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School counselors are the primary facilitators of college transition for many students, yet little is known about their influence on college-going behavior. Analyzing data from the Educational Longitudinal Study of 2002, this study employs coarsened exact matching and multilevel modeling to examine the effects of student-counselor visits on postsecondary enrollment, as well as determine whether the effects of such visits vary by socioeconomic background. Results suggest that visiting a counselor for college entrance information has a positive and significant influence on students' likelihood of postsecondary enrollment, and that counseling-related effects are greatest for students with low socioeconomic status.

Despite planning college, disadvantaged students are less likely to enroll in college, particularly 4-year colleges. Beyond cost and academic achievement, previous research finds that a lack of college-related social resources poses barriers. However, little research investigates whether schools can help. We examine whether, how, and for whom a new counseling model aimed at providing college-related social resources may improve college enrollment. Following nearly all seniors in Chicago Public Schools from senior year through the fall after high school, we find that coaches may improve the types of colleges that students attend by getting students to complete key actions. It is important that the most disadvantaged students appear to benefit. This research suggests that targeting social resources may improve the high-school-to-college transition for disadvantaged students. (Contains 5 notes and 5 tables.)

Career counselor. Life coach. Holder of the occasional tissue box. It is all part of being a National Association for Music Education (NAfME) Collegiate advisor. Carla Jo Maltas, collegiate chapter advisor for the University of Central Missouri, would not have it any other way. Although the duties of an advisor vary depending on the institution and student body, Maltas--an associate professor of music education at UCM and a 23-year NAfME member who is also the Missouri state collegiate advisor--is a glowing example of what the job requires: someone who is in touch with both the book smarts and emotional intelligence that are needed as students travel down the path toward becoming music educators.

With a rising demand for a college degree and an increasingly complicated college search, application, and selection process, there are a number of interventions designed to ease the college-going process for adolescents and their families. One such intervention, the College Ambition Program (CAP), is specifically designed to be a whole-school intervention that comprehensively connects several important aspects of the college-going process and specifically is focused on increasing interest in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM). With many adolescents having interest in STEM careers but lacking knowledge of how to transform these interests into plans, CAP supports students in developing and pursuing their educational and occupational goals. CAP offers students tutoring and mentoring, course-counseling and advising, assistance through the financial aid process, and college experiences through visits to college campuses. In addition to these four core components, CAP is also pursuing how to integrate mobile technology and texting to further provide students with tailored resources and information about the college-going process. This chapter describes the complexities of the college-going process, the components of the CAP intervention, and presents findings that demonstrate that these strategies can increase college-going rates and interest in STEM. The authors highlight the importance of developing a college-going culture within high schools that support the alignment of postsecondary and career goals.

This article describes Southwest University's no-fee teacher education internship models in terms of their organization, content, requirements, and quality assurance. It further introduces the quality assurance system, which comprises building a teaching internship system, establishing internship sites, guiding teacher training, and processing management. The article explores the theoretical basis of the university's internship efforts and provides a comparative analysis of the three models: volunteer teaching internship, mixed-team internship, and specialty-focused internship. Finally, it identifies issues for further consideration.

This paper explores the decision-making processes of young people aged 13-14?years in 30 consortia across England as they chose their options for Key Stage 4 at a time when a new qualification, the 14-19 Diploma, was being introduced. It draws on data collected as part of a longitudinal national study (January 2008-August 2011) of the introduction and implementation of the 14-19 Diplomas. Few studies of young people's decision-making have considered in detail the role played by the careers education, information, advice and guidance (CEIAG) provided in schools. High quality, impartial school CEIAG provision has historically proved elusive, yet this is often the main source of information for young people and their parents. The introduction of the 14-19 Diploma provided a critical test of the quality of CEIAG in schools delivering that qualification for the first time from September 2008. Through a series of questionnaire surveys of Year 9 learners in 30 Diploma consortia and in-depth case studies in 15 consortia, we investigated young people's decision-making in relation to this new qualification and examined how this was influenced by their school's CEIAG. We found variations in the quality of school CEIAG about the Diploma qualification and, amongst some groups of students, a lack of knowledge and understanding of the Diploma programme of study, and the potential progression pathways. There was also evidence that inaccurate or incomplete CEIAG affected students' levels of satisfaction with their Diploma course. Only 46% of 477 Diploma students surveyed towards the end of their course believed they had made the right choice in Year 9. Although the 14-19 Diploma has now largely been withdrawn, the findings of this study highlight the issues and challenges facing schools as they take over responsibility for the provision of CEIAG from local authorities in September 2012.

