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Learning Objectives: After participating in this activity, learners should be better able to: • Assess the effects of postnatal depression on parenting. • Evaluate the relationships between oxytocin and postnatal depression. • Assess the use of oxytocin to improve parenting. Objective: To carry out a systematic review exploring the interconnections between oxytocin, postnatal depression (PND), and parenting. Questions include: (1) How does PND affect parenting? (2) How does oxytocin affect parenting? (3) How does oxytocin affect PND? Methodology: To review English articles in major medical databases. Results: Compared to nondepressed controls, mothers with PND interact with their infants less sensitively, report feeling less competent, and less often choose recommended practical-parenting strategies. Psychological interventions for mothers with PND generally have positive effects on mother-infant interactions. The administration of oxytocin in community samples tends to improve parental behaviors. Findings exploring the association between oxytocin and PND were inconsistent, with some evidence that oxytocin has a negative impact on mood. Conclusions: Oxytocin is potentially useful in improving parental behaviors of mothers with PND, but more research is needed to establish its safety because of the uncertain impact of OT on maternal mood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

El presente trabajo presenta una articulación entre resultados provenientes de la investigación empírica observacional en díadas madre-bebé y conceptualizaciones psicoanalíticas acerca de la estructuración psíquica. Se recorren conceptos freudianos acerca del rol del auxiliar externo en los primeros tiempos de la vida y especialmente en la constitución de yo. Estos conceptos se ligan a los aportes acerca de la regulación afectiva y el Modelo de Regulación Mutua producidos por los investigadores de infantes. Se filmaron 40 díadas madre bebé y se evaluó la regulación afectiva a través del microanálisis de 3 minutos de interacción cara a cara madre-bebé y 5 minutos de juego libre. Se estudió la autoestima materna a través de una entrevista y de instrumentos autoadministrados. Se presentan los resultados obtenidos acerca de las relaciones entre: la expresividad observada en la madre y el bebé, la expresividad y la autoestima materna y las diferencias obtenidas en las variables según el género de los bebés.The present paper deals with the overlapping between data obtained from observational mother-infant research and psychoanalytical conceptualizations on psychic structure. Freudian concepts, such as the function of the helping external object in the first time of life are presented and specially ego constitution is described. These concepts are linked to the contributions of infant researchers on affective regulation and Mutual Regulation Model. 40 mother-infant dyads were videotaped and affective regulation was studied through the microanalysis of 3 minutes face to face interaction and 5 minutes free play. Maternal self esteem was studied through an interview and self administered instruments offered to the mothers. Results are presented on: the relations obtained between the observed expressivity in the mother and the infant, the relations obtained between Maternal Self Esteem and expressivity and the relation obtained in all the variables according to the gender of the baby.

O presente estudo teve por objetivo revisar a literatura sobre a interação mãe-bebê em situação de depressão materna. Em particular, buscou-se analisar os diversos fatores que podem mediar o impacto da depressão materna no desenvolvimento do bebê, dentre eles a idade da criança, o seu temperamento, a cronicidade do episódio depressivo materno e o estilo interativo da mãe deprimida. A literatura revisada revela que a depressão afeta não só a mãe, mas também o bebê e até mesmo o próprio pai, em vista da influência deste quadro no contexto familiar. Alguns estudos sugerem ainda que a presença do pai e a ausência de conflitos conjugais são fatores que podem amenizar os efeitos da depressão materna para o bebê.The aim of the present study was to review the literature on mother-infant interaction in the context of maternal depression. Particularly, it aimed to examine several factors that could mediate the maternal depression impact on infant development, such as the child's age and temperament, the chronicity of the maternal depression episode and the depressed mother's interaction style. The literature reviewed shows that depression affects not only the mother, but also the baby and even the father, because of its influence on the family context. Some studies also suggest that the father's presence, as well as, the absence of marital conflict , may buffer the maternal depression effects on the baby.

This study aimed at analyzing the characteristics of initial mother-baby interactions in a Brazilian urban environment; the relationship between the interaction characteristics, mother's activities and their conception about the baby's competences; and the relationship between the characteristic of those activities and the baby's awareness state. A sample of 30 mother-baby dyads was observed. The dyads consisted of mothers and her babies who were, on average, 29-days old. The dyads were videotaped for 20 minutes and the mothers were asked to answer a questionnaire. The data were analyzed in terms of the percentage of the occurrences of the dyad's activities and interaction. The episodes of interaction observed were short-term, mainly face-to-face, having a specific context and mostly distinguished as social activities. The babies were evaluated as active and participant in the social exchange. The results contribute with important elements for the discussion of the nature of the first interactional processes.

