Search

The present study evaluates differences in risk perception related to marijuana use as a function of past use and, among those who report marijuana use, as a function of frequency of use and having experienced a consequence in the past. Participants were 725 incoming first year college students in a longitudinal study examining the efficacy of a marijuana prevention program. Analyses of cross-sectional data indicated that risk perception was greater among non-users of marijuana than for those who reported marijuana use (and, in turn, who were more likely to have actually experienced a drug-related consequence). Among marijuana users, risk perception was not influenced by the frequency of marijuana use nor was it influenced by the actual experience of a drug-related consequence. The findings suggest that for abstainers, perceived risk and the potential consequences of marijuana use may serve a protective role against the initiation of marijuana use. For those who use marijuana, intervention efforts utilizing motivation enhancement approaches could explore the discrepancy between perceived risks and actual experienced consequences.

In the fall of 2004, a midwestern public university changed its tailgating policy from one that did not allow alcohol consumption to one that did., Objective, Participants, and Methods: The authors surveyed students before and after the policy change to measure consumption, problems, perceptions of peer consumption, and reported game attendance., Results: Results showed no change in drinking quantities or prevalence of problems after the policy change; however, there was an increase in students' misperceptions, with students overestimating drinking quantities and the number of students who drank while tailgating. Last, students' predictions about their game attendance if alcohol was allowed were higher than their reported attendance after the policy change., Conclusions: Conclusions suggest that although drinking quantities may not be influenced by policies at tailgating events, misperceptions may be influenced. Administrators should note that the policy did not affect students' self-reported game attendance.

The unique drinking patterns of college students call for Event-Specific Prevention (ESP) strategies that address college student drinking associated with peak times and events. Despite limited research evaluating ESP, many college campuses are currently implementing programming for specific events. The present paper provides a review of existing literature related to ESP and offers practical guidance for research and practice. The prevention typology proposed by DeJong and Langford [DeJong, W. & Langford, L. M. (2002). A typology for campus-based alcohol prevention: Moving toward environmental management strategies. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 140-147.] provides a framework for strategic planning, suggesting that programs and policies should address problems at the individual, group, institution, community, state, and society level, and that these interventions should focus on knowledge change, environmental change, health protection, and intervention and treatment services. From this typology, specific examples are provided for comprehensive program planning related to orientation/beginning of school year, homecoming, 21st birthday celebrations, spring break, and graduation. In addition, the University of Connecticut's efforts to address problems resulting from its annual Spring Weekend are described as an illustration of how advance planning by campus and community partners can produce a successful ESP effort.

Objective: The authors examined perceived norms and drinking among college students who attended high schools in rural and urban communities., Participants and Methods: Undergraduates (99 men and 85 women) who attended high schools in communities with populations ranging from less than 100 to more than 400,000 completed surveys assessing perceived norms and alcohol consumption., Results: Analyses revealed that students from smaller towns and in smaller high school graduating classes reported heavier drinking and that perceived norms were positively associated with drinking. Perceived norms were unrelated to population variables, and the relationship between perceived norms and drinking did not vary as a function of population variables. Results suggest that differences in drinking as a function of coming from more rural areas contribute to drinking behavior in college independently of perceived norms., Conclusions: College students may adjust to campus drinking norms relatively quickly, and longitudinal research would be useful in understanding this transition.

This research evaluated the efficacy of a computerized, freshmen-specific personalized normative feedback (PNF) intervention on reducing alcohol consumption among high-risk drinking freshmen. Students (N=316; 53.8% female) completed measures of perceived drinking norms and drinking behavior. After completing the baseline assessment, students were randomly assigned to receive either freshmen-specific PNF that was gender-specific or gender-neutral, or to assessment only control. Findings demonstrated that students exhibited normative misperceptions for typical freshmen drinking behavior and that perceptions of typical same-sex freshmen drinking were positively associated with riskier drinking behavior. At follow-up, students randomly assigned to receive PNF reduced perceptions of typical freshmen drinking behavior and personal drinking behavior relative to those who did not receive PNF. Findings extend previous evaluations of computer-based PNF and suggest that computer-based PNF for incoming freshmen utilizing freshmen-specific norms that are gender-specific may constitute a promising prevention strategy.

Two studies examined the relationships among injunctive norms and college student gambling. In study 1 we evaluated the accuracy of perceptions of other students' approval of gambling and the relationship between perceived approval and gambling behavior. In study 2 we evaluated gambling behavior as a function of perceptions of approval of other students, friends, and family. In study 1, which included 2524 college students, perceptions of other students' approval of gambling were found to be overestimated and were negatively associated with gambling behavior. The results of study 2, which included 565 college students, replicated the findings of study 1 and revealed positive associations between gambling behavior and perceived approval of friends and family. Results highlight the complexity of injunctive norms and the importance of considering the reference group (e.g., peers, friends, family members) in their evaluation. Results also encourage caution in considering the incorporation of injunctive norms in prevention and intervention approaches.