Background: College attendance has become a crucial determinant of life chances in U.S. society. Besides college costs and academic preparation, college-related cultural and social capital may help explain socioeconomic differences in whether and where students attend college. While high school counselors are seen as potential agents of social capital, the standard counseling model, developed to serve middle-class students, may not translate effectively to schools serving disadvantaged students. The college coach program, introduced in 12 nonselective Chicago Public Schools (CPS) in the fall of 2004, provides an alternative model. In contrast to the standard high school counseling model, college coaches take a "community organizer" role in assisting the college enrollment process. Statistical difference-in-differences analysis suggests that coaches may have improved the kinds of colleges that students attended, particularly for less advantaged students (Stephan, 2010). Purpose: This qualitative study describes how the coach program works and analyzes key aspects that may explain its positive relationship with college enrollment outcomes. Participants: Interviews were conducted between the spring of 2006 and spring of 2007 with 9 current and former college coaches, 2 postsecondary specialists (to whom the coaches report), and 30 high school seniors in 2 coach schools, which, like other non-selective CPS high schools, serve students who are predominantly African American or Latino and low-income. Research Design: Responses to semi-structured interviews with coaches and students were coded for recurring themes and according to interview questions. A model of how coaches create social capital emerged from iterations between coding interviews and studying previous research on the creation of social capital. Conclusions: The results suggest that coaches use new advising strategies (different from typical school counseling practices) to increase students' college-related social capital and subsequently increase the number of students completing college actions, which may explain improved enrollment outcomes. This research highlights previously tacit assumptions about how counseling should work and details new advising procedures that may benefit disadvantaged students in the college enrollment process. More generally, this research discusses specific social mechanisms through which policy or institutions may create social capital to improve educational attainment.

One of the most critical labor shortages facing the U.S. involves the number of young adults entering careers in what's now commonly referred to as STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics). Equally troubling is that the participation of blacks and Hispanics in STEM careers continues to lag that of whites and Asians. High school is one place to close that gap. Researchers at Michigan State University have developed the College Ambition Program (CAP) to promote a STEM college-going culture in high school. Since 2009, CAP has worked with a group of rural and urban public high schools in Michigan and achieved much success.

New employees, including college students, often experience expectation-reality gaps about work, making the assimilation process more difficult for all. This qualitative study explores the role of the internship in narrowing the work expectation-reality gap. This article addresses two research questions: (a) What do students learn about work through internships that they did not know before? (b) How is this new knowledge reflected in their advice to future interns? Analysis of 59 intern exit interviews or surveys reveals two categories of communication-related discovery that in turn influenced subsequent advice messages. Practical implications for business curriculum and career development programs are discussed.

In its analysis of more than 15,000 high school transcripts, the Education Trust-West found that non-college-bound students tend to take a weak academic load and disconnected electives. As a result, far too many students--most often low-income students and students of color--are bound for low-level jobs, prepared for neither college nor career. The author, a past superintendent of schools for the San Jose Unified School District in California, describes how the district raised its graduation requirements and how, as a result, its college-going rates improved. More recently, an audit of nine school districts revealed that students face common barriers to a high-quality education. These include, among others, a failure to complete algebra and students' lack of knowledge about the courses they need to take and pass to get into college. Schools can develop a blueprint for action, which plots out a path to providing all students with access to a college-preparatory academic course of study and to success in and beyond school. (Contains 2 endnotes.)

This article reviews the history and current status of counseling in the Czech Republic. Recommendations for advancement of the profession in a postcommunist era are offered, including the incorporation of social justice principals for the benefit of Gypsies and immigrants, collaboration between Czech and non-Czech counselors, and counseling research with the Czech people.

Living in Israel is intensive and demanding but also meaningful and exciting. This article addresses the gap between the narrowly defined formal status of counseling in Israel and the widespread occurrence of counseling in various settings. It is argued that several recent changes, especially in the definition of treatment, along with the increasing need for counseling, especially in minority ethnic groups, set the stage for optimism regarding the future of counseling in Israel.

