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Eye-tracking (ET) method provides a promising channel for educational researchers to connect learning outcomes to cognitive processes. The main principle of ET is that our gaze and our focus of attention are connected. Due to the advent of digital technologies, eye tracking studies are increasingly growing in different fields and in mathematics education. We assume that the provided task is one of the ways to analyse deeply cognitive processes, and we wonder how ET studies are dealing with the integration of digital technology in task-design in geometry. Starting from Strohmaier et al. (2020) we found three studies, one focused on geometric proofs and two based on construction of geometric objects. We highlight the contributions of integrating digital technology in learning and instruction, and in research in geometry.

This study reports on the experiences students registered for a first-year, undergraduate English Studies module and English Studies lecturers had with the Invigilator app during an online examination in the first semester of 2023. Current research indicates that e-proctoring induces anxiety and uncertainty in students when they write online examinations. However, there is a paucity of research on the VUCA elements that the Invigilator app triggers in students and in lecturers during online examinations. The study was informed by a critical data surveillance framing, and it used convenience sampling to collect data through semi-structured interviews with seven lecturers (n = 7) for various undergraduate English Studies modules. Additionally, it employed purposive sampling to collect data from five (n = 5) email queries sent by five first-year, undergraduate English Studies module students to their lecturers when they experienced problems with the Invigilator app during their online examination. The findings indicate that lecturers and students struggled with the Invigilator app as an e-proctoring tool. Future research should focus on other less-invasive and better AI-proof assessment methods of maintaining academic integrity in online assessments.

Intra-individual response time variability (IIRTV) during cognitive performance is increasingly recognized as an important indicator of attentional control (AC) and related brain region function. However, what determinants contribute to preschoolers' IIRTV received little attention. The present study explored the interaction of dopaminergic polygenic composite score (DPCS) and the parent-child relationship in relation to preschoolers' IIRTV. In the initial sample, 452 preschoolers (M age = 5.17, SD = 0.92) participated in the study. The modified Flanker task was used to evaluate children's IIRTV and their parents were requested to complete the Parent-Child Relationship Scale to assess the parent-child relationship (closeness/conflict). DNA data were extracted from children's saliva samples, and a DPCS was created by the number of "COMT," "DAT1," and "DRD2" alleles associated with lower dopamine levels. Results showed that DPCS significantly interacted with the parent-child closeness to impact preschoolers' IIRTV. Specifically, preschoolers with higher DPCS exhibited lower IIRTV under higher levels of the parent-child closeness, and greater IIRTV under lower levels of the parent-child closeness compared to those with lower DPCS, which supported the differential susceptibility theory (DST). A direct replication attempt with 280 preschoolers (M age = 4.80, SD = 0.86) was conducted to investigate whether the results were in accordance with our exploratory outcomes. The interactive effect of DPCS and the parent--child closeness on IIRTV was confirmed. Additionally, the significant interactive effect of DPCS and the parent-child conflict on IIRTV was found in the replication study. The findings indicate that preschoolers' IIRTV, as an indicator of AC and related brain region function, is influenced by the interactions of dopaminergic genotypes and the parent-child relationship.

This study provides evidence connecting two aspects of visual-orthographic skills (orthographic awareness and delayed copying) to the common variance shared by Chinese word reading and arithmetic calculation, as well as in identifying positional knowledge of numbers as a potential mediator of these connections in Chinese primary school students (N = 155, 81 boys). Nonverbal Intelligent Quotient (IQ), socioeconomic status (SES), working memory, and attentional control were included as covariates. Path analyses demonstrated that both orthographic awareness and delayed copying significantly explained the covariance of word reading and arithmetic calculation. Furthermore, there is an indirect effect via positional knowledge of numbers as indicated by number line estimation and strategic counting on the relations between orthographic awareness and the common variance shared by word reading and arithmetic calculation. In contrast, delayed copying had a direct effect on the common variance. Results suggest that early visual-orthographic skills may be helpful in the development of both word reading and arithmetic ability among Chinese students.

Research examining the joint relationships between test anxiety, metacognition, and mathematics achievement revealing the mediational role of metacognition in the relationship between test anxiety and mathematics achievement is sparse. A mediation study was designed to redress this imbalance. The Children's Test Anxiety Scale (CTAS), Junior Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (Jr. MAI), and Mathematics Achievement Test (MAT) were distributed to 943 (442 males and 501 females) Grade 7 (n = 477) and Grade 8 (n = 466) students aged between 11-12 (M[subscript age] = 11.5, SD = 0.88) and 11-13 (M[subscript age] = 12, SD = 0.91) years, respectively. In this study, multiple mediation models were tested to explore the role of metacognition as a mediator of the effect of test anxiety on mathematics achievement. Results indicate that although both test anxiety and metacognition were significantly related to mathematics achievement, metacognition was not a statistically significant mediator in the relationship between test anxiety and mathematics achievement. Specifically, the knowledge of cognition component of metacognition was the only significant mediator, mediating the relationship between off-task behaviors and mathematics achievement. Findings support the beneficial role of metacognition with the rewarding side of a key implication that without developing "metacognitive knowledge," efforts at alleviating test anxiety to maximize achievement in mathematics may well be fruitless. Educational and practical implications are discussed.