Objective: The present research examined the effect of alcohol aggression expectancies and subjective evaluations of alcohol's effects on aggression in intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration among college students. We were interested in determining the extent to which these relationships differed across gender., Method: A total of 780 (57.3% female) incoming heavy drinking college freshmen who were between the ages of 18 and 25 years completed self-reported measures of IPV perpetration, alcohol use and problems, and alcohol aggression expectancies and subjective evaluations of those expectancies as part of the baseline assessment for a larger social norms alcohol intervention study. Analyses evaluated the effect of alcohol aggression expectancies and subjective evaluations of those expectancies on IPV perpetration., Results: Results indicated that problem drinking was positively associated with IPV perpetration for those who were lower (beta = .32, p < .001) versus those who were higher (beta = .07, p = ns) in alcohol aggression expectancies. Among men, there was a significantly stronger relationship between problem drinking and IPV perpetration among those who evaluated alcohol's effects on aggression more favorably (beta = .41, p < .001) versus less favorably (beta = .11, p = ns). Among women, there was not a significantly stronger relationship between problem drinking and IPV perpetration at less favorable (beta = .17, p < .05) versus more favorable (beta = .11, p < .06) evaluations of alcohol's effects on aggression., Conclusions: Findings suggest that, in understanding IPV perpetration, it may not be sufficient to evaluate expected alcohol effects without also including whether those effects are viewed as good or bad. Findings also suggest that the relationship between alcohol problems and IPV perpetration may be stronger and more straightforward for men than for women.

This research examined the relationship of morally based self-esteem with drinking motives and alcohol consumption among college students. Basing self-esteem on morals was expected to be negatively associated with drinking behavior. We further expected this relationship to be mediated by drinking motives. Participants (N = 201; 45% male, 55% female) completed self-report measures of contingencies of self-worth, drinking motives, and drinking behavior. Previous research was supported in that college students whose self-esteem was more strongly contingent upon following personal morals consumed less alcohol. The current research extended these findings by showing that this relationship was mediated by drinking motives. Results suggest that it may be useful to better incorporate personal values into interventions for college students. The implementation of personal values in combination with brief treatments is discussed.

Objective: Social norms are a key determinant of young adult drinking, yet little research has evaluated potential interactive effects among different types of norms. The present research was designed to evaluate perceptions of friends' approval of drinking (i.e., injunctive norms) as a moderator of the relationship between perceived prevalence of friends' drinking (i.e., descriptive norms) and personal alcohol consumption. We also evaluated whether social drinking motives further influence this relationship., Method: Participants included 1,400 first-year college students (61% women) who completed Web-based assessments of descriptive and injunctive norms, personal drinking, and social drinking motives., Results: Results revealed that both descriptive and injunctive norms regarding close friends were uniquely and positively associated with drinking behavior. The relationship between perceived descriptive norms and personal alcohol consumption was stronger among those who also perceived their friends as being more approving of drinking but only among students who reported stronger social motives for drinking., Conclusions: Descriptive and injunctive norms are distinct constructs and are not interchangeable, having both unique and interactive effects, and vary as a function of social motives. Results are considered in terms of their implications for brief interventions.

Objective: This research was designed to evaluate the relative contribution of social norms, demographics, drinking motives, and alcohol expectancies in predicting alcohol consumption and related problems among heavy-drinking college students., Method: Participants included 818 (57.6% women) first-year undergraduates who reported at least one heavy-drinking episode in the previous month. In addition to providing demographic information (gender and fraternity/sorority membership) participants completed Web-based assessments of social norms (perceived descriptive norms regarding typical student drinking, injunctive norms regarding friends' and parents' approval), motives (social, enhancement, coping, and conformity), and expectancies and evaluations of positive and negative alcohol effects., Results: Regression results indicated that descriptive and injunctive norms were among the best predictors of college student drinking. With respect to alcohol problems, results indicated that coping motives accounted for the largest proportion of unique variance. Finally, results revealed that alcohol consumption mediated the relationships between predictors and problems for social norms, whereas coping motives, negative expectancies, and evaluation of negative effects were directly associated with alcohol problems despite having relatively weak or null unique associations with consumption., Conclusions: The results of this study substantiate social norms as being among the best predictors of alcohol consumption in this population and suggest that drinking to cope is a better predictor of problems. The findings are discussed in terms of practical prevention and treatment implications.

Objective: Heavy college-student alcohol use and its resulting negative consequences represent a public-health problem on American college campuses. The Rutgers Alcohol Problem Index (RAPI) is a commonly used measure of alcohol problems among college students, but the psychometric properties of this measure never have been comprehensively assessed with the college-student population. The purpose of this research was to conduct reliability and validity analyses, particularly exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, on a dichotomously scored version of the measure., Method: Data were collected on 4,686 undergraduate students at a large, public university in the Northwest region of the United States and 438 students at a large, public university in the Northeast., Results: Exploratory factor analysis suggested that a three-factor model provided the best fit to the data. This finding was replicated via confirmatory factor analyses in two separate samples. The three factors were labeled Abuse/Dependence Symptoms, Personal Consequences, and Social Consequences. Each individual factor demonstrated adequate internal consistency and convergent validity., Conclusion: The results of this study suggest that a dichotomously scored RAPI consists of three subfactors that are reliable and valid in identifying alcohol-related problems among college students.

Previous research has evaluated marijuana motives among adolescents and emerging adults using a predetermined set of motives, largely adapted from the alcohol literature. This research was designed to identify marijuana motives from the perspective of the user. Recent high school graduates who reported using marijuana (N=634) provided self-generated reasons for using. The most frequently reported reasons included enjoyment/fun, conformity, experimentation, social enhancement, boredom, and relaxation. Regression analyses revealed that experimentation was consistently associated with less use and fewer problems whereas enjoyment, habit, activity enhancement, and altered perception or perspectives were associated with heavier use and more problems.

