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[KEYWORDS: Agriculture Ecosystem services Land use Management optimization Soil Urban Trade-off] On-going human population growth and changing patterns of resource consumption are increasing global demand for ecosystem services, many of which are provided by soils. Some of these ecosystem services are linearly related to the surface area of pervious soil, whereas others show non-linear relationships, making ecosystem service optimization a complex task. As limited land availability creates conflicting demands among various types of land use, a central challenge is how to weigh these conflicting interests and how to achieve the best solutions possible from a perspective of sustainable societal development. These conflicting interests become most apparent in soils that are the most heavily used by humans for specific purposes: urban soils used for green spaces, housing, and other infrastructure and agricultural soils for producing food, fibres and biofuels. We argue that, despite their seemingly divergent uses of land, agricultural and urban soils share common features with regards to interactions between ecosystem services, and that the trade-offs associated with decision-making, while scale- and context-dependent, can be surprisingly similar between the two systems. We propose that the trade-offs within land use types and their soil-related ecosystems services are often disproportional, and quantifying these will enable ecologists and soil scientists to help policy makers optimizing management decisions when confronted with demands for multiple services under limited land availability.

Summary 1. Although a major part of plant biomass is underground, we know little about the contribution of different species to root biomass in multispecies communities. We summarize studies on root dis- tributions and plant responses to species-specific soil biota and formulate three hypotheses to explain how root responses may drive species coexistence and ecosystem productivity. 2. Recent studies suggest that root growth of some species may be stimulated in species mixtures compared with monocultures without hampering the growth of other species, leading to below- ground overyielding. Further studies suggest that these responses are the result of reduced impair- ment of growth by species-specific plant pathogens that accumulate in monocultures. 3. First, we hypothesize that due to pathogen-constrained growth, monocultures are ‘under- rooted’, i.e. they do not have enough roots for optimal acquisition of nutrients. Although elevated root production in mixtures represents a cost to the plant, improved nutrition will eventually result in improved plant performance. 4. Second, due to the plant species specificity of the soil biotic communities, we suggest that plant species in mixtures develop an intransitive competitive network in which none of the species is competitively superior to all other species. Competitive intransitivity is proposed as a mechanismof species coexistence. 5. As a final hypothesis, we suggest that pathogen-mediated root overproduction in species mix- tures determines the patterns of community productivity and overyielding, both directly, by improving plant performance, and indirectly, by releasing more carbon into the soil, resulting in enhanced availability of nutrients. 6. Synthesis. Recent evidence suggests that species coexistence and ecosystem productivity may be the result of an interplay between pathogen-driven plant responses and nutritional consequences. We suggest that responses of the roots are an important yet mostly overlooked intermediary between soil biota and plant community responses to biodiversity. Key-words: biodiversity, ecosystem functioning, intransitive competition, niche differentia- tion, plant–soil (below-ground) interactions, root distributions, root ecology, soil nutrient availability, transgressiveoveryielding

International audience; We developed a system for classifying permanent grasslands in Béarn and the Northern Basque Country that serves several specific purposes. It emerged from a significant collective investment that aimed to offer users a tool that accounts for the multifunctionality of grasslands in this area.The system also highlights the relationship between cultural heritage and product quality. Using an up-to-date database, we were able to identify 21 types of grasslands. By analysing grassland vegetation, species functional ecology, and farming practices, we could calculate indices reflecting forage production levels, environmental conditions, and cheese quality. The Geroko application calculates farm-level indices based on parcel-level data and allows users to simulate changes in forage systems. An index providing plant names in Basque is a helpful addition to this comprehensivedescription of our classification system, which comes complete with illustrations.; La typologie régionale réalisée pour les prairies permanentes basco-béarnaises répond à des objectifs propres ; elle s'est appuyée sur un investissement collectif pour offrir aux multiples usagers un outil qui réponde à la multifonctionnalité des prairies de ce territoire ; le lien entre dimension patrimoniale et qualité des produits est souligné. Une base de données évolutive a permis d'identifier 21 types de prairies ; l'analyse de la végétation, la typologie fonctionnelle des graminées, la description des pratiques ont permis d'évaluer des indicateurs de production fourragère, environnementaux, de qualité des fromages. Le passage de l'échelle parcellaire à celui de l'exploitation, via le tableur Geroko, permet de construire des indicateurs pour l'exploitation et de simuler des évolutions du système fourrager. Un index des noms de plantes en basque complète cette typologie très bien illustrée et disponible en ligne.