According to several studies, the three levels of representation in chemistry are the fundamental aspects of effective learning and understanding of chemistry. In this study, we aim to illustrate how students identify changes in the matter using eye-tracking and verbalizations. Five students observed chemical and physical phenomena depicted by using the three representational levels under eye-tracking monitoring. This allows making inferences about which representation received students' attention for the longest time. In order to enrich this illustrative experiment, data were triangulated with think-aloud techniques and researchers' observations during the procedure. Our results suggest that eye-tracking experiments may provide some relevant insights into students' cognition regarding representational levels. The multiple case study presented hereby pointed out that the levels observed for the longest time were the macro and the submicro levels, although only the macro level was relevant to the student's answers, according to their verbalizations. Finally, qualitative analyses of these illustrations are also presented and discussed.

Real-time attention coordination in parent-toddler dyads is often studied in tightly controlled laboratory settings. These studies have demonstrated the importance of joint attention in scaffolding the development of attention and the types of dyadic behaviors that support early language learning. Little is known about how often these behaviors occur in toddlers' everyday lives. We brought wireless head-mounted eye trackers to families' homes to study the moment-to-moment patterns of toddlers' and parents' visual attention and manual activity in daily routines. Our sample consisted of English- and Spanish-speaking families who all reported being middle- or upper middle-class. Toddlers were 2 to 3 years old. Consistent with the findings from previous laboratory studies, we found variability in how frequently toddlers attended to named objects in two everyday activities--Object Play and Mealtime. We then tested whether parent-toddler joint attention in the seconds before a naming utterance increased toddler's attention on the named object. We found that joint attention accompanied by the attended object being held increased the child's attention to the labeled object during naming. We posit that in the rich, noisy world of toddlers' everyday lives, embodied attention plays a critical role in coordinating dyadic behaviors and creating informative naming moments. Our findings highlight the importance of studying toddlers' natural behavior in the real world.

We conducted an observational exploratory study of distraction by digital devices in multiple different sections across three large undergraduate physics courses. We collected data from two different settings based on the type of devices used for classroom polling: lecture sections that required mobile devices for polling and those that used standalone clickers. Our analysis shows no difference in the average distraction level between the two settings. However, we did observe an overall lower level of distraction during active learning modes, as compared to passive learning modes. Based on there being no observable difference in distraction levels in the mobile polling and standalone clicker classrooms, we recommend that instructors should choose the polling technology that best suits their needs without worrying about the impact on student distraction. The observed difference in distraction between the active and passive learning modes is consistent with previous results from the literature, which reinforces support for the use of active learning modes as much as possible.

Adult learners are a significant proportion of distance learners and many of these students are working mothers. Several instructional design models center the learner, and this requires understanding the learner needs, strengths, and context. There is a gap in the literature describing the experience of modern working mother students in distance education. To understand this experience, the researchers interviewed and observed six academically high-achieving working mother students as they participated in their distance education courses during the pandemic. A discourse analysis approach was utilized to analyze the data. This extreme sample revealed several strategies that these students used to be successful despite their challenges. The findings suggest that understanding the experiences of distance learners as they study in the home are important for effective course design. More specifically, working mothers face significant distractions in their study environments, but the cognitive load can be reduced by making use of their prior knowledge, scaffolding instruction, and encouraging social presence. Additional strategies from the literature that address these constructs are provided for instructors and instructional designers.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the relations among children's symbolic functioning at 15 months, joint attention at 24 months, expressive communication at 24 and 36 months, and executive functioning at 36 months. With the sample from rural areas in the United States collected by the Family Life Project (N = 1,008), a longitudinal data analysis was conducted. The results of structural equation modeling suggested that children's symbolic functioning at 15 months and children's executive functioning at 36 months was directly related to each other. These two variables were also indirectly related to each other through joint attention at 24 months and expressive communication at 24 and 36 months. Psychological distancing and verbal and nonverbal communication were used to explain the role symbolic functioning plays in the development of executive functioning during the second and the third years of children's lives.

This study examined the extent to which textual enhancement and task manipulation affect the learners' attentional processing and the development of second language (L2) grammatical knowledge. A total of 73 Korean college students read an opinion news article in one of four experimental conditions: (1) textually enhanced, careful reading, (2) textually enhanced, expeditious reading, (3) textually non-enhanced, careful reading, and (4) textually non-enhanced, expeditious reading. For the enhanced conditions, the target L2 construction, i.e. the use of English participle phrases in the restrictive use, was typographically enhanced using a different color. In addition, the reading task was manipulated in terms of the speed and the manner of reading, i.e. careful reading to remember textual information as accurately as possible or expeditious reading to figure out the gist as soon as possible. While reading the article, learners' eye-movements were recorded with an eye-tracker to measure the allocation of attentional resources as well as reading processes. In addition, stimulated recalls were collected for qualitative analysis of learners' attentional processes. The results revealed that both textual enhancement and task manipulation had significant effects on the way participants allocated their attentional resources during reading, while it did not affect their knowledge of the target constructions as reflected in their grammaticality judgment scores.