Jane walks your hallways and those of many colleges and universities across the country. Angry, defiant, and frustrated, she is deeply in debt with college loans and without a single college credit to her name. "She's come undone," as the song says, and there is concern among the staff that she may well hurt someone. According to the authors, Jane (not her real name, of course) came to their college using federal job retraining funds, Perkins, and Pell grants sewn together in a patchwork of student financial aid. She took out loans for living expenses left uncovered by other aid. In concert with campus procedures, Jane took a placement exam that showed a very clear need for some developmental coursework. She was not academically ready for college and didn't fare well in her developmental courses. For an entire academic year, Jane was enrolled in pre-college courses that used up financial aid and started a cycle of dependence, frustration, and repetition. What her experience did not do was provide a pathway to a successful career. Placement tests and high school equivalency marks are the standard measures by which colleges gauge academic readiness for students such as Jane. Such marks often also determine whether Jane and students such as her meet the "ability to benefit" standard. On its face, the "ability to benefit" standard is intended to protect students such as Jane from going unnecessarily into debt. Simply put, if a student does not show a cognitive ability to benefit from higher education, the college is precluded from offering federal financial aid. Though Jane may have demonstrated a cognitive ability to benefit from college, she might present other noncognitive factors, such as prior emotional or psychological distress, that would cause the college to reconsider her eligibility. Though cognitive "ability to benefit" standards help in many cases, they fall short for students such as Jane. Research into links between emotional or social disturbances and learning, and how these links could be applied in the field alongside cognitive measures, leaves room for improvement. Better understanding the issues at play will allow community colleges to better serve their students and communities.

Using Judith Butler's theory of performative subjection, this paper examines the injurious attitudes of three staff members at an outer-metropolitan high school who are heavily involved in the enactment and monitoring of Senior Education and Training (SET) Plan interviews for the Queensland Certificate of Education. It is argued that teachers at the case study school have inscripted students to the category of "underprivileged", which in this context is labelled as "generational poverty". Membership to this category has, in my view, positioned students as "backward" and behind in schooling capability, thus placing them on a storyline trajectory associated with low paid labour market participation, reliance on government welfare and/or unemployment. I draw on teacher comments referring to students as possessing "deficit skills" to form this argument. In order to help "break" this cycle of poverty, staff involved in the SET Plan interviews have subsequently positioned themselves as "helpers" by attempting to give curriculum pathway advice which they see as "appropriate" for the students at the school. This advice and help with subject selection and curriculum pathway planning, while seemingly well intentioned, reinscribes gendered stereotypes and thus aids in the reproduction of schooling and post-schooling inequality for both sexes, but especially for girls. (Contains 4 notes.)

This paper aims to contribute to the discussion on increasing retention rates in higher degree students. It presents evidence from the literature on the value of increasing counselling and mentoring care for higher degree research students. The creation of, and rationale for, a designated higher degree student counsellor-mentor role is described. The role of a counselling-trained mentor is one that combines elements of counselling, mentoring, organisational and social support for both higher degree research students and supervisors. The creation of this role is proposed as a means of increasing student satisfaction and retention. (Contains 2 figures.)

To date, there is no article that addresses the dissertation process in the vocative case to demystify doctoral expectations. This article provides guidance to doctoral students, within accredited doctoral counselor education and supervision programs, who face paralyzing emotions as they navigate through degree attainment processes. Herein, the authors instigate discussion among seasoned academics to better equip doctoral candidates as they culminate their studies. This presentation is within an historical context of the evolution of the counseling profession and concludes with reflections on current events that contribute to the evolving nature of American culture and academia. (Contains 3 figures.)

The present study reports the results of a controlled examination of the effectiveness of an online graduate preparation program, the Virtual Advisor. The effects of the Virtual Advisor were compared to a website preparation group and a wait-list control group. Results indicated that, compared to the control group, students who utilized the Virtual Advisor showed increased levels of knowledge regarding graduate school preparation and higher levels of graduate preparation self-efficacy and career decision self-efficacy. The website preparation condition also demonstrated an impact on some of these variables, but these effects were generally less consistent or robust. The nature of these findings in relation to the literature on graduate preparation is discussed, and the limitations and implications are outlined. (Contains 1 table.)