Mais de metade das florestas do mundo são florestas secundárias e a sucessão determinística prevê que muitos aspectos das florestas originais serão recuperados. Por outro lado, os remanescentes florestais encontram-se em paisagens fragmentadas nas quais às alterações microclimáticas induzidas por efeitos de bordas podem levar a uma sucessão retrogressiva, denominada "secundarização". Assim, as comunidades florestais atuais tendem a convergir em termos de estrutura e funções que desempenham no ecossistema, e a compreensão da dinâmica de espécies e de comunidades tornou-se uma preocupação fundamental dos estudos florestais. A heterogeneidade do habitat, juntamente com diferenças ecofisiológicas entre espécies, leva à segregação destas ao longo de gradientes espaciais ou temporais. Aqui, avaliamos a estrutura filogenética e a variação da composição filogenética das comunidades arbóreas florestais buscando evidenciar padrões de segregação ao longo do gradiente sucessional. No segundo capítulo, avaliamos o poder preditivo das características funcionais sobre as mudanças demográficas de curto prazo (intervalo de cinco anos) de 20 espécies arbóreas subtropicais. No terceiro, comparamos a dinâmica de curto prazo de comunidades florestais secundárias e remanescentes no fragmentado bioma da Mata Atlântica. Nossos resultados mostraram que as linhagens principais segregam ao longo do gradiente sucessional devido a requerimentos conservados de nichos de clados basais, revelando sua associação funcional a florestas mais antigas, enquanto Eudicots podem ocorrer ao longo do gradiente. No nível das espécies, atributos foliares foram preditivos de mudanças demográficas de curto prazo e, no nível de comunidade, atributos foliares e massa das sementes captaram melhor as mudanças na composição funcional de curto prazo. Constatou-se o aumento de atributos conservativos em florestas secundárias e a perda de biomassa, devido à queda de grandes árvores, nas florestas remanescentes, expressando a perda de uma importante característica estrutural dessas florestas. More than half of the natural world’s forest is secondary forest and deterministic succession predicts that many features of pre-disturbed forests will be recovered. On the other hand, remnant old-growth forests are mostly within fragmented landscapes and edge-induced microclimatic conditions may lead to a retrogressive succession, named ‘secondarization’. Thereby current forests tend to converge in terms of community structure and ecosystem function and the understanding of species and community dynamics became a main concern of forest studies. Habitat heterogeneity together with ecophysiological differences between species would carry to species segregation along spatial or temporal gradients. Here we evaluated the phylogenetic structure of communities and phylogenetic composition variation to evidence patterns of segregation along the succession of tree species. In the second chapter, we evaluated the predictive power of the functional traits on short-term demographic changes (five years interval) of 20 subtropical tree species. In the third, we compared the short-term dynamics of secondary and old-growth forest communities in the fragmented Atlantic forest biome. Our results showed that the main lineages segregate along the successional gradient due to conserved niche requirements of the earlydivergent clades reveling their functional association to older successional forests, whereas Eudicots can occur over the gradient. At species level, leaf functional traits were predictive of the short-term demographic changes and, at the community level, leaf traits and seed mass better captured the short-term functional composition changes of the communities. We found the rise of conservative traits at secondary forests and biomass loss, due to fall of big trees, at the old-growth communities expressing the loss of an important structural feature of these forests.

An agroecological alternative to high-artificial-input forage monocultures exists: the use of diversified grasslands (DGs). Created by sowing complex seed mixtures, DGs persist for more than 3 years and contain over 6 species/varieties from several plant families. Current DG planning methods are not very accessible to French farmers. Here, we describe a decision-making tool called Capflor (R) which we developed in collaboration with farmer collectives. It allows farmers to design species mixtures that are adapted to their needs. Capflor (R) incorporates current knowledge in ecology and the agricultural sciences and employs a filtering approach. It applies 3 successive filters to yield a final list of 6-14 species that can be used to generate a DG. The tool does not recommend specific species proportions, which will be location dependent.; Une prairie à flore variée est un mélange semé, complexe, de pérennité supérieure à 3 ans, constitué de plus de 6 espèces (et variétés) d'au moins 3 familles botaniques pour les prairies pâturées (2 familles pour les prairies de fauche). L'outil d'aide à la décision Capflor® offre une aide aux conseillers agricoles et aux éleveurs pour concevoir de tels mélanges d'espèces adaptés à leurs besoins. Cet outil a été conçu de manière participative avec des collectifs d'éleveurs afin de faciliter son adoption par les professionnels. Il intègre des connaissances en écologie et en agronomie ; il repose sur le concept de filtres : 3 filtres sont successivement appliqués pour aboutir à proposer 6 à 14 espèces pour constituer une prairie à flore variée, les proportions devant être déterminées localement.