Rising perfectionism levels within post-secondary students could be one reason for students' challenges with adaptation to post-secondary. Recent research has suggested mindfulness-based interventions may be a promising avenue for mitigating high perfectionism, in addition to improving emotional and social well-being. The objective of this study was to assess the effects of 8 weeks of a mindfulness course on post-secondary students (compared to a non-meditating control group). Variables of interest were mindfulness, multidimensional perfectionism (self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed types), stress, anxiety, self-compassion, and social connectedness. Students self-enrolled into a mindfulness class offered at a college in Alberta, Canada (n = 15). The experimental sample, aged 18-54 (M = 25.27, SD = 11.47), were 96.7% female. A control group was recruited from first- and second-year psychology classes (n = 30), with ages ranging from 17 to 38 (M = 21.70, SD = 5.36) and 70% identifying as female. Students completed in-person surveys near the beginning of the term and again after 8 weeks. ANOVAs and linear regression analyses were conducted. In line with previous studies, results indicated that college students practicing mindfulness evidenced lower perfectionism (self-oriented and other-oriented types), stress, and anxiety, along with higher mindfulness and self-compassion. Additionally, interpersonal benefits were revealed as the mindfulness group increased in social connectedness. Perplexing results suggest two routes to social connection, as the control group also showed an increase in social connection, potentially motivated by higher stress and self-criticism. Findings from the current study are impressive (given the small sample size and the high-stress time of the term during which post-test measures were taken) and suggest that integrating mindfulness practices into the curriculum can enhance emotional and social well-being for postsecondary students.

Mind-wandering during reading is often associated with worse comprehension performance. Research suggests that metacognitive competences (i.e., the knowledge about as well as monitoring and regulation of one's own cognitive processes) are positively related to reading performance and may play a role in the prevalence of mind-wandering. However, whether metacognitive training can reduce task-unrelated thoughts and their negative impact on comprehension performance has yet to be investigated. The main objective of the present study was to investigate whether metacognitive training is effective in reducing participants' task-unrelated thoughts during reading. Participants (N = 80 undergraduate students) were randomly assigned to the metacognitive training or control training condition. The effects of the interventions were examined by measuring self-reported mind-wandering, unusually fast or slow reading times as an index for inattentive reading, and comprehension on the textbase and situation model level before and after training. Results revealed less self-reported mindless reading and fewer instances of unusually fast or slow reading times after the metacognitive training but not after the control training. The metacognitive condition showed no significant change in comprehension performance from pretest to posttest, whereas the control condition exhibited a decline. Our results further indicate that mind-wandering is reflected in aberrantly slow but not fast sentence reading times. Results of the present study suggest that in addition to the previously established positive effects of metacognitive training on reading performance, the training is also effective in reducing task-unrelated thoughts during reading.

Student engagement is an important factor in higher education learning, but engaging students in online learning settings has been found to be challenging. Little research has been conducted yet into how online learning activities can engage students. In this study, students' experiences with online education were examined during the COVID-19 pandemic to find out what online learning activities promoted their engagement and what underlying engagement mechanisms informed those activities. Six online focus groups were held via Zoom with students (N = 25) from different social sciences programs at the University of Amsterdam. Findings revealed synchronous and asynchronous online learning activities that stimulated three dimensions of engagement and their underlying mechanisms. "Behavioral" engagement was stimulated through activities that promote attention and focus, inspire effort, break barriers, and provide flexibility. "Affective" engagement was stimulated through activities that promote a group feeling, encourage interaction, and create a sense of empathy and trust. And "cognitive" engagement was stimulated through activities that generate discussion and personalization. This research provides teachers with insights into how to promote student engagement in online education.

Background: Immersive virtual reality (IVR) is a new technology that could motivate learners, but also could contain distracting elements that increase cognitive demands on learners. In contrast, learning with conventional media, such as a narrated slideshow could be less motivating, but also less distracting. Objectives: This experiment investigates: (1) in what situations executive function and working memory capacity play a role in learning in IVR and a slideshow lesson and (2) whether people learn science content better with IVR or with a narrated slideshow lesson. Method: Participants watched a lesson on ocean acidification either using a head-mounted display IVR device or a pre-recorded narrated slideshow lesson. A week later, they took a test on this material and completed tasks to assess executive function and working memory capacity. Results and Conclusion: On a post-test, there was no difference between IVR and slideshow lessons, but there were differences in the role of executive function in learning with these two media. For students learning in IVR, executive function correlated significantly with post-test scores, such that learners with stronger executive function did better on the posttest than those with weaker executive function, while for students learning with a slideshow lesson, executive function and working memory capacity did not correlate significantly with posttest scores. This research indicates that it is important to understand how a learner's attentional controls impact their understanding when using IVR for learning.

In multimedia learning, there is a lot of new information that learners are exposed to, making it a cognitively intensive process. Poorly-designed multimedia lessons can introduce distractions that must be dealt with by the learner. However, learners do not all share the same skill at managing incoming information or holding capacity, which could create individual differences in the impact of multimedia lessons on learning and lead to inequity in learning. In three experiments, learners saw a multimedia lesson varying in the amount of distracting material included: high (Experiment 1), moderate (Experiment 2), or low (Experiment 3). Learners took a posttest and completed tasks to assess individual differences in managing incoming information (executive function) and holding capacity (working memory capacity). When distractions were present (Experiment 1 and Experiment 2), executive function was related to posttest performance such that as executive functioning increased, performance on the posttest increased. However, when distractions were not present (Experiment 3), executive function was not related to posttest performance. Individual differences in working memory capacity were not related to posttest performance at any level of distraction. This indicates the importance of considering individual differences in learners' executive functioning in the design of multimedia lessons.

