adding 171.36 or 114.24 kg K2O/ha had insignificant differences in the first CGR period (90-120) DAS, root fresh weight (kg/plant), foliage fresh weight (g/plant), K% in shoot and root. TDN (%) decreased by increasing potassium fertilization levels. Maximum water use efficiency (WUE) was obtained when plants received 171.36 kg K2O/ha. 3- The interaction effect between water regime and potassium fertilization was found to be significant for CGR at the two periods, root length, leaf area/plant, leaves dry matter/plant, root and leaves fresh weight / plant, total yield, root yield, CP%, DCP%, K% in shoot and carbohydrate% in the combined analysis. The maximum value of WUE was obtained when plants were watered by 80% from ETp and received 171.36 kg K2O/ha.

A field experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of irrigation regimes on yield and water use efficiency of maize crop (Zea Mays L.; SAMMAZ 29) under different irrigation scheduling. Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) was used and the experiment consisted of three levels of irrigation water application depth of 100%, 75% and 50% replacement of Total Available Water Capacity (TAWC) and three irrigation intervals of 7, 10 and 13 days replicated three times. Irrigation water was applied into each of 0.75 m × 90 m furrow using siphon tube of 7.5 cm diameter and 200 cm length. The results showed that the highest average irrigation water use efficiency was at I10D75% with 0.71 kg/m3 while the least was at I13D50% with 0.41 kg/m3. The highest average crop water use efficiency (CWUE) was at I10D75% with 0.79 kg/m3 while the least was at I13D75% with 0.56 kg/m3. The highest average maize yield was at I7D100% with 3580 kg/ha while the least was at I13D50% with 1200 kg/ha. The study established that irrigation after every 10 days interval with 75% replacement of TAWC using furrow irrigation of 90 m lengths produced the highest crop water use efficiency, thus saving about 48.3% of irrigation water (amounting to 329 mm) with reference to control (I7D100%) which causes a yield reduction of about 19% (amounting to 680 kg/ha). This efficient water usage saved cost and also helps to address the problem of high water table of the study area.

A meta-analysis was performed on 351 studies from 17 articles published between 1990 and 2016 to determine how a water use efficiency (WUE) treatment is affected by irrigation systems and management practices on clay and clay loam soils in a semi-arid environment relative to a rainfed control. Several explanatory variables (moderators) were examined to determine their impact on WUE such as crop type, irrigation capacity, rainfall, soil type, planting time, and nitrogen application. Results were sub-grouped by irrigation system. Overall, the impact of irrigation system on WUE directly correlated with the efficiency of the irrigation system. Subsurface drip and center pivot irrigation systems had the largest impacts on WUE with increases of 147 and 99%, respectively, compared to a 14% increase under furrow irrigation. Corn (Zea mays L.) had a higher response to WUE in subsurface drip irrigation (260%) compared to center pivot irrigation (46%), whereas WUE in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) had a 71% change in center pivot systems compared to 63% under subsurface drip. The biggest increases in WUE relative to a rainfed control were for sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench), which had a 13% change under furrow irrigation, 160% change under center pivot and 341% under subsurface drip.