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When the matching-to-sample (MTS) procedure is used, different training structures imply differences in the successive discriminations required in training and test conditions. When the go/no-go procedure with compound stimuli is used, however, differences in training structures do not imply such differences. This study assessed whether the go/no-go procedure with compound stimuli with different training structures would produce significant variations in emergent performances. Fourteen undergraduate students were divided into 2 training groups: one-to-many (OTM) and many-to-one (MTO). During training, responses emitted in the presence of compounds defined as Related were reinforced. Responses emitted in the presence of compounds defined as Not Related were not. During tests, new compounds structurally emulated MTS equivalence tests. Participants finished training with comparable numbers of sessions, and 13 showed emergent performances. These results suggest that differences in equivalence test outcomes with different training structures in MTS procedures may be due to their different successive discrimination requirements. Key words: go/no-go, compound stimuli, training structure, equivalence, human, To study formation of equivalence classes, the minimum prerequisites are (1) two conditional discriminations having elements in common (nodes) and (2) tests for emergent performances consistent with reflexivity, symmetry, and [...]

This is a tale of two earthquakes (you could say many more on account of persistent aftershocks) that were, in a Dickensian way, the best of times and the worst [...]

A teacher meets a student during recess to discuss his behavior in class. The psychologist of the school board presents the results of a child's evaluation process. During a meeting [...]

While there has been increasing interest in the psychology of interpersonal forgiveness, the majority of the research has focused on the forgiveness process from the perspective of the victim. However, [...]

People are capable of thinking about the future, the past, remote locations, another person's perspective, and counterfactual alternatives. Without denying the uniqueness of each process, it is proposed that they constitute different forms of traversing psychological distance. Psychological distance is egocentric: Its reference point is the self in the here and now, and the different ways in which an object might be removed from that point--in time, in space, in social distance, and in hypotheticality--constitute different distance dimensions. Transcending the self in the here and now entails mental construal, and the farther removed an object is from direct experience, the higher (more abstract) the level of construal of that object. Supporting this analysis, research shows (a) that the various distances are cognitively related to each other, (b) that they similarly influence and are influenced by level of mental construal, and (c) that they similarly affect prediction, preference, and action. Keywords: mental construal, abstraction, mental travel, psychological distance DOI: 10.1037/a0018963

In this article, we hypothesize that invariance detection, a general perceptual phenomenon whereby organisms attend to relatively stable patterns or regularities, is an important means by which infants tune in to various aspects of spoken language. In so doing, we synthesize a substantial body of research on detection of regularities across the domains of speech perception, word segmentation, word-referent mapping, and grammar learning. In addition, we outline our framework for how invariance detection might serve as a perceptual gateway to more sophisticated communication by providing a foundation for subsequent emergent capacities. We test our hypothesis using the domain of word mapping as a case in point, emphasizing its epigenetic nature: Word mapping is rooted in the real-time interactions between the infant and the physical world. The present account offers an alternative to prior theories of early language development and helps to link the field of early language development with more general perceptual processes. Keywords: invariance detection, infancy, language development, dynamic organism-environment interaction, computational modeling DOI: 10.1037/a0019049

One of the most exciting issues in psychology is, What are the psychological mechanisms underlying human tool use? The computational approach assumes that the use of a tool (e.g., a hammer) requires the extraction of sensory information about object properties (heavy, rigid), which can then be translated into appropriate motor outputs (grasping, hammering). The ecological approach suggests that humans perceive not the properties of tools per se but what they afford (a heavy, rigid object affords pounding). This is the theory of affordances. In this article, we examine the potential of the computational view and the ecological view to account for human tool use. To anticipate our conclusions, neither of these approaches is likely to be satisfactory, notably because of their incapacity to resolve the issue of why humans spontaneously use tools. In response, we offer an original theoretical framework based on the idea that affordance perception and technical reasoning work together in a dialectical way. The thesis we defend here is that humans have the ability to view body action as a problem to be solved. It is precisely at this point that technical reasoning occurs. However, even if the ability to do technical reasoning gives humans the illusion of constantly doing less (e.g, TV remote control), they are still forced to use body action--and to perceive affordances--to operate the product of the reasoning (pushing buttons with the fingers). This is the principle of dialectic. Keywords: action, anthropology, apraxia, perception, technology DOI: 10.1037/a0019004

