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A “disinhibited” cognitive profile has been proposed for individuals with high reward sensitivity, characterized by increased engagement in goal-directed responses and reduced processing of negative or unexpected cues, which impairs adequate behavioral regulation after feedback in these individuals. This pattern is manifested through deficits in inhibitory control and/or increases in RT variability. In the present work, we aimed to test whether this profile is associated with the activity of functional networks during a stop-signal task using independent component analysis (ICA). Sixty-one participants underwent fMRI while performing a stop-signal task, during which a manual response had to be inhibited. ICA was used to mainly replicate the functional networks involved in the task (Zhang and Li, 2012): two motor networks involved in the go response, the left and right fronto-parietal networks for stopping, a midline error-processing network, and the default-mode network (DMN), which was further subdivided into its anterior and posterior parts. Reward sensitivity was mainly associated with greater activity of motor networks, reduced activity in the midline network during correct stop trials and, behaviorally, increased RT variability. All these variables explained 36% of variance of the SR scores. This pattern of associations suggests that reward sensitivity involves greater motor engagement in the dominant response, more distractibility and reduced processing of salient or unexpected events, which may lead to disinhibited behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new virtual reality task was employed which uses preference for interpersonal distance to social stimuli to examine social motivation and emotion perception in children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Nineteen high function children with higher functioning Autism Spectrum Disorder (HFASD) and 23 age, gender, and IQ matched children with typical development (TD) used a joy stick to position themselves closer or further from virtual avatars while attempting to identify six emotions expressed by the avatars, happiness, fear, anger, disgust, sadness, and surprise that were expressed at different levels of intensity. The results indicated that children with HFASD displayed significantly less approach behavior to the positive happy expression than did children with TD, who displayed increases in approach behavior to higher intensities of happy expressions. Alternatively, all groups tended to withdraw from negative emotions to the same extent and there were no diagnostic group differences in accuracy of recognition of any of the six emotions. This pattern of results is consistent with theory that suggests that some children with HFASD display atypical social-approach motivation, or sensitivity to the positive reward value of positive social-emotional events. Conversely, there was little evidence that a tendency to withdraw from social-emotional stimuli, or a failure to process social emotional stimuli, was a component of social behavior task performance in this sample of children with HFASD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The social zeitgeber model (Ehlers, Frank, & Kupfer, 1988) suggests that irregular daily schedules or social rhythms provide vulnerability to bipolar spectrum disorders. This study tested whether social rhythm regularity prospectively predicted first lifetime onset of bipolar spectrum disorders in adolescents already at risk for bipolar disorder based on exhibiting reward hypersensitivity. Adolescents (ages 14-19 years) previously screened to have high (n = 138) or moderate (n = 95) reward sensitivity, but no lifetime history of bipolar spectrum disorder, completed measures of depressive and manic symptoms, family history of bipolar disorder, and the Social Rhythm Metric. They were followed prospectively with semistructured diagnostic interviews every 6 months for an average of 31.7 (SD = 20.1) months. Hierarchical logistic regression indicated that low social rhythm regularity at baseline predicted greater likelihood of first onset of bipolar spectrum disorder over follow-up among high-reward-sensitivity adolescents but not moderate-reward-sensitivity adolescents, controlling for follow-up time, gender, age, family history of bipolar disorder, and initial manic and depressive symptoms (β = -.150, Wald = 4.365, p = .037, odds ratio = .861, 95% confidence interval [.748, .991]). Consistent with the social zeitgeber theory, low social rhythm regularity provides vulnerability to first onset of bipolar spectrum disorder among at-risk adolescents. It may be possible to identify adolescents at risk for developing a bipolar spectrum disorder based on exhibiting both reward hypersensitivity and social rhythm irregularity before onset occurs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alterations in the dopaminergic system have been implicated in both animal and human obesity. However, to date, a comprehensive model on the nature and functional relevance of this relationship is missing. In particular, human data remain equivocal in that seemingly inconsistent reports exist of positive, negative or even no relationships between dopamine D2/D3 receptor availability in the striatum and measures of obesity. Further, data on receptor availability have been commonly interpreted as reflecting receptor density, despite the possibility of an alternative interpretation, namely alterations in the basal levels of endogenous dopaminergic tone. Here, we provide a unifying framework that is able to explain the seemingly contradictory findings and offer an alternative and novel perspective on existing data. In particular, we suggest (i) a quadratic relationship between alterations in the dopaminergic system and degree of obesity, and (ii) that the observed alterations are driven by shifts in the balance between general dopaminergic tone and phasic dopaminergic signalling. The proposed model consistently integrates human data on molecular and behavioural characteristics of overweight and obesity. Further, the model provides a mechanistic framework accounting not only for the consistent observation of altered (food) reward-responsivity but also for the differences in reinforcement learning, decision-making behaviour and cognitive performance associated with measures of obesity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examined the role of reward sensitivity and the motivation to balance ‘have-to’ and ‘want-to’ goals in vicarious goal satiation. In Experiment 1, participants who read about a target