Numerous studies have revealed an alarming prevalence of test anxiety among Chinese junior high school students. Prevention of test anxiety in this population has become crucial. Brief meditation intervention (BMI) has shown promising results for promoting students' well-being and reducing test anxiety, but its mechanism for reducing test anxiety remains unknown. This study examined the effects of BMI and the roles mindfulness and self-efficacy play in mediating between the intervention and test anxiety. The BMI was optimized in content and form and culturally tailored for Chinese eighth graders. It includes guided meditation with relaxation music, mindful breathing and body scanning, and positive suggestions that promote self-efficacy. Six eighth grade classes at an urban junior high school in Beijing (N = 202, M[subscript age] = 14.14, 102 males) were assigned to either a BMI group (3 classes, N = 103) or a control group (3 classes, N = 99). Test anxiety, mindfulness, and self-efficacy measures were administered before, in the middle of, immediately after, and one month after the intervention. Repeated measures ANOVA and mediation analysis indicated that BMI had a significant effect on reducing test anxiety and enhancing mindfulness and self-efficacy over time. The study also found that mindfulness and self-efficacy played a chain of mediating roles in the relationship between BMI and test anxiety. The mediation effect value accounted for 68.35% of the intervention effects.

Accurately monitoring one's learning processes during self-regulated learning depends on using the right cues, one of which could be perceived mental effort. A meta-analysis by Baars et al. (2020) found a negative association between mental effort and monitoring judgments (r = -0.35), suggesting that the amount of mental effort experienced during a learning task is usually negatively correlated with learners' perception of learning. However, it is unclear how monitoring judgments and perceptions of mental effort relate to learning outcomes. To examine if perceived mental effort is a diagnostic cue for learning outcomes, and whether monitoring judgments mediate this relationship, we employed a meta-analytic structural equation model. Results indicated a negative, moderate association between perceived mental effort and monitoring judgments ([beta] = -0.19), a positive, large association between monitoring judgments and learning outcomes ([beta] = 0.29), and a negative, moderate indirect association between perceived mental effort and learning outcomes ([beta] = -0.05), which was mediated by monitoring judgments. Our subgroup analysis did not reveal any significant differences across moderators potentially due to the limited number of studies included per moderator category. Findings suggest that when learners perceive higher levels of mental effort, they exhibit lower learning (confidence) judgments, which relates to lower actual learning outcomes. Thus, learners seem to use perceived mental effort as a cue to judge their learning while perceived mental effort only indirectly relates to actual learning outcomes.

Over the past several decades, the psychological concepts of self-control and grit have gained prominence in the research literature. While these constructs have been studied extensively in isolation, there has been growing interest in understanding the relationship between the two constructs and the factors that mediate this relationship. The current study sought to examine the relationship between self-control and grit in a sample of 1079 undergraduate students (67.9% female) from twelve different state universities. Specifically, this study aimed to examine the mediating role of academic motivation and attention control in this relationship. Correlational analyses revealed that self-control and grit were positively associated with each other, as well as with academic motivation and attention control. Mediation analyses using bootstrapping procedures revealed that academic motivation and attention control partially mediated the relationship between self-control and grit. In other words, higher levels of self-control were associated with higher levels of academic motivation, which was associated with higher levels of grit. Similarly, higher levels of self-control were associated with better attention control, which was associated with higher levels of grit. These findings have important implications for understanding the components that contribute to the development of grit and suggest that interventions aimed at enhancing academic motivation and attention control may promote the development of greater grit in individuals. [Note: The page range (202-218) shown on the PDF is incorrect. The correct page range is 201-218.]

This study evaluated the comparative effects of presession and interspersed attention on the disruptive behavior of an at-risk student in an inclusive fourth-grade classroom. Data indicated a decrease in disruptive behavior during both presession and interspersed attention conditions with the interspersed condition producing the lower level. Social validity measures also indicated the student was satisfied with the intervention and felt that it had a positive impact on his behavior. Additionally, social validity measures completed by the teacher indicated that while both interventions were reasonable to implement, appropriate for addressing the student's disruptive behaviors, did not detract from the learning environment, and possibly improved classroom productivity, she preferred the presession attention intervention based on its simplicity and ease of implementation. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Through a conversation analytic approach, we investigate the emergence of accounts provided by autistic children in small-group discussions. Nine Finnish children (7-10 years old) attending school with special support participated in a five-month-duration pedagogical practice purposefully designed to enhance children's participation in groups. We analyzed videos of sharing circles where children discussed their ideas and interests. Our data show three different account structures, which created different modes of children's participation and gradually changed how they positioned themselves in the group. Results show how accounts can create different focuses of attention; reveal children's reflections on what is relevant to them, and how to promote the exchange of ideas within a small group. Implications for the development of educational practices are discussed.