To answer new scientific and ecological questions and monitor multiple forest changes, a fine scale characterization of these ecosystems is needed, and could imply the mapping of specific species, of detailed forest types, and of functional composition. This characterization can be now provided by the novel Earth Observation tools. This study aims to contribute to understanding the innovation in forest and ecological research that can be brought in by advanced remote sensing instruments, and proposes the guild mapping approach as a tool to efficiently monitor the varied tropical forest resources. We evaluated, in tropical Ghanaian forests, the ability of airborne hyperspectral and simulated multispectral Sentinel-2 data, and derived vegetation indices and textures, to: distinguish between two different forest types; to discriminate among selected dominant species; and to separate trees species grouped according to their functional guilds: Pioneer, Non Pioneer Light Demanding, and Shade Bearer. We then produced guild classification maps for each area using hyperspectral data. Our results showed that with both hyperspectral and simulated Sentinel-2 data these discrimination tasks can be successfully accomplished. Results also stressed the importance of texture features, especially if using the lower spectral and spatial Sentinel-2 resolution data, and highlighted the important role of the new Sentinel-2 data for ecological monitoring. Classification results showed a statistically significant improvement in overall accuracy using Support Vector Machine, over Maximum Likelihood approach. We proposed the functional guilds mapping as an innovative approach to: (i) monitor compositional changes, especially with respect to the effects of global climate change on forests, and particularly in the tropical biome where the occurrence of hundreds of species prevents mapping activities at species level; (ii) support large-scale forest inventories. The imminent Sentinel-2 data could serve to open the road for the development of new concepts and methods in forestry and ecological research.

In the context of climate change, grasslands will need to be populated with forage species that tolerate drought conditions. Planting forage mixtures is a possible solution, but questions remain regarding the specific varieties to use. Recently, different experiments have shown that both intra- and interspecific diversity could have a positive effect on grassland production under climate change and, more specifically, during droughts. However, to choose which species and genotypes to include, it is necessary to define the rules of assembly. These rules could be based on the choice of certain functional traits. For instance, research suggests that differences in growth-related traits among plants within the community, namely temporal differences in growth periods, have a positive effect. Defining the traits of greatest interest and their relative importance in grassland communities is a major consideration when selecting the plant varieties to include in forage mixtures., Le changement climatique s'accompagne d'un accroissement de la fréquence des sécheresses qui menace la pérennité et la production des prairies. Il est donc nécessaire d'adapter les couverts prairiaux à des conditions hydriques limitantes. Les mélanges offrent des perspectives intéressantes mais posent des questions quant aux critères de sélection des variétésDifférentes expérimentations récentes montrent la plus-value de la diversité spécifique et intraspécifique sur la production des prairies face au changement climatique et en particulier face aux épisodes de sécheresse. Mais le choix des espèces et des génotypes composant cette diversité nécessite de définir correctement les règles d'assemblage. Ces règles pourraient être basées sur des choix de traits (caractères) des espèces et des génotypes. La diversification de traits liés à des stratégies de croissance décalées dans le temps semble avoir un effet positif, contrairement aux traits racinaires. Ainsi, le choix de traits d'intérêt et de la valeur de ces traits dans les couverts prairiaux est à considérer dans les processus de sélection variétale.

1. Arthropods represent most of global biodiversity, with the highest diversity found in tropical rain forests. Nevertheless, we have a very incomplete understanding of how tropical arthropod communities are assembled. 2. We conducted a comprehensive mass sampling of arthropod communities within three major habitat types of lowland Amazonian rain forest, including terra firme clay, white-sand and seasonally flooded forests in Peru and French Guiana. We examined how taxonomic and functional composition (at the family level) differed across these habitat types in the two regions. 3. The overall arthropod community composition exhibited strong turnover among habitats and between regions. In particular, seasonally flooded forest habitats of both regions comprised unique assemblages. Overall, 17.7% (26 of 147) of arthropod families showed significant preferences for a particular habitat type. 4. We present a first reproducible arthropod functional classification among the 147 taxa based on similarity among 21 functional traits describing feeding source, major mouthparts and microhabitats inhabited by each taxon. We identified seven distinct functional groups whose relative abundance contrasted strongly across the three habitats, with sap and leaf feeders showing higher abundances in terra firme clay forest. 5. Our novel arthropod functional classification provides an important complement to link these contrasting patterns of composition to differences in forest functioning across geographical and environmental gradients. This study underlines that both environment and biogeographical processes are responsible for driving arthropod taxonomic composition while environmental filtering is the main driver of the variance in functional composition.

Understanding the resilience of moist tropical forests to treefall disturbance events is important for understanding the mechanisms that underlie species coexistence and for predicting the future composition of these ecosystems. Here, we test whether variation in the functional composition of Amazonian forests determines their resilience to disturbance. We studied the legacy of natural treefall disturbance events in four forests across Amazonia that differ substantially in functional composition. We compared the composition and diversity of all free-standing woody stems 2-10 cm diameter in previously disturbed and undisturbed 20 × 20 m subplots within 55, one-hectare, long-term forest inventory plots. Overall, stem number increased following disturbance, and species and functional composition shifted to favour light-wooded, small-seeded taxa. Alpha-diversity increased, but beta-diversity was unaffected by disturbance, in all four forests. Changes in response to disturbance in both functional composition and alpha-diversity were, however, small (2 - 4% depending on the parameter) and similar among forests. Synthesis. This study demonstrates that variation in the functional composition of Amazonian forests does not lead to large differences in the response of these forests to treefall disturbances, and overall, these events have a minor role in maintaining the diversity of these ecosystems. Understanding how the diversity of tropical forests responds to treefall disturbance events is important for understanding mechanisms of species coexistence and for predicting the future composition of these ecosystems. Previous studies have focussed on single sites and have contradictory results. By studying four sites in Amazonia, we demonstrate that these events have a consistent, but minor, role in maintaining the diversity of these ecosystems. © 2016 British Ecological Society.