who completed an academic goal performed worse on an academic (‘have-to’) task and were more interested in engaging in inherently rewarding (‘want-to’) activities than participants who read about an incomplete goal. In Experiment 2, after reading about a target who completed a ‘have-to’ goal, participants who were more sensitive to rewards performed worse on a similar ‘have-to’ task. Furthermore, in Experiment 3, this effect was significant only when participants saw their task as more of a work (i.e., ‘have-to’) task. Together, these findings support the idea that motivation for rewards plays a role in vicarious goal satiation and that other people's goal pursuits can affect observers' perceived balance of ‘have-to’ and ‘want-to’ goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this functional neuroimaging study, we investigated neural activations during the process of learning to gain monetary rewards and to avoid monetary loss, and how these activations are modulated by individual differences in reward and punishment sensitivity. Healthy young volunteers performed a reinforcement learning task where they chose one of two fractal stimuli associated with monetary gain (reward trials) or avoidance of monetary loss (avoidance trials). Trait sensitivity to reward and punishment was assessed using the behavioral inhibition/activation scales (BIS/BAS). Functional neuroimaging results showed activation of the striatum during the anticipation and reception periods of reward trials. During avoidance trials, activation of the dorsal striatum and prefrontal regions was found. As expected, individual differences in reward sensitivity were positively associated with activation in the left and right ventral striatum during reward reception. Individual differences in sensitivity to punishment were negatively associated with activation in the left dorsal striatum during avoidance anticipation and also with activation in the right lateral orbitofrontal cortex during receiving monetary loss. These results suggest that learning to attain reward and learning to avoid loss are dependent on separable sets of neural regions whose activity is modulated by trait sensitivity to reward or punishment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Psychopathy has been associated with behavioral adaptation deficits, which might be associated with problems in feedback and reward processing. In the present study, we examined the relation between psychopathic traits and reward processing in a passive gambling task. A total of 39 male participants who scored high (HP) and 39 male participants who scored low (LP) on the Triarchic Psychopathy Measure (TriPM), total score were tested. Feedback-related Event-Related Potentials (ERPs; i.e., P2, FRN, and P3) on predicted and unpredicted rewards and reward omissions were compared between both groups. It was found that in HP individuals, the P2 was enhanced for predicted rewards and reward omissions, but not for unpredicted stimuli. Moreover, HP individuals as compared to the LP individuals demonstrated a generally reduced P3 amplitude. The FRN amplitude, however, did not differ between the two groups. In addition, HP individuals showed enhanced reward sensitivity on the self-report level. Taken together, these findings suggest that HP individuals show enhanced sensitivity to early and reduced sensitivity to later markers of processing reinforcement learning signals, which points in the direction of compromised behavioral adaptation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Weight cycling is a prevalent phenomenon in obese individuals. There is evidence that temperamental factors are associated with obesity and subgroups among the obese have been identified based on reactive and regulative aspects of temperament. Methods: We aimed at investigating the association between reactive and regulative aspects of temperament and severe weight cycling in overweight and obese individuals of a representative German population sample (n = 923). Participants completed questionnaires assessing weight parameters including BMI and weight cycling, sensitivity to punishment and to reward (BIS/BAS scales), self-regulatory abilities (effortful control scale), depressive symptoms, and binge eating. Results: Severe weight cycling was more common in women, and was associated with higher reward sensitivity, higher current and maximum-ever BMI, higher weight suppression, more depressive symptoms, and a higher prevalence of binge eating. In contrast, sensitivity to punishment and effortful control were not associated with severe weight cycling. Also, the interaction between sensitivity to reward and effortful control did not predict weight cycling. Discussion: Higher reward sensitivity might not only render individuals vulnerable for weight regain but might also be associated with a higher frequency of weight loss attempts due to the putative rewarding properties of the initial success in weight loss at the early stages of a diet. Temperamental factors should be considered in the treatment of obesity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite being considered primarily a mood disorder, major depressive disorder (MDD) is characterized by cognitive and decision making deficits. Recent research has employed computational models of reinforcement learning (RL) to address these deficits. The computational approach has the advantage in making explicit predictions about learning and behavior, specifying the process parameters of RL, differentiating between model-free and model-based RL, and the computational model-based functional magnetic resonance imaging and electroencephalography. With these merits there has been an emerging field of computational psychiatry and here we review specific studies that focused on MDD. Considerable evidence suggests that MDD is associated with impaired brain signals of reward prediction error and expected value (‘wanting’), decreased reward sensitivity (‘liking’) and/or learning (be it model-free or model-based), etc., although the causality remains unclear. These parameters may serve as valuable intermediate phenotypes of MDD, linking general clinical symptoms to underlying molecular dysfunctions. We believe future computational research at clinical, systems, and cellular/molecular/genetic levels will propel us toward a better understanding of the disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article is part of a Special Issue “Estradiol and Cognition”. Variations in the steroid hormone 17ß-estradiol (E2) may promote intra-individual differences in reward seeking behavior and temporal decision-making (Reimers et al., 2014; Front. Neurosci. 