We report the results of one visual-world eye-tracking experiment and two referent selection tasks in which we investigated the effects of information structure in the form of prosody and word order manipulation on the processing of subject pronouns "er" and "der" in German. Factors such as subjecthood, focus, and topicality, as well as order of mention have been linked to an increased probability of certain referents being selected as the pronoun's antecedent and described as increasing this referent's prominence, salience, or accessibility. The goal of this study was to find out whether pronoun processing is primarily guided by linguistic factors (e.g., grammatical role) or nonlinguistic factors (e.g., first-mention), and whether pronoun interpretation can be described in terms of referents' "prominence" / "accessibility" / "salience." The results showed an overall subject preference for "er," whereas "der" was affected by the object role and focus marking. While focus increases the attentional load and enhances memory representation for the focused referent making the focused referent more available, ultimately it did not affect the final interpretation of "er," suggesting that "prominence" or the related concepts do not explain referent selection preferences. Overall, the results suggest a primacy of linguistic factors in determining pronoun resolution.

This study aims to track college students' on-task rate during the teaching process and to analyze the influence of instructional strategies on on-task rate through the aspects of observable and internal engagement indicators. Thirty-six undergraduate students at a higher education institution in China participated in the study. Students' behaviors and their EEG signals were recorded from fifty-one learning activities. Analyses have been focused on identifying the determinants of student's engagement levels and revealing the impacts of behavioral sequences and cognitive sequences on student's engagement levels. The results show that: (1) instructional strategies, classroom behaviors, and cognitive states were significant predictors of students' on-task rate; (2) the continuity of classroom behaviors improved the on-task rate; and (3) the standard deviations of attention and cognitive load were positively correlated with the on-task rate. This study describes a case of integrating multimodal data analysis in classroom teaching and discusses practical implications for improving classroom teaching.

A wandering mind is not always a creative mind. Anecdotes about ideas spontaneously entering awareness during walks, showers, and other off-task activities are plenty. The science behind it, however, is still inconclusive. Creativity might result from how thought context--whether thoughts are on-task or off-task--relates to thought dynamics--how thoughts unfold. To explore this, study 1 (n = 85) surveyed creative professionals about a single idea they had earlier in the day. The spontaneity of thoughts positively correlated with self-reported creativity, whereas off-task thoughts or doing something else did not. Study 2 (n = 180) replicated these findings in a student sample during an idea generation task and added that free movement of thoughts also correlates with self-reported originality during idea generation. As indicated by expert ratings, no relationship of thought dynamics and thought context was found with population-level creativity. Herewith, this study suggests that thought dynamics, rather than thought context, explain the often suggested relationship between mind wandering and creativity.

The COVID-19 pandemic has left very little unaltered, education included. Institutions encountered an almost immediate transition to remote learning to prevent disease transmission. Because most students and instructors alike were unfamiliar with remote learning, challenges quickly arose and have unfortunately lingered longer than most had hoped. In this study, we investigated the effects of remote learning on student engagement and perceived success in face-to-face undergraduate science courses from both the student and instructor perspectives. We attempted to identify the major distractors as well as strategies which increased engagement for students. Analysis revealed that students were less likely to engage in their remote science classroom when compared to their previous face-to-face classrooms with no significant differences in perceived engagement or success between class standing or age of the students. Students identified the strongest remote classroom diversions as other distractions on the internet and mental health issues. The most engaging factors in the remote classroom were instructor enthusiasm and questions presented by the instructor. From the instructor perspective, they found it more difficult to connect with students and found students engaged less in group discussion in remote courses when compared to their face-to-face in courses. Our data reveal differences in engagement and perceived success from the student and instructor perspective in remote science courses which were offered previously in a face-to-face format. Lessons learned from this study will not only assist in improving future remote courses but will assist in student engagement in the undergraduate science classroom overall.

The lack of studies on academic procrastination caused by distractions in the context of social isolation, during the COVID-19 pandemic, motivated the study that sought to answer: How do master's and doctoral students perceive distraction and distraction mitigation factors in about your procrastinating behavior? Aiming to understand the distraction and attention mitigation factors that influence procrastinating behavior in the postgraduate academic context. This is qualitative research of phenomenological nature. The study participants are twenty-four students, twelve master's students representing about 23% of the universe, and twelve doctoral students, corresponding to approximately 21% of the universe. Based on a literature review, a theoretical framework developed that allowed comparison with the earlier analysis categories and the data collected in the semi-structured interviews. The topics Academic Distraction Factors (ADF) and Academic Distraction Mitigation (ADM) generated 583 citations, finding sixty-one codes or subcodes. The lack of planning and work outside presented as complicating factors that lead to academic procrastination. Suitable time management and the use of tools to help manage learning are good allies in mitigating distractions.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of cognitive training (CT) using mobile applications on attentional control and impulsivity among pre-service teachers. Pre-service teachers were divided into two groups: experimental (n=25) and control (n=14) groups, they were selected from a large sample (n=718). Over 28 sessions, the training group engaged in CT tasks (the tower of Hanoi [TOH] and simple reaction time [SRT]), whereas the control group did not participate in training sessions or understand the main goal of the study. In the criterion tasks (matching familiar figures and numerical Stroop), all participants were pre- and post-tested. CT using mobile applications helps us see how the trained group's attentional control and impulsivity had influenced. we also observed the progress of trained group as measured by number of moves or time for TOH, and reaction time (RT) for SRT. Other effects were observed in comparison to a control group that underwent no training. There were changes in impulsivity in post-test in favor of training group according to number of moves, and time component of matching familiar figures test. Corresponding to attentional control, the finding indicated that there were changes in (number and size) RT component in post-test in favor of training group.

