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This paper is the result of an investigation carried out in February 1997, which set out to learn about the development and application of occupational health standards, and in turn approaches to occupational environmental monitoring, in Russia, and to see how these were similar to, or different from, what takes place in other countries. The enquiry involved face-to-face meetings with senior Russian occupational health scientists and officials. It was confirmed that Russian occupational exposure standards are very stringent and provide a very high level of protection of workers. However, they are difficult to enforce, and it is suggested that the development of a strong and distinctive occupational hygiene discipline and profession in Russia would provide a "bridge" to enable more effective implementation and interpretation of those standards.

Background: This project is part of an assessment of the impact of environmental factors on human health in the Kola Peninsula of Russia and the neighboring arctic area of Norway. Pregnant women and their newborns were studied to explore a relationship between maternal status of essential metals and birth weight., Methods: Life-style information and serum specimens were collected from at least 50 consecutive mother-infant pairs from hospital delivery departments in three Russian and three Norwegian communities (N=151 and 167, respectively). Pregnancy outcomes were verified by consulting medical records. Copper, selenium and zinc in serum were determined by atomic absorption spectrometry and ferritin by an automated analyzer method., Results: Mean birth weight and child's body mass index (BMIC) were significantly lower in the Russian group (p<0.001), with or without adjustment for gestational age. Copper, iron (as ferritin) and selenium serum concentrations were in the normal range, while zinc levels in both countries were mostly below the lower limit (10.8 micromol/L) of reported reference intervals. A positive correlation between zinc and birth weight or BMIC was only observed for concentrations exceeding 10.8 micromol/L. Analysis by quartiles showed that maternal urinary creatinine and birth weight were negatively correlated (p=0.001). The influence of the different elements on BMIC, grouped by quartiles, was significantly positive only for selenium (p=0.03) and ferritin (p=0.02), while there was no significant relationship for copper or zinc. Adjustment of birth weight and BMIC for gestational age did not alter substantially the various associations indicated., Conclusions: With the exception of zinc, the mineral status of delivering women in arctic and sub-arctic regions of Norway and western Russia appears to be adequate. The significantly lower BMIC for the Russian group suggests the likely occurrence of nutritional deficiencies during pregnancy in Russia. However, the significant contribution of a country factor in the predictive model implies that the maternal serum trace-element concentrations explored in this study are incomplete indicators of fetal undernourishment.

The two objectives of this study were to compare urinary nickel excretion in pregnant women and their newborns living in the Murmansk and Arkhangelsk Counties of Russia with that in comparable Norwegian populations living in Finnmark and the city of Bergen and to assess the influence on pregnancy outcome of different risk variables, specifically urinary nickel concentrations and questionnaire-based anamnestic information. Life-style information and urine samples were collected from 50 consecutive mother-infant pairs from hospital delivery departments in three Russian and three Norwegian communities. Pregnancy outcomes were verified from medical records. Urinary nickel excretion was significantly higher in the Russian communities, independent of the presence of a nickel refinery as a local environmental source. The birth weight and mean body mass index of the newborn children (BMIC) were significantly lower (p < 0.001) in the Russian groups, with or without adjustment for gestational age. A multivariate linear regression analysis indicated that maternal urinary nickel concentration had no impact on birth weight. The maternal body mass index (BMI) and maternal height were positive explanatory variables; maternal urinary creatinine is suggested as a weak negative factor. Smoking was shown to be a strong negative predictor only in the Norwegian group among whom there was a significantly higher smoking frequency (p = 0.005). The significant contribution of a country factor in the predictive model is interpreted to indicate that a number of important risk factors for low birth weight were not identified.

In support of a feasibility study of reproductive and developmental health among females employed in the Monchegorsk (Russia) nickel refinery, personal exposure and biological monitoring assessments were conducted. The inhalable aerosol fraction was measured and characterised by chemical speciation and particle-size distribution measurements. Unexpected findings were that: (i), pyrometallurgical working environments had significant levels of water-soluble nickel; (ii), significant exposure to cobalt occurred for the nickel workers; (iii), particles of size corresponding to the thoracic and respirable fractions appeared to be virtually absent in most of the areas surveyed. The water-soluble fraction is judged to be primarily responsible for the observed urinary nickel and cobalt concentrations. It is concluded relative to current international occupational-exposure limits for nickel in air, and because of the high nickel concentrations observed in urine, that the Monchegorsk nickel workers are heavily exposed. The implication of this finding for follow-up epidemiological work is alluded to.

