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Extensive literature has documented the contribution of rising women's education to decreases in completed cohort fertility (CCF). A key question related to the education-fertility relationship is to what extent the decrease in fertility is the result of changes in educational composition vs changes in fertility behaviours within educational categories. This study quantified the effect of educational expansion on fertility levels by decomposing the overall change in CCF into educational composition and education-specific fertility, and explored the changes in parity-specific components of CCF by education for cohorts born between 1940 and 1970. The results show that, despite the decline in CCF being caused mostly by changes in fertility behaviours, educational composition had a considerable impact for some cohorts. The decline in third and higher-order births played a central role in the fall in CCF across educational groups, while the effects of transitions to first and second births varied substantially.

Horseradish cultivars are highly heterozygous clones and are maintained through asexual propagation, using root cuttings. For many years, horseradish was believed to be sterile and therefore impossible to improve by traditional sexual crosses. Prior to the 20th century, the only way to improve horseradish was to select and plant root cuttings from the most desirable plants. Moreover, the development of new improved horseradish cultivars has also been somewhat limited by the lack of viable seed resulting from low fertility of horseradish flowers. However, in Illinois, USA, a horseradish breeding program was initiated in the 1950s to develop additional cultivars to widen the genetic base of the few cultivars being grown at the time. In more recent years, the proven cross breeding technique has been primarily used to obtain new genotypes of horseradish, since it is more efficient in producing new improved cultivars, compared to the polycross method that had been previously used for decades to obtain new genetic combinations. Since horseradish is a minor specialty crop with very little available information regarding breeding procedures, this review was developed to provide a better understanding of pollination barriers and methods for fertility improvement, traditional breeding procedures and cultivar development, and traditional breeding achievements and limitations. The development of new horseradish cultivars is essential for the sustained success of the Illinois, USA industry since it provides growers with a continuous supply of new selections that have increased vigor, outstanding root quality, and high yields.

The aim of this research is to build on a theory for explaining economic development in a (neoclassical) growth model with endogenous fertility. The economy is inhabited by overlapping generations of rational and identical individuals and identical competitive firms producing with a constant-returns-to-scale technology and no externalities. From a theoretical perspective, the distinguishing feature of this work is that endogenous fertility per se explains the existence of low- and high-development regimes. It provides different reasons (history driven or expectations driven) why some countries enter development trajectories with high GDP and low fertility and others experience underperformances with low GDP and high fertility. The model is also capable to reproduce fertility fluctuations and explain the baby busts and baby booms observed in the last century in some developed countries.

The present paper scrutinizes the correlates of the non-use of contraception among young women in Italy. To this end we consulted two releases of Selfy (Sexual and Emotional LiFe of Youths) survey, which offer information for a nationally sample of university students. The results reveal that the likelihood of non-using contraception is higher among women living in the South and among those with previous experience of unsafe sexual behaviours. The risk of unprotected sex is also higher within a group of students who are relatively older than the others and live in a stable cohabiting union.

Following the rapid and intense decrease after the “babyboom”, today Italy is one of the nations with the lowest fertility rate, In recent time the Total Fertility Rate (TFR) was equal to 1.35, very close to the so-called “lowest low fertility” threshold. These low values of fertility not only impact on the population’s age structure, but also on social welfare systems since the increasing share of elderly needs more financial aid while the support from the working age population decreases. But is this decline at the national level? Do some determinants of the TFR act more in a specific territory?

For a sample of Central and Eastern European countries, characterized by historically high female labor force participation and currently low fertility rates, we analyze whether fathers' increased involvement in the family (housework and childcare) has the potential of increasing both fertility and maternal employment. Using two waves of the Generations and Gender Survey, we show that more paternal involvement in the family increases the likelihood that the mother will have a second child and work full-time. Men's fertility and work decisions are instead unrelated to mothers' housework and childcare. We also show that fathers' involvement in housework plays a more important role than involvement in childcare. The role of fathers' involvement in housework is confirmed when we consider women who initially wanted or intended to have a child, whose partner also wanted a child, or who intended to continue working.