School exhaustion among upper secondary school students has increased at an alarming rate in recent years. There is evidence that this exhaustion affects students' ability to study, and that students experience their studies as burdensome. Distance learning has further weakened students' ability to study. This study aimed to describe upper secondary students' experiences of how exercise breaks affect their studying and well-being. The data were collected through thematic interviews with 15 first-year upper secondary students in the spring of 2021. The data were analyzed by inductive content analysis. The results indicate that exercise breaks positively influenced students' subjective experiences of their studying ability and well-being. This insight could be relevant to planning secondary education, teacher training, and school health care, along with the development of services to support well-being among upper secondary students.

Self-regulation, which is also evaluated as children's ability to direct their attention, emotions, and behaviors towards learning tasks, forms the basis of healthy social and academic development from early ages. This study aims to investigate the attention, emotion, and behavior regulation practices for self-regulation in the preschool period from the perspective of teachers. A qualitative research design employing a case study approach was used. The study included 22 participants. A semi-structured interview form consisting of two sections was used as the data collection tool in the research. In the first part of the research form, demographic questions about participants' age, professional experience, education level, and the type of institution they worked, were included. The second part of the research form included experience-based questions aimed to examine the practices that participants applied for attention regulation, emotion regulation and behavior regulation. The data obtained were gathered under three themes as attention regulation, emotion regulation and behavior regulation. The findings of the study revealed that preschool teachers conducted self-regulation activities in class for attention regulation, emotion regulation and behavior regulation. The preschool teachers mostly carried out classroom activities such as games, drama, stories, free time, and music in the classroom. They used different strategies to enable children to be actively involved, take responsibility in these activities, and carried out practices that would create a positive classroom atmosphere for teacher-child and child-child interaction.

Since motivation is known to be a critical factor, approaches, methods, techniques, and materials that would affect motivation positively are utilized in learning and teaching processes. Gamification is used by including game components into teaching processes to enhance students' motivation, attract their attention to the lesson and boost academic achievement. The aim of the present study was to explore the effect of using gamified materials in the instruction of electronic spreadsheet programs on learners' perceived motivation, academic achievement, and opinions regarding the gamified teaching material. The study was conducted using triangulation in the explanatory sequential design combining qualitative and quantitative research methods. In the fall semester of 2021-2022, the participants consisted of 90 undergraduate students attending the Faculty of Education of a university in Türkiye. Data collection was conducted through personal information forms, instructional materials motivation survey, electronic spreadsheet program achievement test, opinion survey and system records. The data were analysed using descriptive statistics, repeated measures analysis of variance and descriptive analyses. The results indicated that there was no significant difference in terms of motivation and academic achievement between the experimental group (using gamified materials) and control group (using videos). It was also seen that the students in the experimental group generally held positive opinions about gamified teaching materials.

Collaboration is a complex, multidimensional process; however, details of how multimodal features intersect and mediate group interactions have not been fully unpacked. Characterizing and analyzing the temporal patterns based on multimodal features is a challenging yet important work to advance our understanding of computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL). This paper highlights the affordances, as well as the limitations, of different temporal approaches in terms of analyzing multimodal data. To tackle the remaining challenges, we present an empirical example of multimodal temporal analysis that leverages multi-level vector autoregression (mlVAR) to identify temporal patterns of the collaborative problem-solving (CPS) process in an immersive astronomy simulation. We extend previous research on joint attention with a particular focus on the added value from a multimodal, temporal account of the CPS process. We incorporate verbal discussion to contextualize joint attention, examine the sequential and contemporaneous associations between them, and identify significant differences in temporal patterns between low- and high-achieving groups. Our paper does the following: 1) creates interpretable multimodal group interaction patterns, 2) advances understanding of CPS through examination of verbal and non-verbal interactions, and 3) demonstrates the added value of a complete account of temporality including both duration and sequential order.

The purpose of this study was to reveal the effects of the disruption to face-to-face education during the pandemic on the classroom environment upon return to the classroom. The participants of this case study were 16 teachers working in Turkey. The data were collected through semi-structured interviews and their contents were analysed. The study revealed that there were cognitive changes, motivation and concentration problems, social changes, discipline problems, and psychomotor changes observed in students' behaviours after the transition to face-to-face education. The sources of the behavioural changes were the family, the Ministry of National Education, being away from school, and use of technology. The strategies used by the teachers in terms of classroom management while managing the process after the transition to face-to-face education were management of teaching, behaviour management, management of relationships, and management of the physical environment.