8: 401). Yet, in humans the exact role of E2 in impulsive choice still needs to be determined. The present study assessed the effect of a cycle-dependent rise in endogenous E2 on temporal response adaptation across the follicular phase (FP). For this purpose a reward acquisition paradigm was employed that is sensitive to hormone-induced changes in central dopamine (DA) level. The present data show that women acted more impulsively in the early as opposed to the late FP. Early follicular E2 further correlated with an increased capacity to speed up for reward maximization, while simultaneously the ability to wait for higher reward was compromised. This correlation was most pronounced in women with low trait impulsiveness. In contrast, E2 and optimized response speed failed to correlate in women with high trait impulsiveness and in the late FP, despite a generally higher E2 level. Collectively, these findings support the theory that E2 may act as an endogenous DA agonist. The fact that the hormone–behavior relationship was restricted to women with low trait impulsiveness and thus supposedly lower central DA level provides indirect support for this idea. Yet, choices became relatively less impulsive in the state of heightened E2 (i.e., in the late FP), suggesting that the relationship between E2 and impulsive choice may not be linear, but might resemble an inverted U-function. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rats express affective states by visible behaviors (like approach or flight) and through different kinds of ultrasonic vocalizations (USV). 50-kHz calls are thought to reflect positive affective states since they occur during rewarding situations like social play or palatable food. However, the effects of voluntary exercise on USV have not been investigated yet, although such exercise can serve as reward. To this aim, we gave young adult rats restricted daily access to a runway maze, where they could interact with either a movable (experimental group) or locked wheel (sedentary group) for 14 days and we tested USV in anticipation of and during subsequent running. We also studied inter-individual differences in running, and relationships with USV, and rat-typical trait measures. The results showed that the experimental rats had to be separated into “runners” and “pseudorunners” since only runners performed true running, whereas pseudorunners hardly entered the wheel and turned it only with their forelimbs. This outcome seems to be related to subject-dependent differences in responding to novelty and in reward sensitivity, as indicated by pertinent screening tests, which we had performed prior to the 14 days of wheel access. In the runway, our experimental and control groups did not differ in visible anticipatory behavior, like approach. Yet, only runners and sedentary rats displayed an increasing but similar amount of anticipatory USV, which is suggestive of a state of incentive anticipation of the coming wheel access. During exercise, only runners increased USV, probably indicating a highly positive emotional state. To conclude, voluntary exercise provides a promising tool to induce 50-kHz USV during and in anticipation of exercise. When performing such studies, possible individual differences between subjects have to be taken into account, and the actual wheel performance should carefully be controlled. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Because no large prospective study has investigated neural vulnerability factors that predict future weight gain, we tested whether neural response to receipt and anticipated receipt of palatable food and monetary reward predicted body fat gain over a 3-year follow-up in healthy-weight adolescent humans and whether the TaqIA polymorphism moderates these relations. A total of 153 adolescents completed fMRI paradigms assessing response to these events; body fat was assessed annually over follow-up. Elevated orbitofrontal cortex response to cues signaling impending milkshake receipt predicted future body fat gain (r=0.32), which is a novel finding that provides support for the incentive sensitization theory of obesity. Neural response to receipt and anticipated receipt of monetary reward did not predict body fat gain, which has not been tested previously. Replicating an earlier finding (Stice et al., 2008a), elevated caudate response to milkshake receipt predicted body fat gain for adolescents with a genetic propensity for greater dopamine signaling by virtue of possessing the TaqIA A2/A2 allele, but lower caudate response predicted body fat gain for adolescents with a genetic propensity for less dopamine signaling by virtue of possessing a TaqIA A1 allele, though this interaction was only marginal [p-value <0.05 corrected using voxel-level familywise error rate (pFWE)= 0.06]. Parental obesity, which correlated with TaqIA allele status (odds ratio = 2.7), similarly moderated the relation of caudate response to milkshake receipt to future body fat gain, which is another novel finding. The former interaction implies that too much or too little dopamine signaling and reward region responsivity increases risk for overeating, suggesting qualitatively distinct reward surfeit and reward deficit pathways to obesity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research on Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory has well-characterized the Behavioral Inhibition System in terms of its behavioral and emotional manifestations, but the Behavioral Approach System (BAS) is less well-defined, particularly regarding the prominence of reward sensitivity versus impulsivity. Furthermore, few researchers evaluate both systems in one model. We evaluated the relationship between Carver and White’s (1994) BIS/BAS Scales and areas of psychological functioning including internalizing, externalizing, affect regulation, and well-being. 