This article presents the analysis of results of development of functional composition «Effect», which is balanced in correlation of basic components, are well combined with all of constituents of the base compounding, does not worsen the органолептические and physical and chemical indexes of quality of new food product. Efficiency of influence of functional composition is set on the functional consisting of organism, improvements of exchange of matters of organism, blocking of synthesis of fat in fatty fabric, decline of suction of carbonhydratess and grew fat from a digestive highway and leadingout of superfluous liquid, accelerations of breaking up of fatty molecules and transformation of fat in free energy, increasing its expense.A socio-economic effect is confirmed from introduction of developments, which consists in expansion of assortment of candies for people with the ovenweight of certain functional action, which will be instrumental in the acceleration of motion of process of exchange of matters, rapid breaking up of fat (to abdominal) in Ukraine, to creation of effective alternative to the imported candies., Представлен анализ результатов разработки функциональной композиции, из биологически активных веществ с направленным физиологичным действием на организм для использования их в профессиональном спорте, а также в питании населения: особенно для людей с избыточным весом для регуляции веса тела. Применение методологии проектирования модельной функциональной композиций дает возможность расширять ассортимент пищевых продуктов специального назначения, которую можно использовать в кондитерском производстве., Представлений аналіз результатів розробки функціональної композиції, з біологічно активних речовин з направленою фізіологічною дією на організм для використання їх в професійному спорті а також в харчуванні населення: особливо для людей з надмірною вагою для регуляції ваги тіла. Застосування методології проектування модельною функціональною композицій дає можливість розширювати асортимент харчових продуктів спеціального призначення, який можна використовувати в кондитерському виробництві.

This paper presents an analysis of development results of functional composition "Effect", which is balanced in the ratio of basic components, is well combined with all components of basic recipes, does not impair organoleptic, physical and chemical quality of the new food.It is established an impact effectiveness of the functional composition on the functional state of the body, improving the metabolism in the body, blocking the synthesis of fat in adipose tissue, decreasing the absorption of carbohydrates and fats in the digestive tract and removing excess fluid, accelerating the adipolysis of fat molecules and transformation of fat in the free energy, increasing its expenditure.It is confirmed a social and economic impact of the implementation of developments, which is to expand the range of sweets with certain functional actions for overweight people, which will accelerate the progress of metabolism process, rapid adipolysis (abdominal) in Ukraine, creating an effective alternative to imported sweets., Представлен анализ результатов разработки функциональной композиции, из биологически активных веществ с направленным физиологичным действием на организм для использования их в профессиональном спорте, а также в питании населения: особенно для людей с избыточным весом для регуляции веса тела. Применение методологии проектирования модельной функциональной композиции дает возможность расширять ассортимент пищевых продуктов специального назначения, которую можно использовать в кондитерском производстве, в частности для конфет., Представлено аналіз результатів розробки функціональної композиції, з біологічно активних речовин з направленою фізіологічною дією на організм для використання їх у професійному спорті, а також в харчуванні населення: особливо для людей з надлишковою вагою для регуляції ваги тіла. Застосування методології проектування модельної функціональної композиції дає можливість розширювати асортимент харчових продуктів спеціального призначення, яку можна використовувати в кондитерському виробництві, зокрема для цукерок.