Eye-movement control during scene viewing can be represented as a series of individual decisions about where and when to move the eyes. While substantial behavioral and computational research has been devoted to investigating the placement of fixations in scenes, relatively little is known about the mechanisms that control fixation durations. Here, we propose a computational model (CRISP) that accounts for saccade timing and programming and thus for variations in fixation durations in scene viewing. First, timing signals ate modeled as continuous-time random walks. Second, difficulties at the level of visual and cognitive processing can inhibit and thus modulate saccade timing. Inhibition generates moment-by-moment changes in the random walk's transition rate and processing-related saccade cancellation. Third, saccade programming is completed in 2 stages: an initial, labile stage that is subject to cancellation and a subsequent, nonlabile stage. Several simulation studies tested the model's adequacy and generality. An initial simulation study explored the role of cognitive factors in scene viewing by examining how fixation durations differed under different viewing task instructions. Additional simulations investigated the degree to which fixation durations were under direct moment-to-moment control of the current visual scene. The present work further supports the conclusion that fixation durations, to a certain degree, reflect perceptual and cognitive activity in scene viewing. Computational model simulations contribute to an understanding of the underlying processes of gaze control. Keywords: computational modeling, eye movements, naturalistic scenes, fixation durations, onset delay DOI: 10.1037/a0018924

The generalized matching equation is a robust and empirically supported means of analyzing relations between reinforcement and behavior. Unfortunately, no simple task analysis is available to behavior analysts interested in using the matching equation to evaluate data in clinical or applied settings. This technical article presents a task analysis for the use of Microsoft Excel to analyze and plot the generalized matching equation. Using a data-based case example and a step-by-step guide for completing the analysis, these instructions are intended to promote the use of quantitative analyses by researchers with little to no experience in quantitative analyses or the matching law. DESCRIPTORS: choice, generalized matching equation, matching law, Microsoft Excel, technology doi: 10.1901/jaba.2009.42-867

The characteristics of positive autobiographical memory narratives were examined in younger and older adults. Narratives were content-coded for the extent to which they contained indicators of affect, sensory imagery, and cognition. Affect was additionally assessed through self-report. Young adults expressed more positive affect and less sensory imagery in their memory narratives than did older adults. Age differences in cognitive characteristics also appeared: younger adults showed greater causation-insight, and greater tentativeness in retelling their autobiographical memories. Controlling for episodic memory ability eliminated age differences in positive affect but did not affect age differences on other memory characteristics. Results are discussed in terms of the role that positive autobiographical memories play in daily emotional life across adulthood. doi: 10.2190/AG.69.4.a

This study examined 2 methodological issues that might influence the fading affect bias (FAB). The FAB occurs when people report that the affective intensity associated with unpleasant events decreases over time more than the intensity of positive events. In the experiments reported here we investigated the FAB using a between-subject design (Experiments l a and I b) and manipulated the order of the ratings (past and current) used to measure the FAB (Experiment 2). In each case, we observed a strong FAB effect, suggesting that it is not solely a function of the research design or the order of the intensity ratings. Thus, the FAB is a robust phenomenon that appears in many different situations. "Sadness flies away on the wings of time."--Jean de la Fontaine

More than 40 years ago, psychologist-historian Robert Watson argued that the study of history was of particular salience to psychology. In this article we explore the relationship between psychology and history and argue that the psychologist-historian plays a vital role in the discipline of psychology. We provide a brief overview of the emergence of the history of psychology as a professional subdiscipline, describe who psychologist-historians are, explain why they are needed, and detail how to join their ranks. We argue that increasing historical sophistication among psychologists will have beneficial effects on research and teaching, and we invite all psychologists to participate in the making of psychology's history.

This article provides an introduction to the special issue on Darwin and psychology at the bicentennial of his birth and the sesquicentennial of his publication of On the Origin of Species. His core contributions, as viewed today, were his theory of natural selection, his naturalistic philosophy, and his mass of evidence for evolutionary change. A brief summary of Darwin's life is also presented. Among Darwin's contributions to psychology were his demonstration of the continuity of species, a model for the study of instinct, a book on the expression of the emotions, and a baby biography. Previous celebrations of Darwin and the changing perceptions of his work since its publication are described. Darwin's theory remains an important part of psychology. Keywords: Charles Darwin, evolution, natural selection, voyage of the Beagle, bicentennial