497 undergraduates completed a battery of self-report measures. Two structural equation models indicate that the Reward Responsiveness subscale uniquely predicts adaptive functioning across all domains. Reward Responsiveness may be a more pure measure of BAS than other BAS traits and may be important for resilience from maladaptive psychological functioning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The cognitive mechanism underlying the association between individual differences in reward sensitivity and food craving is unknown. The present study explored the mechanism by examining the role of reward sensitivity in attentional bias toward ice cream cues. Forty-nine college students who displayed high level of ice cream craving (HICs) and 46 who displayed low level of ice cream craving (LICs) performed an inattentional blindness (IB) task which was used to assess attentional bias for ice cream. In addition, reward sensitivity and coping style were assessed by the Behavior Inhibition System/Behavior Activation System Scales and Simplified Coping Style Questionnaire. Results showed significant higher identification rate of the critical stimulus in the HICs than LICs, suggesting greater attentional bias for ice cream in the HICs. It was indicated that attentional bias for food cues persisted even under inattentional condition. Furthermore, a significant correlation was found between the attentional bias and reward sensitivity after controlling for coping style, and reward sensitivity predicted attentional bias for food cues. The mediation analyses showed that attentional bias mediated the relationship between reward sensitivity and food craving. Those findings suggest that the association between individual differences in reward sensitivity and food craving may be attributed to attentional bias for food-related cues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The motivational value of food is lower during satiety compared to fasting. Dynamic changes in motivational value promote food seeking or meal cessation. In obesity this mechanism might be compromised since obese subjects ingest energy beyond homeostatic needs. Thus, lower adaptation of eating behaviour with respect to changes in motivational value might cause food overconsumption in obesity. To test this hypothesis, we implemented a selective satiation procedure to investigate the relationship between obesity and the size of the behavioural devaluation effect in humans. Lean to obese men (mean age 25.9, range 19–30 years; mean BMI 29.1, range 19.2–45.1 kg/m 2 ) were trained on a free operant paradigm and learned to associate cues with the possibility to win different food rewards by pressing a button. After the initial training phase, one of the rewards was devalued by consumption. Response rates for and wanting of the different rewards were measured pre and post devaluation. Behavioural sensitivity to reward devaluation, measured as the magnitude of difference between pre and post responses, was regressed against BMI. Results indicate that (1) higher BMI compared to lower BMI in men led to an attenuated behavioural adjustment to reward devaluation, and (2) the decrease in motivational value was associated with the decrease in response rate between pre and post . Change in explicitly reported motivational value, however, was not affected by BMI. Thus, we conclude that high BMI in men is associated with lower behavioural adaptation with respect to changes in motivational value of food, possibly resulting in automatic overeating patterns that are hard to control in daily life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BackgroundMultiple pathway models of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) suggest that this disorder is the behavioural expression of dysfunction in one of several separable brain systems. One such model focuses on the brain systems underlying cognitive control, timing and reward sensitivity. It predicts separable subgroups among individuals with ADHD, with performance deficits in only one of these domains. We used latent class analysis (LCA) to identify subgroups of individuals with ADHD based on their overall pattern of neuropsychological performance, rather than grouping them based on cut-off criteria. We hypothesized that we would find separable subgroups with deficits in cognitive control, timing and reward sensitivity respectively.MethodNinety-six subjects with ADHD (of any subtype) and 121 typically developing controls performed a battery assessing cognitive control, timing and reward sensitivity. LCA was used to identify subgroups of individuals with ADHD with a distinct neuropsychological profile. A similar analysis was performed for controls.ResultsThree subgroups represented 87% of subjects with ADHD. Two of our three hypothesized subgroups were identified, with poor cognitive control and timing. Two of the ADHD subgroups had similar profiles to control subgroups, whereas one subgroup had no equivalent in controls.ConclusionsOur findings support multiple pathway models of ADHD, as we were able to define separable subgroups with differing cognitive profiles. Furthermore, we found both quantitative and qualitative differences from controls, suggesting that ADHD may represent both categorical and dimensional differences. These results show that by addressing heterogeneity in ADHD, we can identify more homogeneous subsets of individuals to further investigate. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The current study examined relationships between psychopathy factor severity and individual differences in reinforcement sensitivity theory factors. Phase 1 examined relationships between factors from the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of Personality Questionnaire (RST-PQ) and the two-factor model of psychopathy using the Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy Scale (LSRP) in 2914 undergraduate students (63% women). Multigroup observed variable path analyses revealed unique associations between RST-PQ factors and the two factors of psychopathy. Also, small differences in relationship strength across biological sex were observed. Phase 2 examined the two factors of psychopathy in relation to hedonic ratings from the behavioral Sweet Taste Test (STT), along with self-report measures of trait pleasure, in a subset of participants (n = 93; 66% women). Analyses revealed robust sex interactions in relationships between STT ratings and the two psychopathy factors. Men with greater secondary psychopathy severity predicted a reduced slope of liking ratings to increasing concentrations of sucrose, while women showed a positive hedonic slope for secondary and a negative hedonic slope for primary psychopathy. Future research should include analyses for possible moderation of sex and incorporate menstrual cycle status in women when examining measures collected in the laboratory. • Unique associations: reinforcement sensitivity factors and psychopathy facets • Differences in relationship strength across biological sex • Robust sex interactions in sweet taste test hedonic ratings-to-psychopathy severity • Results add knowledge about underlying structure of psychopathy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Impulsivity and reward sensitivity are personality traits associated with obesity and binge-eating disorder (BED), but little research has