As invasões biológicas são consideradas a segunda maior causa de perda de biodiversidade, pois podem causar diversos impactos ecológicos. Recentemente foi chamado à atenção um novo mecanismo pelo qual espécies invasoras podem afetar as nativas: através da interferência no nicho acústico. O mascaramento dos sinais a partir de fontes de ruídos pode afetar diretamente a fisiologia reprodutiva ou o consumo de energia. A vocalização está diretamente ligada com a seleção sexual em anfíbios, aves, insetos e muitos mamíferos, de maneira que a presença de novas fontes sonoras no ambiente pode afetar a aptidão das espécies. Uma das piores invasoras do mundo, a rã-touro Lithobates catesbeianus, nativa dos EUA, Canadá e México, está distribuída em mais de 40 países, e em pelo menos 130 municípios brasileiros. A rã-touro possui uma vocalização de amplo espectro de frequências, diferente do que é encontrado nas espécies nativas brasileiras. Seus cantos têm frequência dominante baixa, grande propagação e pouca degradação e atenuação no ambiente. A presença do canto da espécie pode causar alteração nos parâmetros dos cantos de uma espécie nativa da Mata Atlântica brasileira. Entretanto, não é sabido se outras espécies também podem ser afetadas e se a introdução da rã-touro é capaz de afetar o comportamento acústico das comunidades nativas. Neste estudo, nós avaliamos os efeitos da invasão de L. catesbeianus sobre o nicho acústico das espécies nativas, usando duas perspectivas, no nível de indivíduos e de comunidades. No Capítulo I nós avaliamos se o estímulo acústico da rã-touro pode alterar parâmetros temporais e espectrais dos cantos de espécies nativas com e sem sobreposição espectral com a espécie invasora. Nós testamos a hipótese de que espécies com sobreposição de frequências com a invasora apresentam mudanças maiores nos parâmetros de vocalização do que espécies que estejam fora desse espectro. Para isso realizamos um experimento em campo, introduzindo a vocalização da espécie em área onde não existe registro da sua ocorrência. Nós utilizamos mais dois estímulos, um ruído branco e uma vocalização de uma espécie nativa, Rhinella icterica. Todas as espécies testadas foram expostas aos três estímulos, onde comparamos com a sua atividade de vocalização espontânea. Nossos resultados mostram efeito de todos os tipos de ruídos nos cantos, mas todas as espécies responderam com mudanças maiores nos parâmetros para os dois anuros do que para o ruído. É provável que esse resultado esteja relacionado ao fato de que ambas as espécies de anuros utilizados nos experimentos tenham a frequência dominante baixa. Entretanto, os resultados reforçam que a introdução de novos sons no ambiente tem potencial de modificar os cantos. No Capítulo II, nós testamos se existe diferença na diversidade funcional acústica em ambientes com e sem a presença de L. catesbeianus em áreas invadidas da Mata Atlântica no sul do Brasil. Nós testamos a hipótese de que poças com a presença dos machos de rã-touro em atividade de vocalização e poças sem a presença dos mesmos apresentam distintos padrões de diversidade funcional acústica e composição funcional acústica mais homogênea. Para isso, nós utilizamos dados coletados em 15 pares de poças invadidas e não invadidas na Mata Atlântica no sul do Brasil e realizamos análises de diversidade e composição funcional utilizando atributos acústicos. Nossos resultados mostram que a composição funcional foi mais homogênea nas poças invadidas do que nas poças não invadidas. Nessas poças, há uma seleção de frequências, onde predominantemente as espécies com frequências dominantes mais altas vocalizam. Ou seja, as espécies que não possuem sobreposição de frequência dominante com a rã-touro. Este estudo é um dos primeiros a testar efeitos da invasão do nicho acústico sobre as comunidades nativas. Ambientes nativos podem ser vulneráveis à introdução de espécies generalistas que produzem sinais de baixa frequência e grande amplitude. Assim, a eficiência de propagação dos sinais confere à rã-touro vantagem adaptativa na comunicação e reprodução, favorecendo o processo de estabelecimento e dispersão em detrimento das espécies nativas. Biological Invasions are considered the second leading cause of biodiversity loss, because they may cause many ecological impacts. Recently, was called attention to a new mechanism by which invasive species can affect native species: through interference in the acoustic niche. The masking of signals from noise sources can directly affect reproductive physiology or energy consumption. Vocalization is directly connected with the sexual selection in amphibians, birds, insects, and many mammals, so that the presence of new sound sources in the environment can affect the fitness of the species. One of the worst invasive species of the world, the bullfrog Lithobates catesbeianus, native from USA, Canada and Mexico, is distributed in over 40 countries around the world and, at least, 130 Brazilian municipalities. The bullfrog has a wide spectrum of frequencies vocalization, different from what is founded in Brazilian native species. Their calls have low dominant frequency, large propagation and little degradation and attenuation in the environment. The presence of the species’ call can cause changes in the parameters of the native species’ calls from Brazilian Atlantic Forest. However, it is not known if other species may also be affected and the introduction of bullfrogs can affect the acoustic behavior of the native communities. In this study, we evaluated the effects of L. catesbeianus invasion on the acoustic niche of native species, using two perspectives at the level of individuals and communities. In Chapter I we evaluate how the acoustic stimulus of bullfrogs can change temporal and spectral parameters of the native species’ calls with and without spectral overlap with invasive species. We tested the hypothesis that species with overlapping frequencies with the invading show greater change in vocalization parameters than species outside this spectrum. To make this we conducted a field experiment, introducing the vocalization of the invasion species in an area where there is no record of their occurrence. We used two stimuli, a white noise and calling of a native species, Rhinella icterica. All species tested were exposed to the three stimuli, which compared with its spontaneous vocalization activity. Our results show the effect of all kinds of noise at the calls, but all the species responded with large changes in the parameters for the two frogs than for noise. It is probable that this result is related to the fact that both species of frogs used in the experiments have low dominant frequency. However, the results reinforce the introduction of new sounds in the environment has the potential to modify the native calls. In Chapter II, we tested if exist differences in the acoustic functional diversity in environment with and without the presence of L. catesbeianus in invaded areas of the Atlantic Forest in southern Brazil. We tested the hypothesis that the ponds with presence of bullfrog males in vocalization activity and ponds without their presence have distinct patterns of acoustic functional diversity and acoustic functional composition more homogeneous. For this, we used data collected from 15 pairs of ponds invaded and not invaded by bullfrog in the Atlantic Forest in southern Brazil and realized analysis of diversity and functional composition using acoustic traits. Our results show that the functional composition was more homogeneous in ponds invaded than in ponds not invaded. In these ponds, there is a selection of frequencies, where predominantly the species that vocalize at highest frequencies are calling, that don´t have dominant frequency overlap with the bullfrog. This study is one of the first to test effects of acoustic niche invasion on native communities. Native environments may be vulnerable to the introduction of generalist species that produces low frequency and large amplitude signals. Therefore, signal propagation efficiency gives the bullfrog adaptive advantage in communication and reproduction, favoring the process of establishment and dispersion at the expense of native species.