This study investigates the effect of grandparental childcare on the second birth in China when considering the mediating role of maternal labor participation, drawing on the China Migrants Dynamic Survey in 2016. By controlling sample selection bias and endogeneity with an endogenous switching Probit regression model, our analysis finds that grandparental childcare of the first child has a positive and significant effect on the second birth regardless of whether the mother participates in the labor market or not. To further understand how the positive effect comes to be, we make a mediation analysis which demonstrates the mediating effect of maternal labor force participation. It indicates a significant and negative effect of grandparenting on the second birth through promoting maternal employment. However, due to the positive, direct effect of the grandparental childcare on the second birth, the total effect is still positive.

Aquest treball ha estat acceptat a la XXV International Population Conference de la IUSSP, que es celebrarà a Tours (França) 18-23 de juliol de 2005. Eurobarometer is a survey done twice a year by the European Union to know the opinion of Europeans. This survey covering all the EU Member States and the candidate countries has a very significant sample at European level. Each wave includes a series of thematic questionnaires covering diverse issues of interest for the EU policy-makers. For instance, the Standard Eurobarometer number 56.2 (2001), included a series of questions on actual and ideal fertility for EU-15. These questions were repeated the following year in the Candidate Countries: therefore results for 28 countries in total are available. Several recent Eurobarometers have also included questions on the distribution of family responsibilities between men and women. This research analyses all these results to show if there is some relation between low fertility and tasks sharing, as women are increasing their participation in the labour market but continue being in charge of most of the reproductive tasks. L'Eurobaròmetre és una enquesta realitzada per la Unió Europea dues vegades a l'any, que té com a finalitat conèixer l'opinió dels ciutadans europeus. Aquesta enquesta, que cobreix tant els estats membres de la UE com els països candidats a l'adhesió, té una mostra molt àmplia a escala europea. Cada enquesta inclou una sèrie de qüestionaris temàtics que cobreixen diversos temes d'interès pels polítics de la UE. Per exemple, l'Eurobaròmetre Estàndard 56.2 (2001) inclou un conjunt de preguntes sobre fecunditat ideal i efectiva a la UE-15. Aquestes preguntes es varen repetir al 2002 pels països candidats: com a conseqüència, es disposa de resultats per 25 països. Alguns Eurobaròmetres recents inclouen, a més a més, preguntes sobre la distribució de les responsabilitats familiars entre homes i dones. Aquesta investigació analitza aquests resultats per demostrar si existeix alguna relació entre baixa fecunditat i repartiment de tasques en un context en el que les dones estan incrementant la seva participació en el mercat de treball, però continuen encarregant-se de la majoria de les tasques reproductives. El Eurobarómetro es una encuesta realizada por la Unión Europea dos veces al año que tiene como finalidad conocer la opinión de los ciudadanos europeos. Esta encuesta, que cubre tanto los Estados Miembros de la UE como los países candidatos a la adhesión, tiene una muestra muy amplia a escala europea. Cada oleada incluye una serie de cuestionarios temáticos que cubren diversos temas de interés para los políticos de la UE. Por ejemplo, el Eurobarómetro Estándar 56.2 (2001) incluyó una serie de preguntas sobre fecundidad ideal y efectiva en la UE-15. Estas preguntas se repitieron en 2002 para los países candidatos: en consecuencia, se dispone de resultados para 25 países. Algunos Eurobarómetros recientes han incluido además preguntas sobre la distribución de las responsabilidades familiares entre hombres y mujeres. Esta investigación analiza estos resultados para demostrar si existe algún tipo de relación entre baja fecundidad y reparto de tareas en un contexto en el que las mujeres están incrementando su participación en el mercado de trabajo pero continúan encargándose de la mayoría de las tareas reproductivas.

An increase in the productivity of animals is possible only with the use of deep knowledge of the relationship of the organism with the environment. New technologies for the reproduction, management and raising of animals are inevitably accompanied by industrial stresses, which create the preconditions for a weakening of the general condition of the body and a decrease in hormonal status, which leads to disorder of the ovulatory response of the ovaries, to decrease of rate fertilization and fertility of animals, and a decrease in the profitability of the industry. The goal of research is to analyze the reasons for the low fertility of animals, methods and ways of its correction for the formation of a full-rate sexual cycle.