Years ago, the popular TV game show "Let's Make a Deal" required its contestants to choose one of three doors. Contestants were just as likely to win expensive items such as cars and exotic vacations as they were to win a crate of lemons. Helping their child reach decisions about college may at times lead parents to feel as if they are contestants on such a game show, at least in a superficial sense. Under pressure to make the right choice without the assurance of knowing exactly what lies behind the door to each pathway, parents and their child may feel stressed. As with all high-stakes decisions, the ramifications of not choosing wisely can be profound, certainly more profound than arbitrarily choosing Door Number 3 and getting stuck with a crate of lemons. Fortunately, life is not "Let's Make a Deal," and decisions about college are not expected to be made blindly. In this article, the author suggests ways that can help parents navigate the decision-making process and increase the odds of a successful outcome. Early entrance to college is a viable option for students who are motivated and ready to be challenged academically, socially, and emotionally; however, it is not the optimal path for every gifted student who is bored or unchallenged in high school nor a panacea for underachievement. Although no one is guaranteed a particular outcome, one's child will be making the right decision whether he or she chooses the path behind Door 1, Door 2, or Door 3, as long as he or she fully explores the options, assesses the fit, and is committed to making the most out of the experience. (Contains 2 online resources.)

As supervisors of preschool teachers, childcare center directors are well-situated to mentor their staff to pursue higher education. Telephone interviews with 78 directors examined their role as mentors in encouraging preschool teachers to take college classes. Educational mentoring was shown to be distinct from career mentoring. Logistic regressions showed that the director's educational mentoring of teachers and teachers' aides was associated with greater college attendance, whereas career mentoring was related to less attendance. Furthermore, the director's confidence staff members' ability to complete an Associate's degree promoted college enrollment. Finally, some directors appeared to be transformational leaders who created an education-friendly climate for their entire staffs. These findings suggest that the workplace is an under-researched, critical context for work-to-school mentoring. (Contains 1 table.)

The Texas Academy of Mathematics and Science (TAMS) is a publicly financed, residential early college entrance institute at the University of North Texas at Denton. Created in 1987, TAMS enables high-achieving students planning STEM careers to complete their last 2 years of high school simultaneously with their first 2 years of college. Admission is selective, and students pay no tuition or book costs. Students must complete a rigorous curriculum of biology, chemistry, physics, mathematics, and humanities. The academy offers intramural athletics, a variety of clubs and organizations, and mentor-guided research opportunities that can lead to prestigious awards and scholarships. Graduates earn a high school diploma and at least 57 transferable college credits--enough to enter many universities 2 years advanced. Now in its third decade, the academy continues to help expand the supply of skilled domestic mathematicians, engineers, and scientists. (Contains 2 figures and 6 tables.)

Liberal education remains a mystery to many of the students enrolled in colleges and universities. Academic advisors, standing at the crossroads of the various curricular and cocurricular experiences that make up a student's liberal education, should be prepared to help students recognize the coherence of their education. This article provides advisors with conceptual knowledge and practical applications for guiding students toward an understanding and appreciation of liberal education. Specifically, I define liberal education and examine the goals associated with it, answer the critic who claims liberal education should not serve as a means to other ends, and provide five arguments for academic advisors to use in persuading students of the utility of liberal education.

In this qualitative study, we investigated the academic major and career decision-making processes of honors college students who were declared as "exploratory" students in their freshman year at a large, public, midwestern university. We used semistandardized interviews and document analysis as primary data collection methods to answer four research questions. Results indicated that the 17 participants used aspects of rational choice and alternate models in making decisions. They perceived both advantages and disadvantages of their multipotentiality and developed strategies, such as selecting broad or multiple majors, to offset the disadvantages. Students consulted college academic advisors less than expected when making decisions, and they expressed more concern about happiness than either job availability or earnings than did students in other studies.