Este estudo visou a analisar características das interações iniciais mãe-bebê em um contexto urbano brasileiro; as relações entre características de interações, atividades maternas e a concepção acerca das competências dos bebês; e as relações entre características destas atividades e o estado de vigília dos bebês. A amostra foi constituída por 30 díades. Os bebês tinham idade média de 29 dias. Registrou-se em vídeo as atividades da díade durante 20 minutos. Foi aplicado um questionário às mães. Os dados foram analisados em termos da percentagem de ocorrências das atividades da díade e de interação. Os episódios de interação identificados foram de curta duração, predominantemente face-a-face, têm contextos específicos de troca e se caracterizam principalmente por atividades sociais. Os bebês foram avaliados como ativos, participantes das trocas sociais. Os resultados contribuem com elementos importantes para discussão da natureza dos primeiros processos interacionais.This study aimed at analyzing the characteristics of initial mother-baby interactions in a Brazilian urban environment; the relationship between the interaction characteristics, mother's activities and their conception about the baby's competences; and the relationship between the characteristic of those activities and the baby's awareness state. A sample of 30 mother-baby dyads was observed. The dyads consisted of mothers and her babies who were, on average, 29-days old. The dyads were videotaped for 20 minutes and the mothers were asked to answer a questionnaire. The data were analyzed in terms of the percentage of the occurrences of the dyad's activities and interaction. The episodes of interaction observed were short-term, mainly face-to-face, having a specific context and mostly distinguished as social activities. The babies were evaluated as active and participant in the social exchange. The results contribute with important elements for the discussion of the nature of the first interactional processes.

A responsividade materna tem sido considerada como um elemento central para a compreensão do desenvolvimento infantil e este conceito tem sido articulado com a teoria do apego. Este artigo tem como objetivo discutir criticamente o papel de estudos transculturais sobre responsividade materna, à luz da teoria do apego, a partir da revisão da literatura recente sobre o tema. Considerando a teoria do apego um referencial valioso para investigações sobre interações mãe-bebê e responsividade materna, as conclusões apontam, basicamente, para três questões: 1) a teoria do apego precisa ser investigada em diferentes contextos socioculturais e receber validação transcultural; 2) pesquisas sobre responsividade materna devem considerar a discussão sobre a teoria do apego e diferenças culturais; 3) a inclusão do estudo da responsividade materna em referenciais teóricos que levem em conta variáveis socioculturais é necessária.Maternal responsiveness has been considered as an important concept for the understanding of different aspects of infant development, and this concept has been articulated with attachment theory. The objective of this article is to discuss critically the role of transcultural studies about maternal responsiveness, based on attachment theory, and to review of the recent literature about this subject. Considering attachment a valuable theoretical basis for investigations on mother-infant interactions and maternal responsiveness, the conclusions basically point to three issues: 1) the attachment theory needs to be investigated in different socio-cultural contexts, to be tested in its limits and to receive a transcultural validation; 2) research on maternal responsiveness should take into account the discussion on attachment theory and cultural differences; 3) the inclusion of the study of maternal responsiveness in a theoretical framework that takes into account socio-cultural variables is necessary.

Maternal responsiveness has been considered as an important concept for the understanding of different aspects of infant development, and this concept has been articulated with attachment theory. The objective of this article is to discuss critically the role of transcultural studies about maternal responsiveness, based on attachment theory, and to review of the recent literature about this subject. Considering attachment a valuable theoretical basis for investigations on mother-infant interactions and maternal responsiveness, the conclusions basically point to three issues: 1) the attachment theory needs to be investigated in different socio-cultural contexts, to be tested in its limits and to receive a transcultural validation; 2) research on maternal responsiveness should take into account the discussion on attachment theory and cultural differences; 3) the inclusion of the study of maternal responsiveness in a theoretical framework that takes into account socio-cultural variables is necessary.