Objective: Studies indicate greater sexual risk-taking behaviors and alcohol use in student-athletes compared with nonathletes, particularly in college samples. Although research has documented an association between drinking and risky sex, studies have not examined the role of sex motives in predicting risky sex in athletes. The purpose of the current study was to extend previous research on athletes' risk-taking behaviors by examining incoming college student-athletes and nonathletes' alcohol consumption, risky sexual behavior, and sex motives., Method: Participants included 2,123 (58.9% female) incoming college students attending a northwest university, 221 of whom reported intercollegiate athletic participation during their upcoming year. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine associations between sex motives and risky sexual behaviors using a cross-sectional design., Results: Results indicated greater weekly alcohol consumption, frequency of drinking before or during sex, and number of sexual partners in athletes compared with nonathletes. Athletes also reported greater levels of enhancement motives for sex and lower levels of intimacy motives than nonathletes, although no differences were found for coping motives. Significant interactions indicated that, for athletes, greater levels of enhancement sex motives predicted a greater number of sexual partners and more frequent drinking before or during sex, and greater levels of intimacy motives predicted less frequent drinking before or during sex., Conclusions: Student-athletes are at risk for problematic outcomes associated with risky sex, including drinking before or during sex and having sex with multiple partners. Prevention efforts targeted at incoming college student-athletes should consider the role of sex motives.

Objective: The purpose of this research was to evaluate drinking rates as a function of age and gender and to disseminate current estimates of U.S. population drinking norms based on age and gender., Methods: Participants included 42,706 men and women 18 years and older who provided information about their drinking from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions [National Alcohol Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC, 2001) dataset collected between 2001 and 2002 from a representative, non-institutionalized sample., Results: Results revealed greater frequency and typical quantity of alcohol consumption among men versus women. Age differences in drinking frequency suggests a sharp increase with legal drinking age followed by a period of reduced frequency, in turn followed by gradual increase up to retirement age. Age differences in typical drinking quantity suggest a sharp increase with legal drinking age followed by a gradual linear decline in number of drinks per occasion. Age differences in typical quantity were more pronounced among men., Conclusions: Analyses provide epidemiological trends in drinking rates by age and gender, and emphasize the importance of within group differences when examining drinking rates. Discussion focuses on explaining how to incorporate norms information in prevention and treatment.

Objective: Previous research has consistently demonstrated that religiosity and personal importance of religion are associated with lower levels of alcohol use among both adolescents and college students. Although a number of different mechanisms have been proposed to account for this, few studies have empirically examined potential mediators of this relationship. Given the extensive literature on the impact of social norms on the drinking behavior of college students, the present study evaluates the role of perceived drinking norms as a mediator of the relationship between the importance of religion and alcohol use. Specifically, we examined both personal attitudes and perceived injunctive norms with regard to reference groups that vary in their proximity to students (i.e., close friends and typical college students)., Method: Participants were 1,400 undergraduate students (60.6% women) who were assessed using self-report measures of alcohol consumption, importance of religion, attitudes, and perceived norms., Results: Results indicated that, consistent with the hypotheses, personal attitudes were the strongest mediator of the relationship between importance of religion and alcohol use, followed by the approval of close friends, and, to a lesser extent, the approval of typical college students., Conclusions: These findings suggest that importance of religion may have an indirect effect on alcohol use via personal attitudes and the perceived approval or disapproval of important others, and this relationship varies as a function of reference group. Implications for interventions that incorporate information on social norms are discussed.

The present study was designed to examine putative risk factors of driving anger, traffic citations, and traffic-related injuries as a function of gender. Participants included 785 (65% men) drivers identified by the Washington State Department of Licensing. Just over half of participants (55%) were identified as high-risk drivers based on multiple traffic violations, whereas 45% were recruited from a random sample of drivers. Participants completed a mailed survey assessing indicators of risky driving and risk factors including sensation seeking, stressful events, negative affect, tobacco use, and drinking behavior. Hierarchical regression analysis was used to evaluate risky driving outcomes as a function of theoretically prioritized risk factors and to evaluate gender as a moderator. Overall, men reported more traffic citations and injuries, but did not differ from women in reported driving anger. All putative risk factors were associated with one or more indicators of risky driving. Moderation results revealed that the positive relationship between drinking frequency and driving anger was stronger for women. In contrast, typical number of drinks consumed was negatively associated with driving anger, which was also more evident for women. In addition, the positive association between sensation seeking and number of traffic citations was stronger among women.

A major proportion of the disease burden and deaths for young people in developed nations is attributable to misuse of alcohol and illicit drugs. Patterns of substance use established in adolescence are quite stable and predict chronic patterns of use, mortality, and morbidity later in life. We integrated findings of systematic reviews to summarise evidence for interventions aimed at prevention and reduction of harms related to adolescent substance use. Evidence of efficacy was available for developmental prevention interventions that aim to prevent onset of harmful patterns in settings such as vulnerable families, schools, and communities, and universal strategies to reduce attractiveness of substance use. Regulatory interventions aim to increase perceived costs and reduce availability and accessibility of substances. Increasing price, restricting settings of use, and raising legal purchase age are effective in reducing use of alcohol and tobacco and related harms. Screening and brief intervention are efficacious, but efficacy of a range of treatment approaches has not been reliably established. Harm-reduction interventions are effective in young people involved in risky and injecting substance use.