La realización de las entrevistas en profundidad se llevó a cabo gracias a la financiación de la ONG Acción Familiar, en el marco del proyecto de investigación sobre la relación familia-trabajo llevado a cabo entre 2017 y 2019. En un escenario de fecundidad muy baja entre las bajas como el español, caracterizado por una transición al aplazamiento en la tenencia del primer hijo, este artículo aborda las percepciones y las valoraciones más relevantes que estarían influyendo en el retraso de la tenencia del primer hijo entre las personas de 25 a 45 años residentes en la Comunidad de Madrid. A partir de la teoría del comportamiento planificado (TPB) aplicada al ámbito de las decisiones reproductivas, y mediante los resultados de 16 entrevistas en profundidad realizadas en 2017 a mujeres y hombres, se indaga si la percepción de efectos negativos esperados, de presiones sociales normativas y la dependencia de circunstancias externas están incidiendo directamente sobre la intención de aplazar la tenencia del primer hijo. Con la integración de aportaciones relevantes de la literatura sobre los determinantes de la fecundidad, se aporta evidencia cualitativa de los factores que inciden sobre este retraso. La percepción de penalización para la mujer en el ámbito laboral remunerado asociada a la llegada de los hijos -especialmente con relación al ascenso y a la progresión profesional-, la percepción de costes personales en términos de ocio y libertad de movimiento, y el no alcance de la estabilidad económica considerada como idónea para la crianza de los hijos hasta edades tardías estarían incidiendo en el retraso de la tenencia del primer hijo. La presión social normativa tendría menor incidencia, mientras que la alta valoración atribuida a la autonomía individual estaría influyendo en las intenciones de aplazamiento. En un escenari de fecunditat molt baixa entre les baixes com l'espanyol, caracteritzat per una transició a l'ajornament en la tinença del primer fill, aquest article aborda les percepcions i les valoracions més rellevants que estarien influint en el retard de la tinença del primer fill entre les persones de 25 a 45 anys residents a la Comunitat de Madrid. A partir de la teoria del comportament planificat (TPB) aplicada a l'àmbit de les decisions reproductives, i mitjançant els resultats de 16 entrevistes en profunditat realitzades el 2017 a dones i homes, s'indaga si la percepció d'efectes negatius esperats, de pressions socials normatives i la dependència de circumstàncies externes incideixen directament sobre la intenció d'ajornar la tinença del primer fill. Amb la integració d'aportacions rellevants de la literatura sobre els determinants de la fecunditat, s'aporta evidència qualitativa dels factors que incideixen sobre aquest retard. La percepció de penalització per a la dona en l'àmbit laboral remunerat associada a l'arribada dels fills -especialment en relació amb l'ascens i la progressió professional-, la percepció de costos personals en termes d'oci i llibertat de moviment, i el fet de no assolir l'estabilitat econòmica considerada com a idònia per a la criança dels fills fins a edats tardanes estarien incidint en l'endarreriment de la tinença del primer fill. La pressió social normativa tindria menor incidència, mentre que l'alta valoració atribuïda a l'autonomia individual estaria influint en les intencions d'ajornament. In a scenario of lowest-low fertility levels like the Spanish one, characterized by a postponement transition, especially for first births, this paper looks into the most relevant perceptions and values which may be affecting the childbearing delay for the first child among people aged between 25 and 45 in the Community of Madrid. Based upon the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) applied to the fertility decision-making process, and by means of 16 in-depth qualitative interviews carried out in 2017 among women and men, the article aims at inquiring whether the expected negative outcomes of having a child, the perceived normative social pressures and the perception of dependence on external factors, are directly influencing the decision of having a first child. This article includes significant contributions from studies about fertility determinants and provides qualitative evidence about the factors that have an impact on this delay. The perceived motherhood penalty in the labor market, specially related to career progression, the perceived negative outcomes in terms of leisure time and freedom of movement, and the late achievement of the economic stability considered as ideal in order to have a child, may be having an impact on the postponement of the first childbearing. Our results suggest that social normative pressure may be less influential in Spain, while the high value attributed to individual autonomy may contribute to the delay of parenthood.