Objectives: Growth retardation is a risk for premature infants. In addition to demographic and perinatal factors, preterm infants' physical growth may be affected by neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) stress, maternal postpartum depression, and mother-infant interaction. This study aimed to investigate the trajectories of physical growth in 4 months corrected age among preterm infants discharged from the NICU and the impactors on these trajectories., Methods: A prospective study was conducted among 318 preterm infants from September 2019 to April 2021 in Shanghai, China. Latent growth modeling was applied to identify the weight, length, and head circumference growth trajectories in 4 months corrected age and explore the effects of demographic and medical characteristics, infant stress during NICU stay, maternal postpartum depression, and mother-infant interaction on each trajectory., Results: Unconditional latent growth models showed curve trajectories with increasingly slower growth in weight, length, and head circumference until 4 months of corrected age. Conditional latent growth models showed that a longer length of stay in the NICU and more skin punctures were negatively associated with weight at 40 weeks corrected gestational age ( β  = -0.43 and -0.19, respectively, P  < 0.05). The maternal postpartum depression between 40 weeks corrected gestational age and 1 month corrected postnatal age was associated with a lower growth rate of length ( β  = -0.17, P  = 0.040), while between 2 and 3 months corrected postnatal age, there were lower growth rates of weight and head circumference ( β  = -0.15 and -0.19, respectively, P  < 0.05). The mother-infant interaction scores between 40 weeks corrected gestational age and 1 month corrected postnatal age negatively predicted the growth rate of weight ( β  = -0.19, P  = 0.020)., Conclusion: The physical growth trajectories of preterm infants discharged from the NICU were influenced by infant stress during the NICU stay, maternal postpartum depression and mother-infant interaction., Competing Interests: The authors have declared no conflict of interest., (© 2023 The Authors.)

Methods: Twenty maternal parenting practices and 15 behaviors of their 5½- month-old infants in a U.S. national sample ( N = 360) and 9 international samples ( N = 653) were microcoded from videorecords of naturalistic interactions at home and aggregated into domains. Altogether, the samples were recruited from Argentina, Belgium, Brazil, France, Israel, Italy, Japan, Kenya, as well as the United States., Background and Rationale: A previous test of three competing models of the nature and structure of the maternal parenting practices supported a hybrid 2 factor/6 domain model as superior to a 1-factor dimensional model and a multi-factor style model: Maternal parenting practices are structured into nurture, physical, social, didactic, material, and language domains undergirded by dyadic and extradyadic factors. Infant behaviors were organized into physical, social, exploration, nondistress vocalization, and distress communication domains. The current study sought to examine links connecting these previously identified maternal domains and factors with infant behavior domains using structural equation models., Results: Mothers' dyadic factor is associated with infant social behaviors with mother; and mothers' extradyadic factor and encouragement of infant physical development are associated with infant exploration of their immediate physical environment and physical development. Infant distress communication (and less nondistress vocalization) is associated with more maternal nurturing., Discussion: Mothers' parenting practices in the middle of the first year of infant life are commonly structured and adapted to specific needs and developmental tasks of infants. Evaluations of mother-infant interactions with national and international samples permit a wide yet judicious analysis of common vs. specific models of mother-infant relationships., Competing Interests: Conflict of interest The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

High levels of aggressive behaviors against intruders in the nest area are displayed by female rats during the first 10 days after delivery, declining thereafter to very low levels, even though lactation continues. Cross-fostering experiments were undertaken to test the hypothesis that pup age may affect aggression in lactating rats. The behavior of females on the 8th day after delivery when raising fostered 8-day-old pups was compared to that of females on the 8th postpartum day raising older pups (18 days old) for the last 5 days, and females on the 18th day after delivery raising fostered 18-day-old pups were compared to females in the same postpartum period nursing younger pups (8 days of age at the time of the maternal aggression test) for 5 days. Pup retrieval activity and plasma prolactin level were also analyzed. Females on the 8th postpartum day nursing 18-day-old pups were less aggressive than females in the same postpartum period, but with 8-day-old pups. Likewise, females on the 18th postpartum day nursing younger pups were more aggressive and presented higher levels of prolactin than females nursing older pups. Thus, pup development can alter the natural decline of maternal aggressive behavior.