The current study evaluated whether difficulties regulating emotions explained unique variance in binge eating and examined which types of emotion regulation difficulties are most strongly associated with binge eating. The Eating Disorders Diagnostic Scale and the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale were completed by 695 undergraduates. Hierarchical regression results indicated that difficulties regulating emotions accounted for a significant amount of the variance in binge eating over and above sex, food restriction, and over-evaluation of weight and shape. Results also indicated that greater difficulty identifying and making sense of emotional states, and limited access to emotion regulation strategies were primarily responsible for the link between emotion regulation difficulties and binge eating. This supports a model of binge eating that includes emotional vulnerability and a deficit of skills to functionally modulate negative moods.

The current study was designed to evaluate the efficacy of a mailed feedback and tips intervention as a universal prevention strategy for college drinking. Participants (N = 1,488) were randomly assigned to feedback or assessment-only control conditions. Results indicated that the mailed feedback intervention had a preventive effect on drinking rates overall, with participants in the feedback condition consuming less alcohol at follow-up in comparison with controls. In addition, abstainers in the feedback condition were twice as likely to remain abstinent from alcohol at follow-up in comparison with control participants (odds ratio = 2.02), and feedback participants were significantly more likely to refrain from heavy episodic drinking (odds ratio = 1.43). Neither gender nor severity of baseline drinking moderated the efficacy of the intervention in these analyses, but more conservative analyses utilizing last-observation carryforward suggested women and abstainers benefited more from this prevention approach. Protective behaviors mediated intervention efficacy, with participants who received the intervention being more likely to use strategies such as setting limits and alternating alcohol with nonalcoholic beverages. Implications of these findings for universal prevention of college drinking are discussed., (Copyright 2007 APA, all rights reserved.)

Objective: Many brief interventions include personalized normative feedback (PNF) using gender-specific or gender-neutral referents. Several theories suggest that information pertaining to more socially proximal referents should have greater influence on one's behavior compared with more socially distal referents. The current research evaluated whether gender specificity of the normative referent employed in PNF related to intervention efficacy., Method: Following baseline assessment, 185 college students (45.2% women) were randomly assigned to one of three intervention conditions: gender-specific feedback, gender-neutral feedback, or assessment-only control. Immediately after completing measures of perceived norms, alcohol consumption, and gender identity, participants in the gender-neutral and gender-specific intervention conditions were provided with computerized information detailing their own drinking behavior, their perceptions of student drinking, and actual student drinking., Results: After a 1-month follow-up, the results indicated that normative feedback was effective in changing perceived norms and reducing alcohol consumption for both intervention groups for women and men. The results provide support, however, for changes in perceived gender-specific norms as a mediator of the effects of normative feedback on reduced drinking behavior for women only. Additionally, gender-specific feedback was found to be more effective for women higher in gender identity, relative to the gender-neutral feedback. A post-assessment follow-up telephone survey administered to assess potential demand characteristics corroborated the intervention effects., Conclusions: Results extend previous research documenting efficacy of computer delivered PNF. Gender specificity and gender identity appear to be important elements to consider for PNF intervention efficacy for women.

Inter-rater reliability and accuracy are measures of rater performance. Inter-rater reliability is frequently used as a substitute for accuracy despite conceptual differences and literature suggesting important differences between them. The aims of this study were to compare inter-rater reliability and accuracy among a group of raters, using a treatment adherence scale, and to assess for factors affecting the reliability of these ratings. Paired undergraduate raters assessed therapist behavior by viewing videotapes of 4 therapists' cognitive behavioral therapy sessions. Ratings were compared with expert-generated criterion ratings and between raters using intraclass correlation (2,1). Inter-rater reliability was marginally higher than accuracy (p = 0.09). The specific therapist significantly affected inter-rater reliability and accuracy. The frequency and intensity of the therapists' ratable behaviors of criterion ratings correlated only with rater accuracy. Consensus ratings were more accurate than individual ratings, but composite ratings were not more accurate than consensus ratings. In conclusion, accuracy cannot be assumed to exceed inter-rater reliability or vice versa, and both are influenced by multiple factors. In this study, the subject of the ratings (i.e. the therapist and the intensity and frequency of rated behaviors) was shown to influence inter-rater reliability and accuracy. The additional resources needed for a composite rating, a rating based on the average score of paired raters, may be justified by improved accuracy over individual ratings. The additional time required to arrive at a consensus rating, a rating generated following discussion between 2 raters, may not be warranted. Further research is needed to determine whether these findings hold true with other raters and treatment adherence scales.