examined prospective associations between these traits and body mass index z-score (BMI-z) differentially for children with and without BED., Objective: Using data from the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development study, the present analysis examined predictive associations between impulsivity and reward sensitivity facets with BMI-z 1 year later in children with versus without BED., Methods: Nine-to-ten-year-old children were recruited across the United States and completed self-report questionnaires and clinical interviews at baseline, and height and weight were taken at baseline and 1-year follow-up. Multivariable models were run with baseline impulsivity and reward sensitivity facets predicting 1-year BMI-z in children with versus without BED., Results: Reward sensitivity and impulsivity were unrelated to BMI-z at follow-up in children without BED. Greater negative urgency (i.e., proclivity to act rashly without forethought in response to negative emotions) and lower positive urgency (i.e., proclivity to act rashly without forethought due to positive emotions) predicted increased BMI-z at 1-year follow-up in children with BED subsample., Conclusions: Findings indicate the importance of developing theoretical models and interventions for obesity prevention in children with BED that address emotional impulsivity., (© 2022 The Authors. Pediatric Obesity published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of World Obesity Federation.)

Background: Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) can elicit 45-55 % response rates and may alleviate suicidality symptoms in treatment resistant depression (TRD). Blunted anticipatory reward sensitivity and negatively biased self-referential processing may predict trajectories of depressive and suicidality symptoms in rTMS for TRD and be modulated during treatment., Methods: Fifty-five individuals with TRD received four weeks of low-frequency rTMS applied to the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (LFR-rTMS) and were followed until 17 weeks post-baseline. Participants completed behavioral measures of anticipatory reward sensitivity and self-referential processing at baseline and five weeks post-baseline (approximately one-week post-treatment). We examined whether baseline anticipatory reward sensitivity and self-referential processing predicted trajectories of depressive and suicidality symptoms from baseline to follow-up and whether these cognitive-affective variables showed change from baseline to week five., Results: Anticipatory reward sensitivity and negative self-referential encoding at baseline were associated with higher overall depressive symptoms and suicidality from baseline to 17 weeks post-baseline. At week five, participants self-attributed a higher number of positive traits and a lower number of negative traits and had a lesser tendency to remember negative relative to positive traits they had self-attributed, compared to baseline., Limitations: The specificity of these results to LFR-rTMS is unknown in the absence of a comparison group, and our relatively small sample size precluded the interpretation of null results., Conclusions: Baseline blunted anticipatory reward sensitivity and negative biases in self-referential processing may be risk factors for higher depressive symptoms and suicidality during and after LFR-rTMS, and LFR-rTMS may modulate self-referential processing., Competing Interests: Conflict of Interest FVR receives in-kind equipment supports for this investigator-initiated trial from MagVenture and has received honoraria for participation in advisory board for Janssen. The rest of the authors declare no competing interests., (Copyright © 2022. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Introduction: Individuals with alcohol use disorder (AUD) have difficulties regulating alcohol consumption, despite adverse drinking-related consequences. This may be due to incapacity incorporating previous negative feedback from drinking, resulting in impaired decision-making., Methods: We assessed whether decision-making is impaired in participants with AUD related to severity of AUD, indexed by severe negative drinking consequences using the Drinkers Inventory of Consequences (DrInC) and reward and punishment sensitivity with the Behavioural Inhibition System Behavioural Activation System (BIS BAS) scales. 36 treatment-seeking alcohol-dependent participants completed the Iowa gambling task (IGT) with skin conductance responses (SCRs) measured continuously as an index of somatic autonomic arousal to evaluate impaired expectancy of negative outcomes., Results: Two-thirds of the sample showed behavioural impairment during the IGT, with greater AUD severity related to worse performance. BIS moderated IGT performance according to severity of AUD, with increased anticipatory SCRs for those with fewer reported DrInC severe consequences. Participants with more DrInC severe consequences showed IGT deficits and reduced SCRs regardless of BIS scores. BAS-Reward was associated with increased anticipatory SCRs to disadvantageous deck choices among those with lower AUD severity, while SCRs did not differ related to AUD severity for reward outcomes., Discussion: Effective decision-making in the IGT and adaptive somatic responses were moderated by punishment sensitivity contingent on severity of AUD in these drinkers, with impairments in expectancy to negative outcomes from risky choices, including reduced somatic responses, resulting in poor decision-making processes that may help explain impaired drinking and worse drinking-related consequences., (© 2023 The Author(s). Published by S. Karger AG, Basel.)