Infants’ social stress regulation (i.e., reactivity and recovery) might be affected by mother–infant dyadic functioning and infants’ vagal tone (i.e., respiratory sinus arrhythmia, RSA). This study investigated the role of a specific dyadic functioning feature (i.e., dyadic reparation) and individual differences in vagal tone regulation (i.e., RSA suppression vs. non-suppression) in relation to social stress regulation in 4-month-old infants. A total of 65 mother–infant dyads participated in the face-to-face still-face paradigm. Social stress reactivity and recovery were measured as negative emotionality during Still-Face and Reunion episodes, respectively. RSA was measured during Play, Still-Face, and Reunion episodes. Suppressors had higher dyadic reparation during Play and higher recovery from social stress compared with non-suppressors. Higher reparation during Play was associated with lower reactivity and higher recovery only for suppressors. Findings suggest a joint role of infants’ RSA individual differences and dyadic reparation in affecting infants’ social stress regulation at 4 months of age. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To describe the clinical population of women admitted to a Mother-Baby Unit in Adelaide, South Australia and to evaluate changes during admission in both Axes I and II diagnoses of maternal mental health, and in mother-infant relationships.Method: Both clinical and self-report assessments of maternal mental health were made at admission and discharge, and self-report comparisons of the mother-infant relationship.Results: Depressive illnesses (46.2%) were found to be the most prevalent conditions leading to admission, with rates of psychosis (10.3%) and bipolar disorder (3.4%) being lower. A high incidence of borderline personality disorder (23.1%) was found clinically, with almost half the admitted women showing features of borderline personality disorder on a self-report measure at admission. Significant improvements in maternal mental health and the mother-infant relationship were found at the time of discharge.Conclusions: Admission to this Mother-Baby Unit on mothers' self-report scales showed improvement in mothers' mental health and the relationship that they have with their infant. Given the high prevalence of borderline personality disorder and emotional dysregulation identified within the population, treatment implications and possible consequences for the infant are discussed for this client group. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The parent-infant relationship is an important context for identifying very early risk and resilience factors and targets for the development of preventative interventions. The aim of this study was to systematically review studies investigating the early caregiver-infant relationship and attachment in offspring of parents with schizophrenia.Methods: We searched computerized databases for relevant articles investigating the relationship between early caregiver-infant relationship and outcomes for offspring of a caregiver with a diagnosis of schizophrenia. Studies were assessed for risk of bias.Results: We identified 27 studies derived from 10 cohorts, comprising 208 women diagnosed with schizophrenia, 71 with other psychoses, 203 women with depression, 59 women with mania/bipolar disorder, 40 with personality disorder, 8 with unspecified mental disorders and 119 non-psychiatric controls. There was some evidence to support disturbances in maternal behaviour amongst those with a diagnosis of schizophrenia and there was more limited evidence of disturbances in infant behaviour and mutuality of interaction.Conclusions: Further research should investigate both sources of resilience and risk in the development of offspring of parents with a diagnosis of schizophrenia and psychosis. Given the lack of specificity observed in this review, these studies should also include maternal affective disorders including depressive and bipolar disorders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The focus of this longitudinal, naturalistic and in-between family study is to investigate systematically infant and maternal facial expressions of emotions with the aim to compare emotional coordination and non-matching in spontaneous dyadic interactions of first-born and second-bom infants with their mother in the course of early infancy. Method: Towards this aim, eight infant-mother dyads from Crete, Greece (four firstborn infant-mother pairs and four second-bom infant-mother pairs), were observed during their natural interactions at home from the second to the sixth month of life. Coding: Within well-defined units and sub-units of analysis, microanalysis of spontaneous infant and maternal facial expressions of emotions was carried out according to the type, the frequency, the valence and and the intensity of facial expressions. This information was then integrated into the following two interpersonal engagement categories: 1) Emotional coordination was evaluated with four measures: a) matching (one partner expressed the type of facial expression of emotion of the other partner), b) synchrony (matching in the frequency of facial expressions of emotion of the two partners); c) completement [one partner expressed the positive valence of facial expression of emotion (pleasure, interest) of the other partner]; and d) attunement (one partner expressed the shifts in the direction of emotional intensity of the other partner); and 2) Emotional mismatching was coded when one, or either partner was not interested in interacting with the other partner. Results: This study provided evidence of qualitative and quantitative differences which are summarized as following: a) emotional coordination (matching, synchrony, completement and attunement) was stronger and more accurate in first-born infantmother interactions compared to second-bom infant-mother dyads; c) emotional nonmatching was stronger, more frequent and varied in second-bom infant-mother interactions compared tofirst-bom infant-mother dyads; d) emotional consistency was stronger for pleasure and interest expressed by first-bom infants compared to secondbom infants, while within-infant emotional consistency was stronger for external interest, neutral and negative emotion expressed by second-boms compared tofirst-born infants; emotional consistency for mothers of second-bom infants was more intense compared to mothers of first bom infants; and e) emotional matching, completement and nonmatching follow different developmental patterns in interactions of first-born infants and second-bom infants with their mothers across the age range of this study. Conclusion: Within the frame of the theory of innate intersubjectivity, we assumed that first-bom infant-mother and second-bom-infant-mother dyads may vary in the way they adjust the timing, form and energy of their emotional expressions in order to obtain inter-synchrony. These variation patterns may have implications for all partners' ability to regulate and negotiate interpersonal challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on a research conducted by authors on enhancement of mother-infant attachment and experience due to dance movement therapy (DMT). Topics include challenge to the physical, social and emotional reality of the mother faced due to transition in mother, expressive bodily interactions between mother and child provided by DMT session, move and dance aspect of mother-infant dyads, and different types of spaces created by DMT which fosters enhanced mother-infant interaction.