Objective: Studies indicate greater heavy episodic drinking and related consequences for college student-athletes compared with nonathletes. Surprisingly, little research has examined college athletes' participation in drinking games, a context associated with excessive alcohol consumption and negative alcohol-related consequences in college students., Method: We examined how drinking game participation contributes to alcohol consumption and alcohol-related consequences among college-level intramural and intercollegiate athletes compared with nonathletes in two independent samples. Study 1 consisted of 1,395 randomly selected students (61% women) at a West Coast college campus, including 335 students who reported intramural athletic participation. Study 2 consisted of 6,055 randomly selected college students (63% women) from three college campuses, including 1,439 intramural athletes and 317 intercollegiate athletes., Results: Results of Study 1 indicated that intramural athletes consumed significantly more drinks per week, had significantly higher typical and peak blood alcohol concentration levels, and reported more negative consequences than nonathletes. Drinking game participation mediated the relationship between intramural athlete status and measures of consumption and consequences. Results of Study 2, including both intramural and intercollegiate athletes, were consistent with those of Study 1, revealing drinking game participation as a mediator of the relationships between athlete status and alcohol consumption and consequences., Conclusions: Drinking games represent contexts for college athletes to engage in heavy episodic drinking, and participation in drinking games mediates the relationship between alcohol consumption and negative consequences in athletes. Interventions targeted at college athletes should consider the impact of drinking game participation.

Objective: College students overestimate the drinking of their peers, and the more they overestimate, the more they drink. The present research was designed to evaluate social anxiety as a moderator of the relationship between perceived norms and drinking among college men and women., Method: Participants included 1,217 first-year residence-hall students (62.8% women) who completed Web-based assessments of social anxiety, perceived norms, and self-reported drinking., Results: Results replicated previous research in that students overestimated the drinking of their peers (d = 0.75, p < .001). Students who had higher social anxiety drank somewhat more but did not differ from students who had lower social anxiety on perceived norms. However, the relationship between perceived norms and drinking was stronger among students who had higher social anxiety (d = 0.92, p < .001) relative to less socially anxious students (d = 0.02, p = NS). Higher levels of social anxiety were associated with a stronger relationship between perceived norms and drinking for both men (d = 0.86, p < .001) and women (d = 0.50, p < .001) but stronger for men (d = 0.26, p < .001)., Conclusions: These results corroborate previous literature, which suggests that social factors are important determinants of drinking in this population and suggest that social anxiety is associated with susceptibility to peer influences on drinking. Additional work evaluating whether reductions in social anxiety may ameliorate the impact of perceived norms on drinking would be worthwhile.

Personalized normative feedback approaches focus on correcting overestimated peer drinking norms in order to reduce problematic drinking among college students. Generally, personalized normative feedback utilizes the "typical college student" as a normative referent. Prior research has found these interventions to be less effective for women and has suggested the implementation of the typical student referent as one possible explanation. The current research explored how the typical college student is perceived when estimating peer drinking norms. Participants included 182 (98 women, 84 men) students who reported consuming 5/4 or more drinks for men/women on at least one occasion in the previous month. Participants completed a battery of questionnaires on computers located in small private rooms assessing their drinking behavior, perceptions of "typical student" drinking behavior, and demographics of the perceived "typical college student." Overall, the majority of students perceived the typical student to be male. More specifically, the vast majority of men and about half of women perceived the typical student as male when estimating drinking norms. These findings provide empirical corroboration for previous researchers' suggestions that both men and women tend to think of the typical college student as male when estimating peer drinking norms. Results are discussed in terms of implications for personalized normative feedback interventions.

This study examined timing of alcohol-related sexual assaults (incapacitated rape) in relation to both alcohol consumption and alcohol-related negative consequences. The sample was drawn from a randomly selected pool of college students across three campuses (n=1238) followed over a three year time period. 91% of students never experienced an incapacitated rape, 2% reported an incapacitated rape prior to the first assessment point (n=30), and 6% reported one over the course of the study (n=76). Results indicated that incapacitated rape was associated with higher alcohol use and more negative consequences in the years prior to the assault. Incapacitated rape was also associated with higher alcohol use and more negative consequences during the year in which the rape took place and subsequent years, with highest rates measured for the year of the rape. These results suggest alcohol use can function as both risk factor and consequence of sexual victimization.

The objectives of this research were to evaluate the efficacy of computer-delivered personalized normative feedback among heavy drinking college students and to evaluate controlled orientation as a moderator of intervention efficacy. Participants (N = 217) included primarily freshman and sophomore, heavy drinking students who were randomly assigned to receive or not to receive personalized normative feedback immediately following baseline assessment. Perceived norms, number of drinks per week, and alcohol-related problems were the main outcome measures. Controlled orientation was specified as a moderator. At 2-month follow-up, students who received normative feedback reported drinking fewer drinks per week than did students who did not receive feedback, and this reduction was mediated by changes in perceived norms. The intervention also reduced alcohol-related negative consequences among students who were higher in controlled orientation. These results provide further support for computer-delivered personalized normative feedback as an empirically supported brief intervention for heavy drinking college students, and they enhance the understanding of why and for whom normative feedback is effective.

This paper provides a brief overview of harm reduction and individually focused alcohol prevention strategies. Universal, selective, and indicated prevention strategies are described for several populations including elementary and secondary schools, colleges, and medical settings. This paper primarily reviews individually focused alcohol prevention efforts in the United States (US), where harm reduction has been less well received in comparison to many European countries, Canada, and Australia. Zero-tolerance approaches continue to be the norm in individually focused prevention efforts in the US, especially amongst adolescents, despite research suggesting that harm reduction approaches can be effective. Moreover, existing evidence supports that harm reduction approaches show considerable promise in universal prevention and have become best practices in selective and indicated prevention contexts.