Os avanços da indústria de semicondutores nas últimas décadas foram baseados fortemente na contínua redução de tamanho dos dispositivos CMOS fabricados. Os usos de dispositivos CMOS dependem profundamente da lógica de portas E/OU/INV. À medida que os dispositivos CMOS estão atingindo oslimites fisicos, pesquisadores aumento esforço para prolongar a vida útil da tecnologia CMOS. Também é necessário investigar dispositivos alternativos, que em muitos casos implicam no uso de operações lógicas básicas diferentes. Como as ferramentas comerciais de síntese não são capazes de manipular eficientemente estas tecnologias Esta tese de doutorado foca em produzir algoritmos eficientes para projeto de circuitos tanto em CMOS quanto em novas tecnologias, integrando estes algorithmos em fluxos de projeto. Para esta tarefa, aplicamos a técnica da composição functional, para sintetizar eficiente tanto em CMOS quanto em tecnologias emergentes. A composição funcional é uma abordagem de síntese de baixo para cima, provendo flexibilidade para implementar algoritmos com resultados ótimos ou sub-ótimos para diferentes tecnologias. A fim de investigar como a composição funcional se compara às abordagens de síntese estado-da-arte, propomos aplicar esse paradigma de síntese em seis cenários diferentes. Dois deles se concentram em circuitos baseados em CMOS e outros quatro em circuitos baseados em tecnologias emergentes. Em relação a circuitos baseados em CMOS, investigamos a composição funcional para fatoração de funções multi-saídas, aplicadas em um fluxo de resíntese. Também manipulamos funções aproximadas, a fim de sintetizar módulos de redundância tripla aproximada. No que diz respeito as tecnologias emergentes, exploramos a composição funcional através de diodos spintrônicos e outras abordagens promissoras com base em diferentes implementações de lógica: a lógica de limiar, lógica majoritária e lógica de implicação. Resultados apresentam uma melhoria considerável em relação aos métodos estadoda- arte tanto para aplicações CMOS quanto aplicações de tecnologias emergentes, demonstrando a capacidade de lidar com diferentes tecnologias e mostrando a possibilidade de melhorar tecnologias ainda não exploradas. The advances in semiconductor industry over the last decades have been strongly based on continuous scaling down of dimensions in manufactured CMOS devices. The use of CMOS devices profoundly relies on AND/OR/Inverter logic. As the CMOS scaling is reaching its physical limits, researchers increase the effort to prolong the CMOS life. Also, it is necessary to investigate alternative devices, which in many cases implies the use of different basic logic operations. As the commercial synthesis tools are not able to handle these technologies efficiently, there is an opportunity to research alternative logic implementations better suited for these new devices. This thesis focuses on presenting efficient algorithms to design circuits in both CMOS and new technologies while integrating these algorithms into regular design flows. For this task, we apply the functional composition technique, to efficiently synthesize both CMOS and emerging technologies. The functional composition is a bottom-up synthesis approach, providing flexibility to implement algorithms with optimal or suboptimal results for different technologies. To investigate how the functional composition compares to the state-of-the-art synthesis methods, we propose to apply this synthesis paradigm into six different scenarios. Two of them focus on CMOS-based circuits, and other four are based on emerging technologies. Regarding CMOSbased circuits, we investigate functional composition to investigate multi-output factorization in a circuit resynthesis flow. Also, we manipulate approximate functions to synthesize approximate triple modular redundancy (ATMR) modules. Concerning emerging technologies, we explore functional composition over spin-diode circuits and other promising approaches based on different logic implementations: threshold logic, majority logic, and implication logic. Results present a considerable improvement over the state-of-the-art methods for both CMOS and emerging technologies applications, demonstrating the ability to handle different technologies and showing the possibility to improve technologies not explored yet.