Since the mid-20th century, scientists have observed unique features in speech, facial expression, and content directed to infants and toddlers in comparison to speech directed to adults. Whereas much research has studied the characteristics of so-called infant-directed speech and speculated about its significance for language learning, research directly testing these ideas has been more limited until recently. Studies now suggest that infant-directed speech (a) promotes infant attention to language, (b) fosters social interaction between infants and caregivers, and (c) informs infants about various aspects of their native language by heightening distinctions relative to the speech addressed to adults. New developments focusing on the social role of infant-directed conversational interactions highlight the importance of caregiver responsiveness to the infant. Building a communicative foundation even prior to the time language emerges is crucial for fostering language development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This prospective, longitudinal study with data collected at four time points investigated how maternal psychiatric symptoms, substance abuse and maternal intrusiveness in interaction were related to early child language skills. Three groups of mothers were recruited during pregnancy: One from residential treatment institutions for substance abuse (n = 18), one from psychiatric outpatient treatment (n = 22) and one from well-baby clinics (n = 30). Maternal substance abuse and anti-social and borderline personality traits were assessed during pregnancy, postpartum depression at 3 months, maternal intrusiveness in interaction at 12 months, and child language skills at 2 years. Results showed that the mothers in the substance abuse group had the lowest level of education, they were younger and they were more likely to be single mothers than the mothers in the two other groups. There was a significant difference in expressive language between children born to mothers with substance abuse problems and those born to comparison mothers, however not when controlling for maternal age, education and single parenthood. No group differences in receptive language skills were detected. Results further showed that maternal intrusiveness observed in mother-child interaction at 12 months was significantly related to child expressive language at 2 years, also when controlling for socio-demographic risk factors. This suggests that in addition to addressing substance abuse and psychiatric problems, there is a need for applying treatment models promoting sensitive caregiving, in order to enhance child expressive language skills. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated the dynamics of head movement in mothers and infants during an age-appropriate, well-validated emotion induction, the Still Face paradigm. In this paradigm, mothers and infants play normally for 2 minutes (Play) followed by 2 minutes in which the mothers remain unresponsive (Still Face), and then two minutes in which they resume normal behavior (Reunion). Participants were 42 ethnically diverse 4-month-old infants and their mothers. Mother and infant angular displacement and angular velocity were measured using the CSIRO head tracker. In male but not female infants, angular displacement increased from Play to Still-Face and decreased from Still Face to Reunion. Infant angular velocity was higher during Still-Face than Reunion with no differences between male and female infants. Windowed cross-correlation suggested changes in how infant and mother head movements are associated, revealing dramatic changes in direction of association. Coordination between mother and infant head movement velocity was greater during Play compared with Reunion. Together, these findings suggest that angular displacement, angular velocity and their coordination between mothers and infants are strongly related to age-appropriate emotion challenge. Attention to head movement can deepen our understanding of emotion communication. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

ABSTRACT This study explored emotional availability (EA)- an individual's emotional responsiveness and attunement to another's needs and goals (R.N. Emde, 1980)- among a high social risk group of 226 adolescent mothers and their infants (average = 12 months old). The aim was to identify dyadic patterns of EA and to examine their association with multiple indicators of the ecological context. Maternal sensitivity, maternal nonhostility, and child responsiveness were assessed with the Emotional Availability Scales, Third Edition (Z. Biringen, J. Robinson, & R.N. Emde, 1998) during free play and teaching observations at home. Four EA patterns were identified using k-means cluster analysis: (a) 'low functioning,' (b) 'high functioning,' (c) 'low functioning dyads with nonhostile mothers,' and (d) 'inconsistently sensitive mother and responsive child.' These patterns had distinct associations with (a) mothers' parenting attitudes regarding children's power and independence and parent-child role reversal, (b) mothers' strategies in conflict resolution with their partners and their children, and (c) the dyads' living arrangements. This study makes a contribution to the understanding of the mother-child relationship from a systemic and relational perspective and explores the association of EA patterns with the dyads' relational context. Implications for programs and treatment approaches aimed at supporting dyads at social risk are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extremely low gestational age children (ELGA, born below 28 weeks of GA) represent the most at-risk preterm group in terms of survival, developmental sequelae and rates of impairment and cognitive delays. However, the impact of an extremely preterm birth on mother–infant co-regulation and affective intensity which may affect early