Recent theoretical work on the Life History Theory and empirical findings on Machiavellianism suggest that Machiavellian individuals are motivated to acquire short-term benefits and prioritize situations with high potential rewards. Accordingly, in our study, we investigated the associations between reward/punishment sensitivity and Machiavellian interpersonal tactics with self-report measures. Moreover, as a first attempt, we investigated the correlates of Machiavellianism and the behavioral preference for rewards with the IOWA Gambling task (IGT). The results showed robust positive associations of Machiavellian behavioral characteristics with Sensitivity to Reward, and a moderately negative correlation with Sensitivity to Punishment. This finding was further supported by IGT: Machiavellians tended to make reward-oriented decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory proposes that the Behavioral Approach System (BAS) comprises dopaminergic brain regions and underpins reward sensitivity causing impulsivity. It has been shown in a supraliminal priming task that highly reward sensitive subjects have a larger reaction time (RT) priming effect and make more commission errors to prime-incongruent targets. We adapted a similar task to event-related fMRI and hypothesized that (1) high reward sensitivity is associated with increased activation in dopaminergic brain regions, the ventral striatum in particular, (2) that BAS related personality traits predict impulsivity and (3) that the BAS effects are larger after adjusting for the interactive influence of trait avoidance, as predicted by the Joint Subsystems Hypothesis. Fourteen healthy females participated in the fMRI experiment and were scored on sensitivity to reward (SR) and trait avoidance, i.e., sensitivity to punishment (SP) and neuroticism (N). SR scores were adjusted by SP and N scores. As hypothesized, adjusted SR scores predicted, more than SR scores alone, activity in the ventral striatum (left caudate nucleus and nucleus accumbens). SR+/ SP− scores predicted increased impulsiveness, i.e., a right side RT priming effect. These results support the Joint Subsystems Hypothesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Affective states can be evaluated by assessing shifts in the animal's expectation of a positive and negative outcome in response to ambiguous cues, also known as judgement bias (JB). The aim of this study was to use a JB methodology, using a go/go type of task where animals are required to make an active choice, to assess the effects of acute stress on affective states in hens. Thirty ISA-Brown hens were trained in a two-choice (left–right) test in an arena to associate a high-value (H) reward (four mealworms) with a 100% black and a low-value (L) reward (one mealworm) with 5% black (visually white) cues. Twenty hens that learnt the tasks were randomly allocated to either a control (C) or stress (S; 5 min social isolation in a novel environment) group. During testing, hens were presented with H and L (rewarded) and three novel ambiguous (un-rewarded) cues: 75%, 50% and 25% black. Order of cue presentation was balanced between treatments to either having ambiguous cues always preceded by L cues (L-Ambiguous) or by H cues (H-Ambiguous). Latency to approach a reward and active choice made (i.e. reaching side associated with either H or L reward) were recorded. Data are log-transformed least square mean (LSmean) latencies(s) ± SEM with back-transformed LSmean in parentheses. Latency data showed that S-hens were faster to approach a reward cue than C-hens (S 0.8 (2.3) ± 0.04 vs C 0.9 (2.6) ± 0.04 (s), P < 0.05). Hens were faster to approach H and 75% than 25% and L cues (H = 0.7 (2.0) ± 0.04 and 75% = 0.7 (2.0) ± 0.07 (s) vs 25% = 1.1 (2.9) ± 0.07 and L = 1.1 (3.1) ± 0.04 (s), P < 0.05) with intermediate responses to 50% cues (50% = 0.8 (2.3) ± 0.07 (s)). S-hens were faster to approach ambiguous cues preceded by an H reward compared to C-hens (S H-Ambiguous = 0.7 (1.9) ± 0.06, S L-Ambiguous = 1.0 (2.7) ± 0.06, C H-Ambiguous = 0.9 (2.4) ± 0.06 and C L-Ambiguous = 1.0 (2.7) ± 0.06 (s), P < 0.05). Active choice was not affected by treatment. These results show that acute stress enhances sensitivity to a previously rewarding outcome without affecting judgement bias in laying hens. Hens are sensitive to events occurring immediately before the test and the order in which cues are presented and these issues should be considered in future studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This longitudinal study examines associations between baseline individual differences and developmental changes in reward [i.e. behavioral approach system (BAS)] sensitivity and relevant brain structures’ volumes to prospective substance use initiation during adolescence. A community sample of adolescents ages 15–18 with no prior substance use was assessed for substance use initiation (i.e. initiation of regular alcohol use and/or any use of other substances) during a 2-year follow-up period and for alcohol use frequency in the last year of the follow-up. Longitudinal ‘increases’ in BAS sensitivity were associated with substance use initiation and increased alcohol use frequency during the follow-up. Moreover, adolescents with smaller left nucleus accumbens at baseline were more likely to initiate substance use during the follow-up period. This study provides support for the link between developmental increases in reward sensitivity and substance use initiation in adolescence. The study also emphasizes the potential importance of individual differences in volumes of subcortical regions and their structural development for substance use initiation during adolescence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined whether attentional bias for alcohol stimuli was associated with alcohol use in young adolescents, and whether the frequently demonstrated relationship between reward sensitivity and adolescent alcohol use would be partly mediated by attentional bias for alcohol cues. In addition, this study investigated the potential moderating role of executive control (EC), and tested whether the relationship between alcohol-related attentional bias and alcohol use was especially present in young adolescents with weak EC. Participants were 86 adolescents (mean age = 14.86), who completed a Visual Probe Task (VPT) as an index of attentional bias, a flanker-task based Attention Network Task (ANT) as an index of EC, the sensitivity of punishment and sensitivity of reward questionnaire (SPSRQ) as an index of reward sensitivity, and an alcohol use questionnaire. High reward sensitivity, high alcohol-related attentional bias, and weak EC were all related to alcohol use. The relationship between reward sensitivity and alcohol use was not mediated by alcohol-related attentional bias. As hypothesized, attentional bias was only associated with alcohol use in participants with weak EC. Together, the present findings are consistent with the view that high reward sensitivity and low EC may be considered as risk factors for adolescent alcohol use. The independent contribution of reward sensitivity and attentional bias might suggest that adolescents who are highly reward sensitive and display an attentional bias for alcohol cues are at even higher risk for excessive alcohol use and developing alcohol abuse problems. Future research using a longitudinal approach would allow an examination of these risk factors on subsequent alcohol use. Treatment implications are discussed, including the importance of strengthening EC and reducing the rewarding value of alcohol