This study explored the changing relations among self-worth, peer deviance, and alcohol-related problems in a sample of 224 urban-dwelling, American Indian adolescents. Data were collected annually at 7 time points to test a proposed mediational model. As expected, peer deviance mediated the relation between low self-worth and alcohol-related problems in younger adolescents; however, this relation did not hold as participants became older. In older adolescents, low self-worth and peer deviance directly and independently contributed to alcohol problems. Possible explanations for and implications of these findings are discussed in terms of developmental changes during adolescence.

This research evaluated the efficacy of a brief, mailed personalized feedback intervention designed to alleviate depressed mood and antecedents (ineffective coping and hopelessness). College students (N = 177) were randomly assigned to intervention or control group following a baseline assessment. A week after completing the baseline assessment, participants in the intervention condition were mailed feedback and information detailing their mood, coping strategies, as well as suggestions for enhancing mood. Results indicated that feedback was effective in reducing depressive symptoms, hopelessness, and among men, increasing willingness to use coping strategies at the 1-month follow-up. Hopelessness mediated reductions in depressive symptoms. Results support the use of personalized feedback as a low-cost, initial intervention for college students suffering from symptoms of depression., (Copyright 2006 APA)

Objective: The aims of this study were to evaluate whether a single session of motivational enhancement therapy (MET) would increase participant readiness to change, improve the efficacy of self-help treatment for binge eaters, and improve participant compliance with the self-help manual., Method: Participants with bulimia nervosa or binge eating disorder were randomly assigned either to attend a 1-hr MET session prior to receiving the self-help manual (n = 45) or to receive the self-help manual only (n = 45). Participants were followed for 4 months for assessment of self-reported eating disorder outcome and compliance., Results: The MET intervention resulted in increased readiness to change for binge eating compared with the self-help-only (SH) condition. Few differences were found between the MET condition and the SH condition for changes in eating attitudes and frequency of binge eating and compensatory behaviors. No significant effects were found for compliance., Discussion: This research adds to the literature regarding the use of brief motivational interventions to enhance readiness for change in populations with eating disorders.

Objective: Little research has examined antecedents of specific drinking consequences (vomiting, regretted sex, hangover, blackouts) among college students. This research examined how students' experiences of past consequences relate to their beliefs of experiencing similar consequences in the future and how these beliefs relate to current drinking patterns., Method: Self-reported past drinking behavior and resulting consequences associated with specific occasions were assessed among 303 (66% women) college students. Students also estimated number of drinks associated with risk of experiencing future similar consequences., Results: Paired-samples t tests indicated that students significantly overestimated the number of drinks it would take to vomit, have unwanted sexual experiences, experience hangovers, and black out in comparison with the actual self-reported number of drinks consumed the last time identical consequences were experienced. In addition, a series of multiple-regression analyses revealed that greater misperceptions between the perceived and actual number of drinks associated with each type of consequence were consistently associated with heavier drinking., Conclusions: Results suggest that heavier-drinking students do not learn from their mistakes but instead overestimate the amount of alcohol they can consume without experiencing negative consequences. Clinical implications of these findings are discussed in terms of augmenting brief interventions aimed at heavy-drinking college students.

Objective: Negative alcohol-related consequences often occur during specific events and in specific contexts (e.g., 21st birthday celebrations and tailgating parties). A lack of available event- and context-specific interventions suggests the need to better understand factors associated with heavy drinking in these contexts, with an eye toward developing specific interventions. The purpose of this research was to lay the foundation for developing personalized normative feedback interventions for 21st birthday celebratory drinking and tailgating drinking by evaluating whether students overestimate norms in these specific contexts, as they do more generally., Method: Perceived descriptive norms and alcohol consumption were assessed at event- and context-specific levels in two studies. Study 1 included 119 students turning 21 years old who reported their 21st birthday drinking behavior and estimated the typical number of drinks consumed by students celebrating their 21st birthday. Study 2 included 140 undergraduates drawn from a stratified random sample who reported their behavior regarding drinking and tailgating and their perceived norms for typical drinking and tailgating behavior., Results: Results from Study 1 revealed that students overestimated peer drinking during 21 st birthday celebrations, and this overestimation was associated with heavier drinking on one's own 21st birthday. In Study 2, students underestimated the percentage of tailgaters who drank but overestimated typical consumption. Overestimation was consistently associated with heavier drinking during tailgating., Conclusions: Successful correction of general normative misperceptions has been shown to reduce drinking in other research. Documentation of normative misperceptions for specific events and contexts provided by these results represents an important step in developing event- and context-specific interventions utilizing specific normative feedback.

Objective: Previous research has shown that students overestimate the drinking of their peers, and that perceived norms are strongly associated with drinking behavior. Explanations for these findings have been based largely on cross-sectional data, precluding the ability to evaluate the stability of normative misperceptions or to disentangle the direction of influence between perceived norms and drinking. The present research was designed to evaluate (1) the stability of normative misperceptions and (2) temporal precedence of perceived norms and drinking., Method: Participants were college students (N = 164; 94 women) who completed assessments of perceived norms and reported behavior for drinking frequency and weekly quantity. Most participants (68%) completed the same measures again two months later., Results: Results indicated large and stable overestimations of peer drinking for frequency and weekly quantity. Results also showed that for weekly quantity, perceived norms predicted later drinking, but drinking also predicted later perceived norms. Results for frequency revealed perceived norms predicted later drinking, but drinking did not predict later perceived norms., Conclusions: These findings underscore the importance of longitudinal designs in evaluating normative influences on drinking. The present findings suggest that normative misperceptions are stable, at least over a relatively short time period. Findings support a mutual influence model of the relationship between perceived norms and drinking quantity but are more strongly associated with conformity explanations for the relationship between perceived norms and drinking frequency. Results are discussed in terms of implications for prevention interventions.