Background: Studies investigating the correspondence of birth intentions and birth outcomes focus mainly on women’s and men’s intentions separately and disregard the fact that reproductive decision-making is dyadic. Objective: We examine the intention–outcome link for fertility taking a genuine couple-level approach. We aim to understand whether a heterosexual couple’s conflict is solved in favour or against childbirth and whether the male or the female partner prevails in the decision-making. Methods: Drawing on data from the survey Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia (HILDA), we perform logistic regressions in which couples are the unit of analysis and the variables are computed by combining both partners’ characteristics. Results: Results show that disagreement about having a first child is located between ‘agreement on yes’ and ‘agreement on not,’ with half of disagreeing couples having a child. By contrast, disagreement about having another child is shifted more towards ‘agreement on not’ and most often prevents the birth of a child. Women prevail in the decision of having a first child, irrespective of gender equity within the couple, while a symmetric double-veto model is at work if the decision concerns a second or additional child. Conclusions: Couple disagreement is not always sufficient to prevent the birth of a child in a low fertility country such as Australia, and the increasing level of gender equity within the couple does not necessarily imply increasing female decision-making power on childbearing issues. Contribution: The predictive power of fertility intentions is more accurate in models including both partners’ views. Fertility-related policies should consider the dyadic nature of fertility decisions.

The ten countries with the fastest shrinking population are all located in Eastern Europe, with low fertility as one of the leading causes. In this article, we analyze the privatization of companies as a potential but so far neglected factor behind the postsocialist fertility decline. We argue that privatization is linked to lower fertility by catalyzing uncertainty, shifting the cost of care work onto families, and reducing the resources available to support social reproduction. We test this hypothesis using a novel database comprising information on the demographic and enterprise trajectories of 52 Hungarian towns between 1989-2006 and a cross-country dataset of 28 countries in Eastern Europe. We fit fixed and random-effects models adjusting for potential confounding factors and control for time-variant factors and common trends. We find that company privatization is significantly associated with the postsocialist fertility decline. The observed level of privatization among Hungarian towns corresponds to 0.37 fewer childbirths per woman on average, i.e., approximately 54.3% of the overall fertility decline. Cross-country fixed effects models covering 28 former socialist-bloc countries for the 1989-2012 period confirm the town-level findings. The observed level of privatization among postsocialist countries might explain approximately 49.75% of the overall fertility decline.

This study reviews the institutional factors that have influenced the fertility and family trends in five East Asian societies that experienced a precipitous transition to very low fertility: China, Japan, Hong Kong, South Korea and Taiwan. The paper begins by outlining the unique family formation patterns of these societies and the existing explanations for their observed ultra-low fertility levels. In particular, it highlights the role of Confucian culture, which emphasises patriarchal values and credentialism, in shaping the current state of low fertility in East Asia. For example, the ways in which Confucianism affects women’s roles at home, the effectiveness of pronatalist policies and the burden of human capital investments among parents are discussed. With these contextual factors and the current very low fertility rates as a backdrop, this study also examines attitudinal changes in marriage and family values that have taken place in these societies after the new millennium. These changes could further erode the traditional family and influence family formation trends in the future. The article concludes by discussing recent policy responses and the possible future of fertility in East Asia.

Background Although advances in medical technologies now allow greater reproductive options, the social acceptance of assisted reproductive technologies (ART) has not been examined in East Asian countries which currently have the lowest fertility rates in the world and highly prohibitive regulations. Methods A cross-sectional telephone surveys interviewed 990 among Hong Kong Chinese adults (>18 years of age) in 2015 who were asked about their knowledge and attitudes towards various ART and their inclination to use ART. A focus group was conducted (n = 30) on physicians to examine the perceived barriers and benefits of integrating ART as routine offerings. Results Although nearly all adults (>92.0%) were familiar with ART procedures such as in vitro fertilization, sperm banking, and gestational surrogacy, attitudes supporting the use of these services and the inclination to use these services varied widely by socio-demographic attributes. Nearly one-third (31.5%) of women said that they would consider cryopreservation of their oocytes or embryos if they could afford it and 21.9% would encourage their female family members to do so. Although respondents considered sperm donation and embryo preservation to be well-accepted practices, support for these services was noticeably lower than in Western countries for unmarried individuals and homosexuals. Also, the vast majority of respondents were much more disinclined to use anonymous donor gametes than in Western countries. Among medical practitioners, the primary barriers to routine offering of these services to their clients was the perceived lack of cultural acceptance of these types of services. Conclusions Public support of assisted reproductive services for genetic offspring is well-accepted for heterosexual couples. Main Messages: Asian countries with sub-replacement fertility levels may consider integrating ART into their mainstream health services and updating their regulatory frameworks. Key messages Public support for assisted reproductive technologies is high for married couples only in Hong Kong. Given the sub-replacement fertility levels, cities in East Asia should consider updating regulatory frameworks to allow expansion of ART services.