use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although most conceptualizations of social anxiety emphasise that socially anxious individuals are overtly shy, and utilise avoidant behavioural strategies (e.g., risk-aversion, passivity, and submissiveness), there is tentative support for the existence of an approach-motivated subtype, characterised by risk taking and a greater propensity for substance misuse. It is likely that this subtype may help explain the reported co-occurrence of substance misuse and social anxiety. The current study sought to test via latent class analysis whether an approach-motivated social anxiety subtype could be identified within a community sample. A self-report questionnaire was completed by 351 participants (age: 18–74 years). Two distinct social anxiety subgroups were identified: one characterised by prototypical SAD symptomatology (i.e., behavioural inhibition and risk-avoidance), the second by elevated levels of rash impulsiveness, reward sensitivity, risk-taking and co-occurring substance use problems. The current findings provides support for the existence of a distinct approach-motivated social anxiety subtype and indicates that impulsivity may be critical to understanding the comorbid substance use symptomatology of these individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Past research has demonstrated a strong relationship between threat sensitivity and social anxiety; however, the relationship between reward sensitivity and social anxiety is less clear. Further, the role that emotion regulation (ER) may play in the expression of social anxiety disorder (SAD) is rarely considered. The current study tested whether two emotion regulation strategies (emotional suppression and cognitive reappraisal) mediated associations between threat sensitivity and reward sensitivity and social anxiety in a community sample (402 adults, 78% female; M age =32.49, S.D. age =11.53). Path analyses indicated that low reappraisal mediated the relationship between high threat sensitivity and high social anxiety; and both low reappraisal and high suppression mediated the relationship between low reward sensitivity and high social anxiety. These results highlight the potential role that emotion regulation plays in the relationship between trait motivation and social anxiety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Unfortunately, only a small percent of pathological gamblers seek the professional help they need. In the current study, we test the idea that individual differences in reward sensitivity should predict whether a pathological gambler has sought treatment-the odds of treatment seeking should decrease as reward sensitivity increases. This hypothesis rests on the proposition that reward sensitive pathological gamblers should find treatment seeking aversive because doing so would remove a route to reward. We also tested those motivations to gamble that are positively reinforcing (social affliction and self-enhancement) as a possible mechanism by which reward sensitivity undermines treatment seeking-we did not anticipate negatively reinforcing motivations (e.g., coping) to be a mechanistic variable. Ninety-two pathological gamblers completed a large-scale survey that contained the variables of interest. As predicted, pathological gamblers were less likely to have sought treatment as reward sensitivity increased. Moreover, this relationship was mediated by social affiliation motivations to gamble, but not self-enhancement or coping motives. Reward sensitive gamblers did not wish to seek treatment to the extent that they were motivated to gamble for the social interactions it provides-seeking treatment would cut this avenue of affiliation with others. In light of these results, we suggest health care professionals take reward sensitivity into account when trying to promote treatment seeking, to say nothing of the social affiliation motives that underlie the reward sensitivity-treatment seeking link. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background There is a disproportionately high smoking prevalence among individuals who are prone to depression. While depression has been conceptualized as a disorder of dysregulated positive affect and disrupted reward processing, little research has been conducted to determine the role of smoking in these processes among depression-prone smokers. Methods Depression-prone smokers (DP+; n = 34) and smokers not depression-prone (DP−; n = 49) underwent two laboratory sessions, one while smoking abstinent and one while smoking ad libitum, to assess the relative reinforcing value of smoking and reward sensitivity. Using experience sampling methods, participants completed self-report measures of subjective reward, positive affect, and negative affect across 3 days while smoking as usual and 3 days while smoking abstinent. Results DP+ were two times more likely to work for cigarette puffs versus money in a progressive ratio, choice task (odds ratio 2.05; 95% confidence interval 1.04 to 4.06, p = .039) compared with DP−. Reward sensitivity as measured by the signal detection task did not yield any significant findings. Mixed models regressions revealed a three-way interaction (depression group, smoking phase, and time) for subjective reward, negative affect, and positive affect. For all three of these outcomes, the slopes for DP− and DP+ differed significantly from each other ( p s < .05) and the effect of smoking (versus abstinence) over time was greater for DP+ than DP− smokers ( p s < .05). Conclusions These findings indicate that the effects of smoking on reward and positive affect regulation are specific to DP+ smokers and highlight novel targets for smoking cessation treatment in this population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Smokers show increased brain activation in reward processing regions in response to smoking-related cues, yet few studies have examined secondary rewards not associated with smoking (i.e., money). Inconsistencies exist in the studies that do examine secondary rewards with some studies showing increased brain activation in reward processing brain regions, while others show decreased activation or no difference in activation between smokers and nonsmokers. Aims The goal of the current study is to see if smokers process the evaluation and delivery of equally salient real world rewards similarly or differently than nonsmokers. Methods The current study employed functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fMRI) to examine brain responses in smokers and nonsmokers during the evaluation and delivery of monetary gains and losses. Results