Background/Context: Several studies have identified that applicants who apply to college via early admissions programs tend to be White and affluent. Because researchers have also identified benefits with applying early, akin to a 100 point boost on the SAT, such programs raise questions around equity in the college admissions process. Purpose/Objective/Research Question/Focus of Study/Research Design: We used cross-classified hierarchical generalized linear modeling to examine predictors of enrolling due to being admitted through an early decision or early action program in a national dataset of 88,086 students. Although research has investigated the types of institutions that tend to offer early action and early decision programs, the types of students who apply to these programs, and the types of high schools that they come from, no prior study has examined these three contexts simultaneously. Findings/Results: When controlling for high school, individual, and institutional characteristics, receiving private college counseling was the strongest predictor of enrolling due to early admissions. We suggest that elevated levels of cultural capital help explain why White and affluent students are more likely to enroll via early admissions. Conclusions/Recommendations: Our findings indicate that early admissions programs, and in particular, early decision, perpetuate social privilege and stratification. At a minimum, institutions need to look inward and ask serious questions about the patterns of who applies and is accepted via early policies, and the implications of offering advantages to students who generally already are advantaged in the admissions process.

Community colleges have always been good stepping stones to four-year colleges. But despite a number of programs that promise admission to four-year schools upon completion of a two-year associate program, many transfer students fail to meet the standards for a baccalaureate degree. A National Center for Education Statistics report found that of first-time, public two-year college students in 2003-04 who transferred to a four-year college, only 29 percent attained a bachelor's degree. As pressure mounts to boost the nation's college completion rate, community colleges must increase the number of students who complete two-year associate programs en route to a four-year degree. Though several potential roadblocks--a lack of communication between institutions, cost, and a long-standing bureaucratic morass, to name a few--continue to make transfer difficult, many colleges are addressing these challenges through stronger counseling services, smoother credit-transfer agreements, and clearer pathways to programs of study.

Using social capital theory as a framework, the authors examined data from the Educational Longitudinal Study of 2002 (Ingels, Pratt, Rogers, Siegel, & Stutts, 2004) to investigate how student contact with high school counselors about college information and other college-related variables influence students' college application rates. In addition to some college-related variables, the number of school counselors and student contacts were significant predictors of college application rates. Implications for school counselors and counselor training are included.

Every year, many students in the UK fail to achieve a place at their preferred university because they take the wrong A-level subjects. This study aims to suggest a framework for helping students choose the right subjects. Data on student achievement in A-level examinations were obtained from a UK sixth form college over a four-year period. Statistical techniques were employed to support our hypothesis that a student's choice of A-level subjects should be based on both the student's ability and a university's preference for particular subjects and grades. Despite the limitation of small sample size, a model has been created that will maximise a student's chance of achieving a place at his/her university of choice. The model presented could easily be extended in future to incorporate more levels in each of the attributes considered, and in this way it could provide the optimal choice of subjects for each individual student given his/her particular aspirations. (Contains 5 tables.)

Perceptions of counselors from Hispanic serving high schools regarding professional nursing as a career have received limited study. A cross-sectional descriptive study of a convenience sample of 55 guidance counselors from Hispanic serving institutions identified the number of requests/referrals to nursing programs and perceptions of prospective nursing student and registered nurse attributes. Hispanic counselors rated caring and professional leadership skills higher than did White non-Hispanic counselors. Recommendations for academic nursing and counselor partnerships are provided. (Contains 3 tables.)

Economic growth is stimulated through learning. In "the learning economies" of those European regions that chose to develop their human and intellectual capital wisely, benefits have been visible. But this is a one-dimensional outlook in a multi-dimensional world. A "Learning Region" is an entirely different entity, pooling and mobilising its resources from the community, its institutions, culture and heritage, and industry, to mention just a few, for the common, social, economic and ecological good. This article examines and critiques recent ideas and perceptions behind the concept of the learning region and suggests why, in the Italian context, they have not been successful so far in entering the consciousness of regional leaders. It argues that greater individualisation, privatisation and the ascendancy of the market approach to learning are, perhaps paradoxically, barriers to establishing the regional structures that would implement lifelong learning for all and enhance economic and social progress. Cooperation, partnership, sharing and the integration of stakeholders in respecting a common goal are far more difficult to achieve in today's climate.

In 2000, the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) launched the programme "Learning Regions--Providing Support for Networks'" in cooperation with the Lander. It was co-financed by the European Social Fund (ESF). Some 90 regions were selected and financially supported. After one year, 71 regions continued to build-up their Learning Regions. 5 topics were identified as important within the regions: (1) Education marketing; (2) Training and further education guidance; (3) New "learning worlds"; (4) New transition schemes between learning and educational phases; and (5) cooperation with small and medium-sized companies. Educational counselling centres to foster change management, learning centres, curricula, courses, certifications, permeability between relevant stages (from the cradle to the grave), transition from school to employment, SMEs as relevant partners and addressees for training and qualification, communities as learning centres (learning communities) were developed until 2008. Through regional cooperation, players complement each other and benefit from the advantages of their size. The positive results left their mark on several international conferences held worldwide and on the Unesco world conference in Belem (Brasil) in 2009. In the Global Report, we find the recommendation to establish learning communities. This article describes some examples, includes a SWOT-analysis, and highlights development, results and perspectives.