Objectives The low fertility of highly weathered soils has been a major problem for resource-constrained smallholder farmers. In central Uganda, smallholder farmers have been collecting termite mound soils anywhere around the termite mound to improve their soil fertility. However, no studies have been conducted on which sections of the termite mounds consist of high soil nutrients. This study was conducted to assess selected major soil essential plant nutrients of soils collected from the top of the mound (TPMS), and the basal part of the mound (BPMS). The surrounding soil samples were collected from five, fifteen, and thirty meters away from the mound (TMSS1, TMSS2, and TMSS3 respectively), covering ten termite mounds in five different maize fields in central Uganda. Results TPMS and BPMS had significant (P-value

After decades of fertility postponement, we investigate recent changes in late parenthood across low-fertility countries in the light of observations from the past. We use long series of age-specific fertility rates from the Human Fertility Database (1950– 2016) for women, and new data covering the period 1990–2016 for men. In 1950, the contribution of births at age 40 and over to female fertility rates ranged from 2.5 to 9 percent, but then fell sharply until the 1980s. From the 1990s, however, the prevalence of late first births increased rapidly, especially so in countries where it was initially lowest. This has produced a late fertility rebound in the last two decades, occurring much faster for women than for men. Comparisons between recent and past extremely late (age 48+) fertility levels confirm that people are now challenging the natural fertility barriers, particularly for a first child.

The ongoing period fertility decline in the Nordic countries is particularly strong in Finland, where the total fertility rate (TFR) reached an all-time low of 1.41 in 2018. We analyse the decrease in Finland's TFR in 2010–17, and assess its consequences for cohort fertility using complementary approaches. Decomposition of this fertility decline shows that first births and women aged

Background: Most research on migrant fertility focuses on immigrants from high-fertility countries who have moved to countries with lower fertility. Little is known about the fertility of immigrant women from countries where fertility is lower than in the destination country. Objective: This study investigates fertility rates among women from low-fertility countries who have moved to a country where fertility is comparatively higher (Norway). Methods: Register data on immigrant women from Poland, Lithuania, and Germany are used to calculate total fertility rates by duration of stay and to explore differences between family migrants and women who migrate for other reasons, between women of different ages at arrival, and between those who emigrated again and those who remained in Norway. Results: Among immigrants from low-fertility countries, total fertility rates are elevated in the first years after migration. This is particularly true for women from Poland and Lithuania, who often arrive as family migrants and at peak fertility age (25 to 34 years). Contribution: The fertility among migrants from low-fertility settings is often highest right after migration, particularly if they arrive as family migrants. Women with nonfamily reasons for migration have a time lag between immigration and peak fertility. The results underscore the usefulness of taking reason for and age at migration into account when studying immigrant fertility. This research was supported by the Swedish Research Council for Health, Working Life and Welfare (FORTE), grant number 2018-00310, and the Swedish Initiative for Research on Microdata in the Social and Medical Sciences (SIMSAM), grant 340-2013- 5164, as well as Statistics Norway.

The purpose of this article is to empirically find the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) relationship between income and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and to analyze the influence of population aging on such emissions. We utilize Korean regional panel data of 16 provinces during the period from 1998 to 2016. To account for the nonstationary time series in the panel, we employ a fully modified ordinary least squares (FMOLS) and estimate long-run elasticity. From the empirical results, we can find the nonlinear relationship between income and CO2 emissions. Additionally, we verify the fact that population aging reduces CO2 emissions. A 1% increase in the proportion of the elderly results in a 0.4% decrease in CO2 emissions. On the other hand, the younger population increases CO2 emissions. These results were in line with those of additional analysis on residential and transportation CO2 emissions, for the robustness check.