Externalizing behavior and low academic performance present key developmental challenges for school-age children, with the potential for these domains to predict each other over time, leading to worsened outcomes. Yet, previous studies have yielded inconsistent conclusions about the directional pathways between externalizing behaviors and academic performance. Moreover, the moderating factors influencing these predictive pathways remain unclear. To clarify these relations, The current study conducted a meta-analysis on the longitudinal predictive relation between externalizing behaviors and academic performance, incorporating data from 124,695 students without clinically diagnosed behavioral problems or learning disabilities across 70 independent studies. The results revealed a bidirectional predictive relation between externalizing behaviors and academic performance, with comparable effect sizes for both the externalizing behavior to academic performance pathway (r = -0.082, p < 0.001) and the reverse pathway (r = -0.076, p < 0.001). Moderation analysis revealed that inattention-related behavior, shorter time intervals, and fewer white participants strengthen the predictive effect of externalizing behaviors on academic performance. In particular, as child age increases, the moderating effect of time interval is even stronger. For the academic performance leading to externalizing behavior pathway, inattention-related behavior, teacher-reported externalizing behavior, literacy-related performance, and GPA/grades were identified as factors contributing to an augmentation in the longitudinal predictive effect of academic performance on externalizing behaviors. Overall, the negative cycle between externalizing behavior and academic performance may be influenced by various factors, providing targeted recommendations for intervention and prevention.

Students' problematic internet behaviour is often mentioned concept in the related literature. Even though the related literature concentrated on students' problematic internet behaviour from various perspectives among different sampling groups, most of the studies focused on adults than younger groups. Therefore, the current study focused on exploring the secondary school students' cyberloafing activity, cognitive absorption, and smartphone addiction levels according to the demographic characteristics and determining the relationship between smartphone addiction, cognitive absorption, and cyberloafing behaviours. Data were collected from a total of 808 students enrolled in secondary school in the 2020-2021 academic year. Findings showed that secondary school students' cyberloafing activity levels did not significantly differ in terms of gender, school type, and grade level while they differed in terms of smartphone use time. Furthermore, adolescents' cognitive absorption levels significantly differed in terms of gender, school type, grade level, and daily smartphone use. Students' smartphone addiction levels significantly differed between genders and daily smartphone use time while they did not differ in terms of school type and grade level. It was found that there were positive correlations between cognitive absorption and cyberloafing activity level; cognitive absorption and smartphone addiction level; and cyberloafing and smartphone addiction levels. These results reveal the current situation among secondary school students while examining the levels of smartphone addiction, cyberloafing, and cognitive absorption and their relations.

This qualitative study explores the lack of understanding of teacher perceptions on classroom utilization of fidgets with students who have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Eight American special education middle school teachers from a midsized suburban public school district in Illinois were interviewed. Interview transcripts were reviewed to establish codes and themes. Three themes were identified: Misapplication of Fidgets, Support to Implement Fidgets Within the Classroom, and When Fidgets Work. Participants reported that fidgets can be a beneficial self-regulation tool in the classroom but may not serve as an appropriate educational tool for all students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Additionally, participants emphasized the importance of establishing ground rules and acknowledged the benefits of seeking support from external resources, such as a school-based occupational therapist, when distributing fidgets in the classroom, especially with more complex student cases.

Careless and insufficient effort responding (C/IER) is a situation where participants respond to survey instruments without considering the item content. This phenomena adds noise to data leading to erroneous inference. There are multiple approaches to identifying and accounting for C/IER in survey settings, of these approaches the best performing are model based classification techniques. Classic approaches to accounting for C/IER treat it as a person level phenomena. They first use some method to identify participants who exhibit C/IER, then use list-wise deletion to remove them prior to analysis. We argue that C/IER is actually a state that participants may exhibit for a portion of a survey instrument. In other words, participants start a survey with the intention to follow instructions, but at some point transition to a C/IER state and no longer respond in line with item contents. Accounting for C/IER at the item level, as opposed to the person level preserves data resulting in increased power. In this article we present a Bayesian Dynamic Latent Class Structural Equation Modeling (DLCSEM) approach for simultaneously accounting for C/IER at the item level and estimating a model of interest. We use a simulation study to establish the approaches performance under empirically relevant conditions and to compare it to other methods. We then conducted an experimental validation in which we induce C/IER like responses from human subjects and investigate the approaches ability to identify the point in which participants transition to a C/IER state. We also compare the model to existing approaches. In both the simulation and experimental validation the DLCSEM outperforms the alternative approaches. We conclude that the approach should be used by applied researchers for the pragmatic benefits of the method. Conclusions, limitations, and future directions are discussed.

People perform poorly at sighting missing and wanted persons in simulated searches due to attention and face recognition failures. We manipulated participants' expectations of encountering a target person and the within-person variability of the targets' photographs studied in a laboratory-based and a field-based prospective person memory task. We hypothesized that within-person variability and expectations of encounter would impact prospective person memory performance, and that expectations would interact with within-person variability to mitigate the effect of variability. Surprisingly, low within-person variability resulted in better performance on the search task than high within-person variability in Experiment one possibly due to the study-test images being rated as more similar in the low variability condition. We found the expected effect of high variability producing more hits for the target whose study-test images were equally similar across variability conditions. There was no effect of variability in Experiment two. Expectations affected performance only in the field-based study (Experiment two), possibly because performance is typically poor in field-based studies. Our research demonstrates some nuance to the effect of within-person variability on search performance and extends existing research demonstrating expectations affect search performance.