College students have been shown to consistently overestimate the drinking of their peers. As a result, social norms approaches are effective in correcting these misperceived norms to reduce alcohol consumption and alcohol-related problems. In this review of literature, the authors critically evaluated the effectiveness of personalized normative feedback. In addition, the authors reviewed personalized normative feedback interventions and provided suggestions for increasing the efficacy of these interventions by making better use of salient referent group data.

The authors designed this study to evaluate the prevalence and magnitude of heavy drinking among college students in celebrating their 21st birthdays and the impact of a birthday card suggesting moderation. The authors randomly assigned subjects to receive or not receive the card approximately 1 week prior to their birthday. Approximately 1 week after turning 21, the authors sent surveys to all subjects. Results based on 164 returned surveys indicated that 90% consumed alcohol, 75% went to a bar, 61% reached a blood alcohol content (BAC) above the legal driving limit, and 23% reached a BAC above .25. Results were similar for men and women. Although subjects generally liked the birthday card, it had no impact on their drinking or celebration plans. Findings suggest the need for additional attention focusing on specific alcohol-related events and further development of prevention approaches that are event specific.

The authors evaluated the relationships among individual differences in self-determination and self-presentation. The authors expected less self-determined individuals to report engaging in self-presentation strategies more frequently. To be more specific, the authors expected higher autonomy scores to be associated with the use of fewer self-presentation strategies, whereas they expected higher controlled and higher impersonal orientation scores to be associated with the use of more self-presentation strategies, but for different reasons. Participants (141 women, 111 men, 1 person of unreported gender) completed self-report measures of self-determination and self-presentation. The results indicated that higher autonomy scores were related to the use of fewer self-presentation tactics. Being more controlled was associated with engaging in more self-presentation across the board. Higher impersonal scores were primarily associated with engaging in strategies to gain assistance or prevent high expectations.

In response to the persistent problem of college drinking, universities have instituted a range of alcohol intervention programs for students. Motivational feedback is one intervention that has garnered support in the literature and been adopted on college campuses. This article reviews published outcome studies that have utilized feedback as a major component of an alcohol intervention for college students. Overall, 11 of the 13 reviewed studies (77%) found a significant reduction in drinking as compared to a control or comparison group. While the studies varied widely in terms of population, follow-up period, and feedback content, it appears that feedback can be effective whether delivered by mail, the Internet, or via a face-to-face motivational interview. Feedback seems to change normative perceptions of drinking and may be more effective among students who drink for social reasons. The addition of a group or individual counseling session does not appear to increase the short-term impact of the feedback.

Employee assistance programs (EAPs) are widely available to assist employees with a variety of problems. This research examined factors related to utilization and outcome by individuals with addictive behaviors (ABs) versus other problem areas. The specific aims of this study were to evaluate referral source and treatment outcome by gender and presenting problem. The sample included 3890 men and women who attended the EAP for a variety of concerns. Men were less likely than women to self-refer and more likely to be mandated to the EAP. Men were also much more likely to present with ABs. Relative to clients presenting with other issues, individuals with ABs were less likely to self-refer, have their problems resolved in the EAP, and were seen for fewer sessions. These results suggest that EAPs may be well suited for implementation of brief interventions (BIs) that have been empirically supported in other contexts.

This study evaluated perceptions of same-sex and opposite-sex gender-specific versus gender-nonspecific drinking norms among college students (115 men, 111 women). This research is consistent with previous findings that college students overestimate the quantity and frequency of drinking among their gender-nonspecific peers and demonstrates that both men and women overestimate the quantity and frequency of the drinking of their same-sex peers. The findings suggest that perceived same-sex norms are more strongly associated with problematic drinking than are gender-nonspecific norms and that perceived same-sex drinking norms are stronger predictors of alcohol consumption for women than for men. Results suggest that interventions incorporating normative feedback should be framed differently for women than for men., (Copyright 2005 APA.)

Objective: This research explored the relationship between typical alcohol consumption and interest in participating in a brief alcohol intervention study and between typical consumption and actual participation in the study among students recruited to participate in an intervention study. We predicted a curvilinear relationship as a potential explanation for mixed findings from previous examinations of risk status and participation in alcohol intervention research. That is, we expected an inverted U-shaped relationship, with those at the lowest and highest ends of the drinking spectrum expressing the least interest in participation. We expected the same pattern to hold for likelihood of actual participation among study invitees., Method: Self-reported typical consumption and interest in participating in an alcohol intervention study were assessed among 1,115 (59.7% female) college students. A subsample of these students (n = 377) who expressed interest and reported at least one heavy-drinking episode in the previous month were subsequently invited to participate in a brief intervention study., Results: Drinkers were more likely than nondrinkers to report interest in participating, and there was a positive relationship between likelihood of expressing interest and typical consumption. However, the predicted quadratic relationship was evident with those at the lowest and highest ends of the drinking spectrum expressing the least interest in participation. The same pattern was also evident for actual participation among the heavy-drinking subsample invited to participate in the alcohol intervention study., Conclusions: A nonlinear relationship may account for mixed findings regarding the relationship between risk status and participation in alcohol intervention studies. Results are interpreted in terms of psychological relevance and defensiveness. Findings highlight the need for added effort in recruiting, and/or alternative recruitment strategies for, those at highest risk.