infant's development has not been investigated. Based on a relational dynamic system approach, our study aimed to investigate the quality of co-regulation and affective intensity during spontaneous play interaction in 20 mother–infant ELGA dyads compared to 20 full-term (FT) dyads at 12 months (corrected age for ELGA infants). Relationships between the quality of dyadic co-regulation and the infant's level of cognitive, motor and language development were also investigated. The quality of dyadic co-regulation was assessed using the Revised Relational Coding System (R-RCS) by Fogel et al. (2003) , the mothers’ and infants’ affective intensity was coded using a coding system by Lunkenheimer, Olson, Hollenstein, Sameroff, and Winter (2011) . Infants’ development was assessed using the Bayley Scales (BSID-III, 2006). With respect to FT dyads, ELGA dyads were characterised by less frequent symmetric and more frequent unilateral co-regulation patterns and by less positive and more neutral affective intensity of both infants and mothers. Cognitive, motor and language scores were lower in ELGA infants than in FT infants. Symmetrical co-regulation was related to motor scores in ELGA infants, and to cognitive scores in FT infants. Our findings contribute to the literature by demonstrating the difficulties of ELGA mother–infant dyads at 12 months in sharing the symmetric co-regulation and positive affective intensity and how symmetric co-regulation is strictly related to motor development in ELGA infants. Based on these findings, intervention programmes to foster joint attention, active involvement and positive affective intensity in ELGA dyads and infants’ development in the first year of life should be designed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes the semiotic process by which parents, as attachment figures, enable infants to learn to make meaning. It also applies these ideas to psychotherapy, with the therapist functioning as transitional attachment figures to patients where therapy attempts to change semiotic processes that have led to maladaptive behavior. Three types of semiotic processes are described in attachment terminology (Types A, B, and C) and these are offered as possible precursors of a neuro-behavioral nosology tying mental illness to adaptation. Non-conscious biosemiotic processes in infant-parent attachment are the basis for early adaptation as well as adaptation or maladaptation in adulthood. Mother-infant interaction can be described as a series of signs, each interpreted so as to dispose the behavior of the other interactant towards the goal of protecting the infant from danger and distress. Regulating arousal, scaffolding infants' behavior in the infants' zone of proximal development (ZPD), and repairing ruptures in the interaction are crucial to infants' development and adaptation. In semiotic terms, each person activates multiple interpretants (dispositional representations in memory systems) to make meaning of sensory stimulation. Non-verbal semiotic synchrony establishes the relationship whereas shared repair of ruptures promotes change. Attachment strategies, as learned adaptations to threat, are neuro-psychological strategies for making meaning of sensory information so as to dispose protective behavior. Type A privileges cognitive-temporal information, Type C affective information, Type B has no bias. Type A and C limit semiotic freedom by using 'short-cuts' in processing that produce quick protective behavior in the short-term. Type B includes more representations, and thus more semiotic freedom, resulting in slower responses and long-term flexibility. Attachment strategies function as meta-interpretants for applying one semiotic process to most incoming information about danger. A, B, and C case examples are analyzed in semiotic terms. Psychotherapy can be considered a helping process embedded in a transitional attachment relationship. For psychotherapy to be successful, both somatic stabilization and a therapeutic relationship are needed. Treatment that uses scaffolded semiotic processes in each patient's ZPD to repair moment-to-moment ruptures holds the potential to reorganize attachment strategies and transfer that potential to reflective language and relationships outside the therapy. The outcome should be greater semiotic freedom such that the individual can trust their own mental processes and use them to establish safe relationships. Language can speed the process, but premature reliance on verbal transformations of non-conscious information can carry misattributions into a second layer of misconstrued meaning and maladaptive behavior. Even when dangerous family relationships and external danger cannot be changed, patients can come to know their own minds and use information to regulate their behavior. The goal of psychotherapy is to free patients from their past by enabling them to be secure about the functioning of their own minds, so that they can both avoid eliciting harm and also establish supportive relationships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The quality of the parent-infant interaction is essential for the infant's development and is most objectively measured by observation. The existing observational tools for assessing parent-infant interaction were identified and described, and their psychometric soundness was evaluated. Twenty electronic databases from inception through June 2013 were searched. Validity was evaluated in five domains (test content, response process, internal structure, relations to other variables, and consequences). Of the 23,961 citations identified, 24 tools were included. Most tools demonstrated a valid rating procedure, reproducibility, and discriminant validity, based on studies with credible quality. The tools lacked factorial and predictive validity, and standardized norms. Further refinement of the existing tools is needed, particularly in the domains of content validity and consequential validity. The synthesized validity evidence and descriptions of the tools reported in this review might guide clinicians and researchers in the selection of an appropriate tool. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We explored the relation between maternal mind-mindedness (i.e., a mother’s tendency to verbally refer to her infant’s mental world through use of infant-directed mental state terms) and maternal attachment. Mothers (N = 76), classified prenatally as Autonomous, Dismissing, Preoccupied, and Unresolved using the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI), simulated speaking to their 6-month-old infants in positive and negative emotion contexts. Mothers’ utterances were coded for frequency of use of emotion and cognition-related mind-minded terms. Results indicated a significant negative relation between coherence of mind scores on the AAI and emotion mind-mindedness in the positive emotion context. When differences between insecure attachment categories and mind-mindedness were explored, results indicated that mothers with Preoccupied attachments were significantly more likely to use emotion-related terms than mothers with Dismissing attachments and that these differences were most pronounced in the negative emotion context. A similar pattern was found for mothers with Unresolved attachments compared to those with organized (Autonomous, Dismissing, Preoccupied) attachment classifications, however use of emotion mind-minded terms did not differ by emotional context. Future research directions highlighting the importance of exploring the unique contribution of Preoccupied, Dismissing and Unresolved attachment and emotional context in the exploration of mind-mindedness are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This study examined the existence of direct maternal–infant physiological relatedness in respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) when the infant was age 1, 2, 4, 8, and 12 weeks. We instructed mothers to breathe at 6, 12, 15, 20, and 6 cycles per minute while their infants lay on their body. The mother–infant ECG and respiration were registered and video recordings were made. RR-interval (RRI), respiration rate ( f R) and RSA were calculated and mother–infant RSA response-patterns were analyzed. The results revealed that infants adjusted their RSA levels to their mothers’ levels during the first 2 months of life, but not at 3 months of age, which could be interpreted as a continuing intra-uterine effect. The attenuation between 2 and 3 months could be a reflection of the 2-month developmental shift of social orientation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background/Aims: Affective behavioural matching during face-to-face interaction fosters the transition from mutual regulation to infant self-regulation. Optimum midrange models of mother-infant interaction hold that moderate degrees of dyadic matching facilitate infant socio-emotional development. The aim of this study was to examine which degree of dyadic matching is most beneficial for infant self-regulation. Methods: To evaluate this model, 3 groups of highly, midrange and poorly matched dyads were created from a mixed sample of 68 dyads with healthy and post-partum depressed mothers and their infants (age range = 1-8 months, mean age = 3.9 months). Mother-infant interactions were videotaped in the face-to-face still-face paradigm (FFSF) and micro-analytically coded. Specifically, the relation between affective behavioural matching in FFSF play and infant positive and negative affect in FFSF still face and FFSF reunion was explored. Results: Contrary to our expectation, we found a monotonous trend for all groups: the more matching in FFSF play, the more positive and less negative affect the infant showed in FFSF still face and FFSF reunion, respectively. Conclusion: The present findings further illuminate the association between different degrees of dyadic matching in early mother-infant interaction and infant self-regulation. Further research should focus on the integration and replication of findings and conceptual approaches to further evaluate and refine the concept of midrange matching and make it applicable to therapeutic work with mothers and their infants. © 2015 S. Karger AG, Basel [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

What happens between mothers and their infants has considerable developmental and functional significance. Mother-infant verbal and nonverbal communication is highly complex and notably reciprocal in nature. These exchanges are influenced by multiple factors and affect the formation of mother-infant ties and the co-regulation of emotions, physiology and motor behaviours. How the senses help to mediate these interactions and influence relationship quality is an important and diverse area of human biology and relationship study. This article will explore the contributions of two of the important nonverbal senses, touch and olfaction, on mother-infant interactions in the period shortly after birth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Attachment theory postulates that mothers and their infants possess some basic physiological mechanisms that favor their dyadic interaction and bonding. Many studies have focused on the maternal physiological mechanisms that promote attachment (e.g., mothers' automatic responses to infant faces and/or cries), and relatively less have examined infant physiology. Thus, the physiological mechanisms regulating infant bonding behaviors remain largely undefined. This review elucidates some of the neurobiological mechanisms governing social bonding and cooperation in humans by focusing on maternal carrying and its beneficial effect on mother-infant interaction in mammalian species (e.g., in humans, big cats, and rodents). These studies show that infants have a