Increasing plant species richness generally enhances plant biomass production, which may enhance accumulation of carbon (C) in soil. However, the net change in soil C also depends on the effect of plant diversity on C loss through decomposition of organic matter. Plant diversity can affect organic matter decomposition via changes in litter species diversity and composition, and via alteration of abiotic and/or biotic attributes of the soil (soil legacy effect). Previous studies examined the two effects on decomposition rates separately, and do therefore not elucidate the relative importance of the two effects, and their potential interaction. Here we separated the effects of litter mixing and litter identity from the soil legacy effect by conducting a factorial laboratory experiment where two fresh single root litters and their mixture were mixed with soils previously cultivated with single plant species or mixtures of two or four species. We found no evidence for litter-mixing effects. In contrast, root litter-induced CO2 production was greater in soils from high diversity plots than in soils from monocultures, regardless of the type of root litter added. Soil microbial PLFA biomass and composition at the onset of the experiment was unaffected by plant species richness, whereas soil potential nitrogen (N) mineralization rate increased with plant species richness. Our results indicate that the soil legacy effect may be explained by changes in soil N availability. There was no effect of plant species richness on decomposition of a recalcitrant substrate (compost). This suggests that the soil legacy effect predominantly acted on the decomposition of labile organic matter. We thus demonstrated that plant species richness enhances root litter-induced soil respiration via a soil legacy effect but not via a litter-mixing effect. This implies that the positive impacts of species richness on soil C sequestration may be weakened by accelerated organic matter decomposition.

Functional traits reflect plant responses to disturbance, including from visitor impacts. The impacts of mountain biking and hiking on functional composition were compared using a common experimental protocol in a subalpine grassland in the Australian Alps. The overlapping cover of all species was recorded two weeks after different intensities of hiking (200 and 500 passes) and mountain biking (none, 25, 75, 200 and 500 passes). Species' functional trait data were combined with their relative cover to calculate community trait weighted means for plant height, leaf area, percentage leaf dry matter content and Specific Leaf Area (SLA). Species such as Poa fawcettiae with larger leaves and SLA but lower dry weight content of leaves were more resistant to use, with differences between bikers and hikers only apparent at the highest levels of use tested. This differs from some vegetation communities in Europe where plants with smaller leaves were more resistant to hiking. More research using functional traits may account for differences in species responses to trampling. Managers of conservation areas used for hiking and biking need to minimise off trail use by both user groups. Fil: Pickering, Catherine Marina. Griffith University; Australia Fil: Barros, Ana Agustina. Griffith University; Australia. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina

We analysed data from descriptive and experimental studies on the possible relationships between plants, nematodes and mycorrhizal fungi in (successional) plant communities in The Netherlands. A key role for pathogenic nematodes in cyclic succession in grazed grassland confirmed similar results in foredune succession. Plants with clonal growth forms appear to be particularly susceptible to pathogenic fungi. A large role for ectomycorrhiza at the species level (functional composition) was observed in determining the effects of acid rain and increased atmospheric CO2 on nutrient transfer to trees. Field studies showed a correlation between species richness of ectomycorrhizal fungi and hyphal-feeding nematodes in one case, but not in another. Population growth of hyphal-feeding nematodes on ectomycorrhizal hyphae was found to be strongly dependent on plant-mediated palatability of the fungus. We conclude that the limited available evidence suggests the importance of functional composition of species in determining interactions between plants, nematodes and mycorrhizal fungi, but the degree to which functional redundancy exists within the nematodes and within the mycorrhizal fungi warrants further investigation.

In order to determine the mechanisms that drive changes in plant community composition across spatial and temporal scales, plant functional traits were used to interpret the results of a repeat species survey across a gradient of five alpine summits in south-east Australia. Vegetation changes were strongly affected by the high and increasing proportion of tall shrubs and graminoids, especially at the lower elevation summits. Several significant relationships between the community trait-weighted mean of different traits and elevation may suggest processes such as competition are influencing vegetation preferentially across the elevation gradient, with shrubs and graminoids driving these patterns., Classical approaches to investigating temporal and spatial changes in community composition offer only partial insight into the ecology that drives species distribution, community patterns and processes, whereas a functional approach can help to determine many of the underlying mechanisms that drive such patterns. Here, we aim to bring these two approaches together to understand such drivers, using an elevation gradient of sites, a repeat species survey and species functional traits. We used data from a repeat vegetation survey on five alpine summits and measured plant height, leaf area, leaf dry matter content and specific leaf area (SLA) for every species recorded in the surveys. We combined species abundances with trait values to produce a community trait-weighted mean (CTWM) for each trait, and then combined survey results with the CTWMs. Across the gradient of summits, more favourable conditions for plant growth (warmer, longer growing season) occurred at the lower elevations. Vegetation composition changes between 2004 and 2011 (according to non-metric multi-dimensional scaling ordination) were strongly affected by the high and increasing abundance of species with high SLA at high elevations. Species life-form categories strongly affected compositional changes and functional composition, with increasing dominance of tall shrubs and graminoids at the lower-elevation summits, and an overall increase in graminoids across the gradient. The CTWM for plant height and leaf dry matter content significantly decreased with elevation, whereas for leaf area and SLA it significantly increased. The significant relationships between CTWM and elevation may suggest specific ecological processes, namely plant competition and local productivity, influencing vegetation preferentially across the elevation gradient, with the dominance of shrubs and graminoids driving the patterns in the CTWMs.