Italy and Spain are extreme cases of low fertility linked to postponement of childbearing. Demographers continue to debate causes of postponement. This qualitative study was designed to contribute, by purposively selecting Italian and Spanish women in different socio-economic circumstances who are partnered, childless and aged 30 to 35. Most want children but “not now” or are deferring the decision whether to have children. Their different circumstances inflect explanations of postponement in a language of choice, either “taking time” to achieve other goals or “holding on” for conditions to change. They are encouraged to postpone by optimism about their capacity to conceive, flexible norms about “the right age,” prolonged dependence on their parents, the normative salience of “total motherhood,” and family-unfriendly, gender-unequal workplaces. Elements of competing demographic theories often coexist in interviewees’ accounts. The ‘desire-intentions-behaviour gap’ does not always capture their flow or complexity.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES The objective of this study was to evaluate the viability of Inseminating Doses (DI) of pigs with ejaculates classified as sensitive to packaging at 17 ℃, plus chlorogenic acid and to identify which concentration of the antioxidant obtained the best efficiency in maintaining the fertilizing capacity over 168 hours. Stage I included 25 pigs, collected once a week, for 5 consecutive weeks, totaling 5 ejaculates per animal. The produced DIs were analyzed for Progressive sperm motility (MP) at hours 0, 120 and 168 and classified in groups, according to the sensitivity to cooling, being higher, medium and lower sensitivity, tabulating and classifying the data in a spreadsheet of the as follows: MP

Son preference among Hindus and Muslims, in the context of ‘ultra-low’ fertility, is highly debated with respect to fertility and contraceptive use differentials by religion. This paper reveals that for the Hindus, son preference remains masked and co-opted through the acceptance of the daughter in the family. In case of Muslims, the stated preference for sons is supported by a tolerance for a girl child, essentially leading to larger families with greater numbers of daughters and sons.

By conducting a decomposition analysis on ethnicity-specific fertility changes since the 1970s, we show nuptiality rather than marital fertility has been the main driving force for all major ethnic groups in Singapore. Using a micro-level data, we examine first marriage timings of Singaporean youths to show (1) gender differentials in the effects of ethnicity and managerial, professional, and special first occupations, and (2) gender indifferences in the effects of birth country and extending schooling. We discuss their consequences on population structures under prevalent phenomena of international and inter-ethnic marriages in Singapore.

This chapter compares the relationship between young adults’ types of employment and their rates of marriage/cohabitation in Japan, South Korea, and Singapore with that in the UK, France, and Sweden. It is hypothesized that young adults in non-regular employment, those with low incomes and those who are unemployed, are less likely to be married or cohabiting, or to aspire to do so. The hypothesis was generally confirmed in males from each of the countries listed above in a logistic regression analysis using data on 20- to 49-year-old young adults. Those with low incomes and those who were unemployed tended to have a low probability of getting married or cohabiting in all countries. This relationship was particularly strong in Japan and South Korea. Unemployed females at the time of their first job also had a low probability of being married or cohabiting in Singapore and the three European countries. The results suggest that the increasing gaps in employment and income for young men decrease their likelihood of marriage in the Asian countries. Taking measures to improve employment opportunities and conditions for young adults is important.

Japan has had unacceptably low fertility since the mid-1970s, but the government did not officially recognize low fertility as a problem and initiate countermeasures against it until the early-1990s, when the low fertility was spurred by the “1.57 shock.” For about 20 years, policy designed as a countermeasure has been based on two pillars: increasing the number of childcare facilities and supporting a desirable work-life balance. However, the total fertility rate remains low because of a mismatch between the main targets of policy: couples in which both partners are regular employees, particularly in big cities, and the actual reasons for low fertility. These reasons are: (1) increasing hesitation among young adults to get married because of deteriorating employment opportunities and (2) the heavy financial burdens on families where mothers are either homemakers or part-time workers and on families that face the dual burden of childrearing and educational costs. Therefore, in addition to the childcare and work-life balance approach, policies likely to increase fertility should focus on lightening the financial burdens of parenthood and education and on improving employment options and opportunities for single young adults.