Unlabelled: As part of the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP), we assessed pregnancy outcome among Sami and Norwegian populations of Finnmark County in Norway and Russians living in the Kola Peninsula of Russia using body mass index of the newborn child (BMIC) as the main indicator; concentrations of essential and toxic elements in biological fluids of delivering women and their children served as additional sources of information. At the hospitals of Hammerfest and Kirkenes in the period November 1993-June 1994 a total of 107 consecutive women gave birth to a child, of whom 15 regarded themselves as Sami. The Russian group (N = 151) delivered their children in the same period. The Sami women were significantly older than the Russian group (28.5 versus 25.1 years, p = 0.04). The mean birth weight was significantly lower in the Sami group compared to non-Sami Norwegians (p = 0.01), but was of comparable magnitude to that recorded in Russia (p = 0.4). For BMIC, the Sami and non-Sami Norwegian results were similar (p = 0.2); both were significantly higher than in Russia (p < 0.001). The essential elements copper, zinc, selenium and iron (as ferritin) in serum showed no differences between the groups, although relatively low levels of serum zinc were documented in all populations studied. Blood cadmium concentrations were strongly related to smoking frequency. Blood lead and urinary nickel levels were significantly higher for the Russian mothers, but did not reach levels of medical concern., Conclusion: No ethnic differences in concentrations of essential elements in biological fluids, nor of cadmium and mercury, were observed. However, national differences for lead and nickel were evident. Because of small sample size, these conclusions need confirmation. The similar BMIC values observed for the non-Sami Norwegian and Sami newborns, compared to the Russian group, suggest that BMIC may serve as a good indicator of the nutritional status and possibly also the general health condition of neonates.

A study was undertaken to evaluate the suitability of four types of amine modified charcoal filter canisters (cartridge) for use with gas masks (respirators) by measuring emissions of triethylamine (TEA) and diethylamine (DEA). Sampling and analysis methods for TEA and DEA were validated and optimized to ensure accurate measurement at low levels. A total of 88 air samples were taken by the validated methods to measure concentrations of TEA and DEA emitted from gas mask canisters during simulated use in an environmental chamber. Samples were collected on a mannequin equipped with a breather pump and also on human volunteers. Very low levels of TEA and moderately low levels of DEA emissions were measured during the simulations. The C7 (KOH-TEA-BPL/ASC3T) gas mask canister giving the lowest emission has been selected for use by the Canadian Forces. The potential health hazard from TEA and DEA for soldiers using the gas masks, under normal conditions, based on estimated use of one to two days per month, for a maximum of 4 hours/day for a normal working lifetime, was considered to be minimal and acceptable.

Recently, considerable attention has been allotted to the possible health effects of the industrial pollution in the regions adjoining the Norwegian-Russian border. As a measure of general health, the status of trace elements and some clinical-chemical parameters in serum and blood that reflect general health was assessed for 50 consecutive obstetric patients presenting at delivery departments of local hospitals in the Kola Peninsula, Arkhangelsk and selected centres in Norway. A written questionnaire and consent form were completed by each participant. Specimens of maternal and cord blood were collected. Corresponding samples were analyzed for copper, zinc, selenium, iron and ferritin. We found a lower birth weight in the Russian centres. The measurement of trace elements showed a higher iron status for the Russian females and relatively low serum zinc levels were observed in both the Russian and the Norwegian communities. It may be concluded that with the exception of zinc, the mineral status in the Norwegian and Russian arctic centres considered appears to be satisfactory.

A Chinese hamster ovary cell line (designated AS52) has been used to test the mutagenicity of nickel compounds. This line lacks the endogenous gene for hypoxanthine phosphoribosyl transferase (HPRT) but contains an inserted bacterial gene coding for the enzyme guanine-hypoxanthine phosphoribosyl transferase (gpt) which is the targeted locus for selection. Isolated mutants were clonally expanded and analysed utilizing the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) following exposure to ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS), Ni3S2, Ni(OH)2, NiSO4, and control conditions. Amplification of the gpt locus in normal AS52 cells results in the generation of two distinct bands, both of which have been characterized by restriction enzyme analysis and nucleotide sequencing. The smaller band represents the gpt gene. The larger band contains a large insert of bacterial origin and is non-functional. Analysis of mutants revealed three distinct patterns: (1) both PCR bands remain intact; (2) the smaller DNA band is deleted; (3) both bands are deleted. Mutant analysis was performed with two unique sets of DNA amplification primers with identical results. When compared to spontaneous or EMS induced mutants, those generated by exposure to nickel compounds exhibited an increase in gene deletions relative to point mutations; the extent of which was compound specific: NiSO4 > Ni(OH)2 > Ni3S2. These results clearly suggest that a variety of genotoxicological mechanisms are involved in the mutagenic activity of nickel compounds.