The aim of this study was to examine the dynamics of functional composition of a non flooded Amazonian forest in response to drought stress in terms of diameter growth, recruitment and mortality. The survey was carried out in the continuous forest of the Biological dynamics of forest fragments project 90 km outside the city of Manaus, state of Amazonas Brazil. All stems >10 cm dbh where identified to species level and monitored in 18 one hectare permanent sample plots from 1981 to 2004.For statistical analysis all species where aggregated in three ecological guilds. Two distinct drought events occurred in 1983 and 1997. Results showed that more early successional species performed better than later successional ones. 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La difficulté de prédire les services rendus par les prairies permanentes par une approche phytosociologique ou bien par des descripteurs des pratiques et du milieu peut être levée par l'application des concepts et principes de l'écologie fonctionnelle. Dans une première partie, nous montrons comment ils peuvent être mobilisés pour définir des types de plantes qualifiés de fonctionnels car répondant de manière générique aux caractéristiques de l'environnement et aux pratiques, et ayant des effets génériques sur les services fourragers. Dans une deuxième partie, nous examinons la pertinence de l'approche pour 1 283 prairies réparties sur 8 sites (Alpes, Auxois, Aveyron, Aubrac, Jura, Normandie, Pays Basque et Pyrénées centrales). Nous définissons 13 types de prairies correspondant à des assemblages distincts de types fonctionnels ; l'environnement et les pratiques étant caractérisés d'une part par 8 indices d'Ellenberg et d'autre part par des données climatiques et des descripteurs des pratiques. Dans une troisième partie, nous discutons de l'intérêt de l'approche fonctionnelle pour comprendre la structuration des communautés, estimer les effets de changements concernant le climat et les pratiques, puis prédire des services intrants et hors revenu agricole., Applying the principles of functional ecology helps better predict the services which can be provided by permanent grassland. Farming practices and environmental characteristics influence the functional composition of grassland. Functional plant types have a generic effect on forage services which can be assessed. 13 types of grassland composed of distinct functional types were defined based on 1,283 sample grassland fields located on 8 sites. This approach was validated by checking 8 Ellenberg indicator values (used to evaluate environmental characteristics and farming practices) against climatic data and descriptive data for farming practices. The interest of a functional approach is discussed as a means of understanding the structure of plant communities, estimating the effect of changes in climatic conditions and farming practices, and predicting input services and services not included in farm income.

International audience; Agricultural intensification has been recognized as an important driver of declines in biodiversity and ecosystem services. Changes in agricultural policy aims to mitigate these declines, but little is known about actual outcome of large scale changes in agricultural policy on communities of service-providing organisms. Two data sets containing captures of ground beetles (Carabidae) collected at an interval of 24 years were analyzed; the data were collected in the same area in Sweden under different environmental conditions before and after the introduction of a national pesticide risk reduction program. Environmental changes were analyzed by considering indicators of land use and agricultural management over time. Ground beetles collected over the whole season were considered and species were categorized according to functional traits. Environmental changes between the two time periods were characterized by increases in fallow and organic farming and a strong reduction in the amount of pesticide active ingredients sold and risk factors associated with pesticides. Although there were no changes in ground beetle species richness and community evenness after mitigation of agricultural intensification, there were differences in dominance distribution and functional composition. Ground beetles collected in the 1980s had higher proportions of carnivorous, cursorial, and small and intermediate size beetles than those collected in 2003. Communities sampled in 2003 had increased proportions of omnivorous, mobile, spring breeding, and large beetle species. These shifts in functional characteristics of ground beetle communities may improve biological control of cereal aphids and reduce variability in this ecosystem service over time.

Part 2: Full Papers; International audience; This paper presents a composition engine that handles User interface (UI) in the context of application composition. The aim is to detect and manage conflicts that may arise when composing UI driven by business needs. The originality of this composition engine is to reason at an Abstract level which simplifies the composition algorithm and makes it reusable and oblivious to technology. The composition engine is the core of the Alias framework that reduces the re-engineering efforts needed to obtain the UI of an application built by composition of smaller ones following the "programming in the large" paradigm.