Background: Difficulties with work‒family reconciliation contribute to explaining the low participation of women in the labour market and low fertility levels in several developed countries. Understanding how much different types of childcare can help mothers to balance family and work is crucial for implementing ad hoc policies. Objective: This study examines whether working mothers' satisfaction with work‒family balance is associated with different combinations of paid and unpaid childcare arrangements. Difficulties in using different types of childcare are also considered. Methods: We use random effects models on panel data from the Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia (HILDA) survey (2003‒2013). Results: Results show that a balanced mix of paid and unpaid childcare is associated with mothers' highest satisfaction. Difficulties related to the affordability and the flexibility of paid childcare negatively relate to the satisfaction with work‒family balance. Moreover, even after adjusting for experienced difficulties, the "mixed" arrangement guarantees the most satisfying combination of work and family responsibilities. Contribution: Taken together, our analyses are suggestive of the idea that improving the flexibility and the affordability of paid childcare services is a way to increase mothers' satisfaction with the work‒family balance. The issue might become even more urgent if we consider that grandparents' availability is not so obvious in a context where young people work and live at long distance from their original family, and when age at first (grand)parenthood is increasing.

This paper investigates the associations between stress and fatigue arising from hectic lifestyles and marital coital activity in Singapore, where the fertility rate is among the lowest in the world. Using data on 657 married women’s self-reported daily coital activity collected through online diaries over 14 weeks (n = 54,600), I estimate that marital sexual frequency is 3.69 and 2.55 per 30 days on average among women aged 25-29 and 30-34 respectively, well below ideal frequencies of 6.40 and 5.23. Results from two-way logistic models show that there is a strong positive weekend effect and a positive but weaker public holiday effect, with very low probabilities of sex during the workweek among older married women. Stress has a significant inhibition effect through the week among older women, and has a stronger effect on couples who are likely to want more children. On the other hand, fatigue reduces probability of sex mainly during the workweek, and has a stronger effect on couples who have already achieved their ideal family size. The results suggest that the incompatibility between demanding work-life environments and healthy marital sex lives contributes to the decline in coital frequency with age and helps to explain the very low fertility rate in Singapore.

Whether China’s low fertility rate is the consequence of the country’s strict population control policy is a puzzling question. This paper attempts to disentangle the Chinese population control policy’s impacts on the fertility rate from socioeconomic factors using the synthetic control method proposed by Abadie and Gardeazabal (2003). The results indicate that the population control policy significantly decreased China’s birth rate after the “Later, Longer, and Fewer” policy came into force, but had little effect on the birth rate in the long run. We estimate that between 164.2 million and 268.3 million prevented births from 1971 to 2016 can be attributed to the Chinese population control policy. In addition, we implement a placebo study to check the validity of the method and confirm the robustness of the paper’s conclusions.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the determinants of the gap between attitudes toward family size and actual/expected family size in Japan and South Korea. This study found that there is a gap between the desired and actual/expected number of children in both Japan and South Korea. Furthermore, the following common points and differences between the two countries were observed as factors that influence the discrepancy. In both Japan and South Korea, the employee benefits and family-related factors had no effect. It was observed that employment status was a point of difference between the two countries. In Japan, the gap was smaller for women employed regular workers than for unemployed women. By contrast, in South Korea, the woman’s employment status had no significant effect. This result suggests that the targets of countermeasures for low fertility will be different in each country. Finally, the effect of attitude-related factors was different in Japan and South Korea. However, there is a possibility of simultaneity bias in the association between having the desired number of children and attitudinal variables; therefore, it is necessary to be mindful of the causal relationships between variables. Future research might focus on the methodological problems, including validating the possibility of simultaneity bias.

The families of our participants have been formed in times of change and are products of individual biographies located within the specific histories of Britain and Hong Kong. Changes in the structure, meaning and practices of family life since the mid-twentieth century have been observed in many parts of the world and have given rise to new approaches to the study of personal and domestic life. In both European and East Asian countries, attention has been drawn to demographic shifts such as late marriage, falling rates of marriage, rising divorce rates and low fertility.