A clinical survey of patients with nickel dermatitis has provided evidence of a significant association with one or more of the following reactions: contact reaction from adhesive tape, reaction from mosquito bites which lasts 1 week or longer, and a history of hives. The association of nickel contact dermatitis with at least one of the other reactions is termed contact sensitivity syndrome.

L-Histidine (L-His) and human serum albumin (HSA) at physiological concentrations, like the exogenous ligands D-penicillamine (D-PEN) and EDTA, are shown to inhibit the uptake of physiological levels of Ni2+ by B-lymphoblasts of human origin, human erythrocytes and rabbit alveolar macrophages. Evidence is also presented that illustrates the ability of these ligands to sequester Ni2+ from cells preloaded with this ion. The experimental observations are interpreted to indicate that serum concentrations of HSA and amino acids (especially L-His) exert a controlling influence on the cellular accumulation of Ni2+ in vitro, and further suggest the necessity to standardize the concentrations of these and related constituents in cell-culture media for meaningful comparisons of cellular uptake and toxicity of Ni2+ and other metal ions. Cells were lysed and the fractional distribution of 63Ni2+ in the lysate and residual pellet were assessed. About 60% of the radiolabel occurred in the pellet and 40% in the lysate for B-lymphoblasts, compared to 70 and 30% respectively for the alveolar macrophages. Diethyldithiocarbamate (DDC), unlike the other complexing agents, enhanced the cellular uptake of Ni2+ and prevented its removal from loaded cells. DDC also induced a transfer of the 63Ni2+ from the lysate to the residual pellet, suggesting that it promotes the deposition of Ni2+ in the lipid-rich components of cells (tissues). It is concluded that cellular association of Ni2+ is favoured by ligands forming lipophilic complexes, and extracellular localization by those giving hydrophilic complex compounds. The relevance of these contrasting roles in nickel detoxification by endogenous ligands and chelating drugs is discussed.

The basic concepts describing the surface properties of binary metal compounds at solid-solution interfaces are reviewed. For hydrated surfaces, the development of surface charge is dependent on pH and the extent of specific adsorption of cations and anions. It is concluded from data on haemolysis of human erythrocytes, and surface adsorption of proteins and cations that surface passivity (external smoothness/crystallinity, low surface charge) combined with low to moderate body fluid solubility correlate with published carcinogenicities. In a review of the coordination chemistry of Ni2+, the following chemical properties are identified as determinants of biological reactivity: size, stereochemistry, binding preferences, complex stability, kinetic lability, and redox properties. New developments in the association of Ni2+ with proteins suggest: a role for the Ni3+/Ni2+ redox couple in bacterial proteins; the involvement of the primary copper/nickel binding site of human serum albumin in antigen recognition by antibodies with nickel-related specificity; and that Ni2+ can act as an antagonist of essential metal ions. It is concluded that there is considerable scope for work elucidating the surface properties of binary nickel compounds, and that the in vivo displacement of Mg2+, Ca2+, Zn2+ and perhaps other ions by Ni2+ constitutes a useful mechanistic concept in nickel toxicology.

Dithiocarbamate-mediated nickel(II) uptake by human peripheral mononuclear leukocytes (mostly lymphocytes) was examined. The lipophilic ligands diethyldithiocarbamate (DDC) and ammonium pyrrolidinedithiocarbamate (APDC) enhanced the cellular association of nickel(II), while ammonium dithiocarbamate (AD) had no effect. Sequential incubations (ligand first followed by nickel(II)) and concurrent experiments (simultaneous exposure) yielded similar results. Cell fractionation studies showed that DDC promoted cytosolic accumulation of nickel(II), rather than in the residual cell pellet. The observations reported are interpreted in terms of the "Equilibrium" model of metal-ion uptake by cells proposed by Professor Williams. Although nickel(II) transformed lymphocytes in vitro from an individual with dermal manifestation of nickel sensitivity to lymphoblasts, there was no apparent difference in nickel(II) uptake capacity over lymphocytes from nonsensitized controls.

Since the term allergy was introduced in the early years of this century a very diverse range of agents eliciting an allergic response has been identified. Among them, nickel was identified in 1925 and since then other metals, notably cobalt and chromium, have been shown to be implicated. Metal contact dermatitis can be initiated by a wide range of everyday articles-such as watches, earrings, and buttons--and is more prevalent than is generally supposed.