Partially autonomous vehicles can help minimize human errors. However, being free from some driving subtasks can result in a low vigilance state, which can affect the driver's attention towards the road. The present study first tested whether drivers of partially autonomous vehicles would benefit from the addition of auditory versions of the messages presented in variable message signs (VMS), particularly, when they find themselves in a monotonous driving situation. A second aim was to test whether the addition of auditory messages would also produce an indirect effect on the driver's vigilance, improving performance on other driving subtasks not related to the message processing. Forty-three volunteers participated in a driving simulator study. They completed two tasks: (a) a VMS task, where they had to regain manual control of the car if the VMS message was critical, and (b) a car-following task, where they had to pay attention to the preceding car to respond to occasional brake events. Behavioral and EEG data were registered. Overall, results indicated that the addition of audio messages helped drivers process VMS information more effectively and maintain a higher level of vigilance throughout the driving time. These findings would provide useful information for the development of partially automated vehicles, as their design must guarantee that the driver remains attentive enough to assume control when necessary.

Applying 10 Hz ([alpha]-rate) sensory stimulation, not 5 Hz ([theta]-rate), prior to introducing novel speech-print pairs can reset the phase of [theta] oscillations and enhance associative learning. This rapid gain indicates coordinated mechanisms to regulate attentional/cognitive resources ([alpha] oscillations) and facilitate memory storage ([theta] oscillations) early in learning. The present findings may inform educational practices for children with reading difficulties.

Flow is a state of optimal or peak experience, commonly associated with expert and creative performance. Musicians often experience flow during playing, yet the neural mechanisms underlying this elusive state have remained underexplored due to challenges posed by substantial artefacts in the neural data. Here, we bypassed these issues by focusing on the resting-state immediately following a flow experience. Musicians performed pieces expected to reliably induce a flow state, and, as a control, non-flow-inducing musical pieces. Following the flow state, we observed higher spectral power in the upper alpha (10-12 Hz) and beta (15-30 Hz) bands, primarily in the frontal brain regions. Connectivity analysis, using the phase slope index, showed a right frontal cluster influencing activities in the left temporal and parietal areas at the theta (5 Hz) band, particularly pronounced in musicians reporting high dispositional flow. Theta band connectivity within the frontoparietal control network facilitates cognitive control and goal-directed attention, potentially crucial for achieving the flow state. These results reveal large-scale oscillatory correlates associated with the immediate post-flow state in musicians. Importantly, this framework holds promise for exploring the neural basis of flow-related states in a laboratory setting while preserving ecological and content validity.

Electronic Learning (E-Learning) played a significant role in education during the COVID-19 pandemic. It is a way to teach and learn online, and it is an efficient method of knowledge transfer for the instructors and students, who must practice social distancing and have less interaction during the pandemic. However, although multimedia applications have provided convenience for online learning, they still present challenges for instructors to measure and assess students' attentiveness during online classes. This study aims to develop an assessment framework based on machine learning methods to analyze students' attentiveness in online sessions and provide a guiding solution for instructors to manage their online classes. The framework detects the behavior of learners and analyzes signs of distraction, drowsiness, and varied emotions while they participate in online classes. These three signs have been used as features to train the Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) model for predicting whether learners are 'Focused' or 'Not Focused' during their online classes. The developed model achieves an accuracy of 90.2% on the test dataset based on the experiment results. However, this project could be further developed for more efficient research. It can also serve as a foundational guideline for the efficacy of online teaching systems, which can play a key role in helping instructors adopt suitable teaching methods for learners in the future.

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to investigate the barriers that prevent workers in the software industry from experiencing flow in their work. Design/methodology/approach: This study was conducted by using a qualitative critical incident technique-inspired questionnaire. Findings: The findings suggest that workers in the software industry perceive that the most obvious obstacles to experiencing flow are related to work not presenting enough cognitive challenges and situational barriers related to the characteristics of the job (e.g. workdays having too many interruptions and distractions, timetables often being considered too tight for creative exploration and problem solving and having negative user experiences with development tools). Originality/value: The findings provide insights into flow barriers, specifically barriers that prevent workers in the software industry from experiencing flow.

Never has the domain of sports coaching been so inundated with "secondary information." In high-performance contexts, for example, coaches are routinely presented with detailed reports specifying features about an athlete's or team's performance. Here, we question whether such detailed secondary information has led us to know "too much," obscuring what the world has to share "directly" with us. To over-rely on secondary information is to narrow in on certainty, on cause-effects that are oft-espoused through de-contextualised 'performance' tests and metrics. This indirect approach eschews opening up to uncertainty, to ongoing inquiry embedded in primary experience. For where certainty risks closures, uncertainty opens to the possibility of carrying on with and alongside others. We explore this thesis through the reflections of an Olympic Canoe Slalom coach, meandering through three sections: (i) on paying attention; (ii) on knowing better; (iii) on guidance without specification. In presenting this thesis, we hope to encourage others -- in sports coaching and beyond -- to embrace an ethos of "not"-knowing, opening up to the 'goings on' of what interests them, actively attending and directly responding with genuine care and curiosity. Indeed, while embracing an ethos of not-knowing can be unsettling, vulnerably exposing oneself to changing power relations in a world perpetually on the move, it can facilitate primary experience of the surrounding ecology. The accompanying growth of responsiveness to one's surroundings emerges from "listening" to what it has share, joining in conversation to find ways of carrying on. It is in this responsiveness, we contend, that a wisdom can be found; a "wisdom of not-knowing."