This research evaluated the prevalence of general symptoms of psychological distress, the degree to which these symptoms related to alcohol use and alcohol-related negative consequences, and gender-specific relationships among alcohol use, alcohol consequences, and symptoms of psychological distress. The sample included 1705 students drawn from a random sample of three West Coast universities who completed the survey. Results revealed higher levels of consumption and more negative drinking consequences for men, more psychological distress symptoms reported by women, and stronger relationships between psychological symptoms and drinking consequences than use per se. The association between psychological distress and negative drinking consequences was stronger among men than women. The present findings suggest that a focus on negative consequences of alcohol use in addition to the use itself may have greater utility in identifying students at risk for comorbid psychological distress to provide intervention., (Copyright 2004 Elsevier Ltd.)

Objective: This study examined changes in drinking as a function of changes in perceived drinking norms following a social norms marketing campaign to correct normative misperceptions of college student drinking among residence hall students. The researchers expected students to reduce their estimates of typical student drinking following the social marketing campaign and that reductions in perceived norms would be associated with reduced drinking., Method: Perceived norms and self-reported frequency and quantity of alcohol consumption were assessed before and after a social norms marketing campaign among 474 residence hall students., Results: Paired samples t tests revealed reduced perceptions of typical student drinking frequency and quantity. In addition, among nonabstainers, drinking quantity went down from pre- to postintervention. Further examination revealed that reductions in drinking were evident only among students whose perceived norms were reduced., Conclusions: Results suggest that social norms marketing in residence halls can effectively reduce overestimates of typical student drinking and that reduction of perceived drinking norms are associated with reduced drinking.

The authors evaluated the efficacy of a computer-delivered personalized normative feedback intervention in reducing alcohol consumption among heavy-drinking college students. Participants included 252 students who were randomly assigned to an intervention or control group following a baseline assessment. Immediately after completing measures of reasons for drinking, perceived norms, and drinking behavior, participants in the intervention condition were provided with computerized information detailing their own drinking behavior, their perceptions of typical student drinking, and actual typical student drinking. Results indicated that normative feedback was effective in changing perceived norms and alcohol consumption at 3- and 6-month follow-up assessments. In addition, the intervention was somewhat more effective at 3-month follow-up among participants who drank more for social reasons., ((c) 2004 APA, all rights reserved)

In two studies, implicit theories of relationships were examined as moderators of the association between experienced conflict and commitment. Study 1 involved 128 individuals in heterosexual romantic relationships and employed an event-contingent diary procedure in which disagreements were recorded throughout a 10-day period. Study 2 was conducted in the laboratory and involved 75 heterosexual couples who discussed problems in their relationship, with commitment measured before and after discussion. Multilevel random coefficient models revealed that conflict was generally associated with lower commitment but less so with growth belief. Also, growth belief was most beneficial under negative relationship conditions, such as when one possessed a less favorable view of the partner to begin with and when the issue remained unresolved after discussion.

Due to its role in the development and maintenance of eating disorders, body image perceptions and dissatisfaction continue to be an important area of study. Perceptions of attractive body images held by members of the opposite sex are an important determinant of body image satisfaction among both men and women. This research shows that men are accurate in their perceptions of what women find attractive among men, but women believe men want women to be thinner than men actually report. Furthermore, this inaccurate perception is associated with eating disorder symptomatology. The role of contingent self-worth was also assessed. Results indicate that individuals whose self-worth is more contingent on appearance-related standards experience more negative consequences than those who misperceive what the opposite sex finds attractive, but whose self-worth is less contingent on appearance. Implications for intervention are discussed.

Two studies examined contingent self-esteem (CSE) and responses to appearance-related social comparisons. Study 1 was an experimental study in which women rated a series of advertisements from popular women's magazines. Study 2 employed an event-contingent diary recording procedure. In Study 1, women who were higher in CSE and lower in self-perceptions of attractiveness (SPA) experienced greater decreases in positive affect and greater increases in negative affect following the ad-rating task. Study 2 results supported a mediation model in which women who were higher in CSE felt worse after social comparisons because they made primarily upward comparisons. Overall, results suggest that appearance-related comparisons are more distressing for those who base their self-worth on contingencies and have lower self-perceived attractiveness.

This research provides a brief qualitative description of the development of an indicated prevention intervention for college student gamblers. The proposed intervention integrates alcohol prevention strategies with elements of gambling treatment. The intervention combines cognitive-behavioral skills-training and motivational interviewing and includes personalized normative feedback, cognitive correction, discussion of gambling consequences, and relapse prevention techniques. Examples detailing all phases of the intervention are provided from interviews conducted in a pilot of the intervention. Preliminary pilot data suggests the intervention shows promise in reducing high risk gambling among college students.