specific calming response to maternal carrying. A human infant carried by his/her walking mother exhibits a rapid heart rate decrease, and immediately stops voluntary movement and crying compared to when he/she is held in a sitting position. Furthermore, strikingly similar responses were identified in mouse rodents, who exhibit immobility, diminished ultra-sonic vocalizations and heart rate. In general, the studies described in the current review demonstrate the calming effect of maternal carrying to be comprised of a complex set of behavioral and physiological components, each of which has a specific postnatal time window and is orchestrated in a well-matched manner with the maturation of the infants. Such reactions could have been evolutionarily adaptive in mammalian mother-infant interactions. The findings have implications for parenting practices in developmentally normal populations. In addition, we propose that infants' physiological response may be useful in clinical assessments as we discuss possible implications on early screening for child psychopathology (e.g., autism spectrum disorders and perinatal brain disorders). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Maternal behavior and infant 5-HTTLPR polymorphism have been linked to infants' social stress reactivity and recovery at different ages. Nonetheless, Gene × Environment (G × E) studies focusing on early infancy are rare and have led to mixed results. Aim To investigate the contribution of maternal social engagement and infants' 5-HTTLPR polymorphism in predicting infants' negative emotionality in response to a social stressor, namely maternal unresponsiveness. Study design Cross-sectional, G × E study. Subjects 73 4-month-old infants and their mothers took part to the Face-to-Face Still-Face (FFSF) procedure. Outcome measures A micro-analytical coding of negative emotionality was adopted to measure infants' reactivity to social stress (Still-Face episode) and infants' recovery after social stress (Reunion episode). Maternal contribution was measured as maternal social engagement during the Play episode. Infants were genotyped as S-carriers or L-homozygotes. Results The interplay between maternal social engagement and infants' genotype was found to be predictive of infants' negative emotionality during both Still-Face and Reunion episodes of the FFSF paradigm. The interaction highlighted that maternal social engagement predicted minor negative emotionality during Still-Face and Reunion episodes for S-carrier infants, but not for L-homozygotes. Conclusions Findings extend previous results on adults and children, highlighting that maternal behavior might be a protective factor for stress reactivity and regulation, especially for S-carrier infants who are at risk for heightened stress susceptibility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Infant faces elicit caregiving in adults. In previous research on brain responses to images of infant faces, the faces were unknown to participants. This study investigated EEG in primiparous mothers of 3- to 6-month-old infants viewing their own infant's face compared to an unfamiliar but appearance-matched infant's face. Spectral power was calculated and compared, and power at three EEG bands (delta, theta, and gamma) was found to differ between faces. Brain responses among primiparous mothers distinguish images of their own versus unfamiliar infants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Face-to-Face Still-Face (FFSF) paradigm allows to study the mother–infant dyad as a dynamic system coping with social stress perturbations. The State Space Grid (SSG) method is thought to depict both flexibility and stability of the dyad across perturbations, but previous SSG evidence for the FFSF is limited. The main aims were: (1) to investigate mother–infant dyadic flexibility and stability across the FFSF using the SSG; (2) to evaluate the influence of dyadic functioning during Play on infant Still-Face response and of infant stress response in affecting dyadic functioning during Reunion. Forty 4-month-old infants and their mothers were micro-analytically coded during a FFSF and eight SSG dyadic states were obtained. Dyadic flexibility and attractor states were assessed during Play and Reunion. Infants’ stress response was coded as negative engagement during the Still-Face episode. Two dyadic states, “maternal hetero-regulation” and “affective mismatch”, showed significant changes in the number of visits from Play to Reunion. During Play “maternal positive support to infant play” emerged as attractor state, whereas during Reunion a second attractor emerged, namely “affective mismatch”. Dyadic affective mismatch during Play correlated with infants’ negative engagement during Still-Face, whereas infants’ response to Still-Face resulted in minor social matching during Reunion. Findings provide new insights into the flexible, yet stable, functioning of the mother–infant dyad as a dynamic system. Evidence of a reciprocal influence between dyadic functioning and infant social stress response are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We compare matching of facial expressions and attunement of emotional intensity in spontaneous communication of mothers with infants and of fathers with infants, in families in Crete. Eleven infant–mother and 11 infant–father dyads were video-recorded at home in familiar interactions from the 2nd to the 6th month. Microanalysis of infant, maternal and paternal facial expressions of emotion provided evidence of quantitative differences that favour father–infant interaction as more playful, but the infants' behaviours with mothers and fathers show similar developmental curves. These results are discussed in the frame of the theory of innate intersubjectivity and of the emotional support parents give to developing motives of infants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]