This study examined the role of guidance and counseling in promoting student discipline in secondary schools in Kisumu, District, Kenya. The study population comprised 4,570 students, 65 head teachers, 65 deputy head teachers, and 65 heads of Guidance and Counseling Department from all the 65 secondary schools in the District. Out of this, a sample of 22 head teachers, 22 deputy head teachers, 22 heads of Guidance and Counseling and 916 students from 22 secondary schools was selected through the simple random sampling technique. Two instruments were used to collect data for the study. These were interview schedule and a questionnaire. The data collected through questionnaire were analyzed using descriptive statistics in form of frequencies and percentages. While data collected using interview schedule were audio taped and transcribed into themes, categories and sub-categories as they emerged from the data. They were analyzed using summary Tables for the purpose of data presentation and interpretation. The findings show that guidance and counseling was minimally used to promote student discipline in secondary schools in Kisumu District. Punishments especially corporal punishment was widely used to solve disciplinary cases in all schools. It was however; found that there were no policy guidelines from the Ministry of Education on how the schools could use guidance and counseling to manage the student disciplinary cases. Based on the findings, it was recommended that Ministry of Education should provide policy guidelines on the use of guidance and counseling for the management of discipline in secondary schools. Increased efforts should also be made by the Ministry of Education, Department of Directorate of Quality Assurance and Standards to regularly supervise and monitor the schools which were not adhering to the ban on corporal punishment and were violating the child rights. (Contains 11 tables.)

The formalization and professionalization processes in Romania resemble the early history of counseling in the United States, where development initially took place in the educational and career/vocational sectors. Brief accounts of the relationship between select periods in Romanian history and access to education and career/vocational support services are presented to provide a context for present-day counseling activities. Information on the development of counseling in Romania, current practices, and future opportunities are presented as well.

In-depth interviews with 363 students across nine campuses capture the experiences of Latino, African American, Asian, Native American, White and Immigrant students in the California community college system. Four themes emerged with respect to advising and counseling: (a) Differences in the Use of Counseling and Advising; (b) The Importance of the Counseling Relationship; (c) Knowing the System; and (d) Cultural Understanding and Racism. (Contains 3 tables.)

Background/Context: This study investigates the teacher's role in the student advisory process, which to date has generated limited research literature. Teachers who serve as student advisors assume a role that extends beyond the more traditional instructional role, and includes implied or explicit expectations to provide student advisees with academic and nonacademic support. Part of this nonacademic support role involves providing social and emotional support to students. This study particularly focuses on the advisor role and advisory programs in small high schools, where other social-emotional supports for students (e.g., counseling) are often limited. The small high school model places a premium on strong student-teacher relationships, rendering advisory programs a central structure for this school model. Organizational theory that distinguishes role complexity from organizational complexity further frames the study, which explores the complex teacher-advisor role in an organizational setting that has intentionally decreased the number of differentiated professional roles. Research Question: How do teachers in small high schools enact their advisor roles, specifically their roles relative to the social and emotional support of students? Participants: Teachers assigned the role of advisor in three small public high schools. Research Design: This study is a qualitative study with a theoretical framework based on Giddens' structuration theory. Conclusions: Advisors were found to possess identifiable characteristics that impacted how they enacted their roles, and ultimately, provided support and guidance to their students. These characteristics concerned advisors' background knowledge, relevant experience, skills and guiding principles about advising. Teacher education, either in preservice or professional development settings, contributed minimally to the personal resources and schemas, or guiding principles, that teachers used as they enacted the advisor role. Advisors with lower levels of personal resources, and less developed role schemas, tended to struggle more with the role, while advisors bringing more of these assets to their work experienced greater comfort and effectiveness with it. Implications are discussed for the small schools movement, teachers' potential to provide social and emotional support to their students, and role complexity within organizations.