In comparison to nonsmokers, smokers showed increased activation in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex to the evaluation of anticipated monetary losses and the brain response. Moreover, smokers compared to nonsmokers showed decreased activation in the inferior frontal gyrus to the delivery of expected monetary gains. Brain activations to both the evaluation of anticipated monetary losses and the delivery of expected monetary gains correlated with increased self-reported smoking craving to relieve negative withdrawal symptoms and craving related to positive aspects of smoking, respectively. Discussion Together these results indicate that smokers are hyperresponsive to the evaluation of anticipated punishment and hyporesponsive to the delivery of expected rewards. Although further research is needed, this hypersensitivity to punishments coupled with increased craving may negatively impact quit attempts as smokers anticipate the negative withdrawal symptoms associated with quitting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study investigates if genetic variation in the serotonergic system interacts with early adversity to predict changes in the Behavioral Approach System (BAS), a system that taps into reward processing. In a sample of community adults (N=236) the influence of single serotonergic candidate polymorphisms on BAS was analyzed, we also examined the aggregate contribution of these genetic variants by creating a Cumulative Genetic Score (CGS). A CGS quantifies an individual's cumulative risk by aggregating the number of risk alleles across the candidate polymorphisms. After individual gene analysis, three candidate genes rs7305115 (TPH2), rs6311 (HTR2A), and rs6295 (HTR1A) were combined into the CGS. There were no significant interactions between individual candidate polymorphisms and childhood adversity, but the CGS interacted with childhood adversity to explain a significant amount of variance (11.6%) in the BAS. Findings suggest that genetic variations in the serotonergic system in combination with childhood adversity contribute to individual differences in reward sensitivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent theories hypothesize that the impulsivity observed in addictive behaviors is a two-factor construct, consisting of Rash Impulsiveness and Reward Sensitivity. There is some evidence for this distinction, but it is unknown what the clinical relevance of this distinction is. The present study examines the predictive value of the two-factor model regarding drop-out from treatment and relapse into substance use in a clinical population of male substance dependent patients. Both behavioral and self-report measures of Rash Impulsiveness and Reward Sensitivity were measured during treatment while substance use relapse was measured after 90days. Results indicate that treatment drop-out could be predicted by a behavioral index of Reward Sensitivity (Card Playing Task); self-reported Rash Impulsiveness only approached significance as predictor drop-out. In contrast, relapse could not be predicted in the present study. These findings might have implications for the early identification and treatment of patients at risk of treatment drop-out. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim Behavior inhibition and behavior approach system ( BIS/ BAS) determine the sensitivity to aversion and rewarding stimuli, respectively. This study aimed at evaluating the BIS/ BAS of premenstrual dysphoric disorder ( PMDD) and effect of estrogen and progesterone on the BIS/ BAS. Methods Women with PMDD without treatment and control subjects were recruited from the community. The PMDD diagnosis was based on psychiatric interviewing and the result of two-menstrual-cycle follow up. A total of 67 women with PMDD and 75 control subjects were recruited and entered the final analysis. They were evaluated with BIS/ BAS scale and for estrogen and progesterone levels in both premenstrual and follicular phases. Results The results revealed that BAS score was higher among women with PMDD in both premenstrual and follicular phases. Progesterone level negatively correlated with fun-seeking, and its change in the menstrual cycle also negatively correlated to a change in fun-seeking score among women with PMDD. Women with PMDD had a higher score in BIS in the premenstrual phase and the BIS score correlated to depression, anxiety, and hostility among them. Conclusion These results suggest reward sensitivity of women with PMDD is vulnerable to the effect of progesterone change in the menstrual cycle. Furthermore, the sensitivity to aversive stimuli plays an important role involving core symptoms of PMDD. The reinforcement sensitivity of PMDD deserves further detailed study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Converging research suggests that individuals with schizophrenia show a marked impairment in reinforcement learning, particularly in tasks requiring flexibility and adaptation. The problem has been associated with dopamine reward systems. This study explores, for the first time, the characteristics of this impairment and how it is affected by a behavioral intervention—cognitive remediation. Method: Using computational modelling, 3 reinforcement learning parameters based on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) trial-by-trial performance were estimated: R (reward sensitivity), P (punishment sensitivity), and D (choice consistency). In Study 1 the parameters were compared between a group of individuals with schizophrenia (n = 100) and a healthy control group (n = 50). In Study 2 the effect of cognitive remediation therapy (CRT) on these parameters was assessed in 2 groups of individuals with schizophrenia, one receiving CRT (n = 37) and the other receiving treatment as usual (TAU, n = 34). Results: In Study 1 individuals with schizophrenia showed impairment in the R and P parameters compared with healthy controls. Study 2 demonstrated that sensitivity to negative feedback (P) and reward (R) improved in the CRT group after therapy compared with the TAU group. R and P parameter change correlated with WCST outputs. Improvements in R and P after CRT were associated with working memory gains and reduction of negative symptoms, respectively. Conclusion: Schizophrenia reinforcement learning difficulties negatively influence performance in shift learning tasks. CRT can improve sensitivity to reward and punishment. Identifying parameters that show change may be useful in experimental medicine studies to identify cognitive domains susceptible to improvement. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]