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We present palaeogenomes of three morphologically unidentified Anatolian equids dating to the first millennium BCE, sequenced to a coverage of 0.6–6.4×. Mitochondrial DNA haplotypes of the Anatolian individuals clustered with those of Equus hydruntinus (or Equus hemionus hydruntinus), the extinct European wild ass, secular name 'hydruntine'. Further, the Anatolian wild ass whole genome profiles fell outside the genomic diversity of other extant and past Asiatic wild ass (E. hemionus) lineages. These observations suggest that the three Anatolian wild asses represent hydruntines, making them the latest recorded survivors of this lineage, about a millennium later than the latest observations in the zooarchaeological record. Our mitogenomic and genomic analyses indicate that E. h. hydruntinus was a clade belonging to ancient and present‐day E. hemionus lineages that radiated possibly between 0.6 and 0.8 Mya. We also find evidence consistent with recent gene flow between hydruntines and Middle Eastern wild asses. Analyses of genome‐wide heterozygosity and runs of homozygosity suggest that the Anatolian wild ass population may have lost genetic diversity by the mid‐first millennium BCE, a possible sign of its eventual demise. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tilmicosin, a macrolide antibiotic, has the potential to treat bacterial infections in donkeys. However, the pharmacokinetics of tilmicosin in donkeys have not been reported. The aim of this study was to investigate the pharmacokinetics of tilmicosin in donkey plasma, urine, and feces after a single intragastric administration to determine the suitability of tilmicosin for donkeys. A total of 5 healthy male donkeys with similar body weights were selected. The donkeys were administered a single dose of 10 mg · kg−1 body weight (BW) tilmicosin by gavage. The concentrations of tilmicosin in plasma, urine, and feces were determined. The results showed that after a single intragastric administration of 10 mg · kg−1 body weight, tilmicosin in donkey plasma reached a maximum concentration of 11.23 ± 5.37 mg · L−1 at 0.80 ± 0.10 h, with a half‐life of 14.49 ± 7.13 h, a mean residence time of 28.05 ± 3.05 h, a Cl/F of 0.48 ± 0.18 L · kg−1 · h−1, and a Vd/F of 9.28 ± 2.63 Lkg−1. The percentage of tilmicosin excreted through the urine of donkeys is 2.47%, and the percentage excreted through the feces is 66.43%. Our study provides data to inform the use of tilmicosin in donkeys. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The composition of mammalian gut microbiomes is highly conserved within species, yet the mechanisms by which microbiome composition is transmitted and maintained within lineages of wild animals remain unclear. Mutually compatible hypotheses exist, including that microbiome fidelity results from inherited dietary habits, shared environmental exposure, morphophysiological filtering and/or maternal effects. Interspecific hybrids are a promising system in which to interrogate the determinants of microbiome composition because hybrids can decouple traits and processes that are otherwise co‐inherited in their parent species. We used a population of free‐living hybrid zebras (Equus quagga × grevyi) in Kenya to evaluate the roles of these four mechanisms in regulating microbiome composition. We analysed faecal DNA for both the trnL‐P6 and the 16S rRNA V4 region to characterize the diets and microbiomes of the hybrid zebra and of their parent species, plains zebra (E. quagga) and Grevy's zebra (E. grevyi). We found that both diet and microbiome composition clustered by species, and that hybrid diets and microbiomes were largely nested within those of the maternal species, plains zebra. Hybrid microbiomes were less variable than those of either parent species where they co‐occurred. Diet and microbiome composition were strongly correlated, although the strength of this correlation varied between species. These patterns are most consistent with the maternal‐effects hypothesis, somewhat consistent with the diet hypothesis, and largely inconsistent with the environmental‐sourcing and morphophysiological‐filtering hypotheses. Maternal transmittance likely operates in conjunction with inherited feeding habits to conserve microbiome composition within species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Commercial tobramycin ophthalmic solution is frequently used empirically to treat ocular disorders in equines, despite being primarily formulated for use in humans. It has been noted that tobramycin MIC90 concentration (minimal inhibitory concentration to 90% of microbial growth) rapidly declined following topical administration. It is hypothesized that adjustment of the pH of the empirically used tobramycin ophthalmic solution -prepared for human use- with the pH of the tears of donkeys, could increase the bioavailability of the drug and subsequently improve its penetration to the aqueous humor. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the impact of pH adjustment of the empirically used tobramycin ophthalmic solution on MIC90 concentration in tears and aqueous humor of donkeys (Equus asinus). The study was conducted on six (n = 6) clinically healthy donkeys. In each donkey, one eye was randomly selected to receive 210 µg tobramycin of the commercial tobramycin (CT) and used as a positive control (C group, n = 6). The other eye (treated eye) received 210 µg of the modified tobramycin ophthalmic solution (MT) (T group, n = 6). Tears and aqueous humor samples were collected 5-, 10-, 15-, 30- min, and 1-, 2-, 4-, and 6 h post-instillation. Results: Modifying the pH of the empirically used commercial tobramycin ophthalmic solution in donkeys at a pH of 8.26 enhanced the drug's bioavailability. The MIC90 of the most hazardous bacteria isolated from equines' eyes such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa (MIC90 = 128 µg/ml) and Staphylococcus aureus (MIC90 = 256 µg/ml) was covered early (5 min post-instillation) and over a longer period in donkey tears (239–342 min) and aqueous humor (238–330 min) with the modified tobramycin solution. Conclusions: Adjustment of the pH of the commercial tobramycin ophthalmic solution, empirically used by veterinarians to treat donkeys' ophthalmic infections at a pH of 8.26, isotonic with the donkeys' tears pH, resulting in higher concentrations of tobramycin in tears and aqueous humor for a longer time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Acute hemorrhage is fatal in equines with a complication of severe hypovolemic shock that causes a sudden death in such cases. Aim: This study was designed to report the influences of acute bleeding in conscious non-sedated donkeys (Equus asinus) on the hematobiochemical variables, acid-base, blood gas elements, and markers of inflammation and bone metabolism. Methods: Eight healthy donkeys were used where a total of 900 ml of whole blood was collected. Five blood samples were collected from each animal: just before collection of blood (T0); (2) 30 (T1), 60 (T2), 120 (T3), and 240 minutes (T4) later. The blood panels including total white blood cells, lymphocytes, neutrophils, red blood cell counts (RBCs), HCT, hemoglobin (Hg), and RBCs indices were measured. Biochemical parameters and electrolytes were evaluated. The activity of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), creatine kinase (CK), and 1-glutamyl transferase (GGT) were also determined. Complete acid-base and blood gas panels were assessed. Serum amyloid A (SAA), haptoglobin (Hp), osteocalcin (OC), bone alkaline phosphatase (b-ALP), and pyridinoline cross-links (PYD) were measured. Results: The RBCs, Hg, and HCT increased significantly at points T1, T2, and T3 compared to T0. The concentrations of total proteins and albumin decreased significantly at points T3 and T4. The blood urea nitrogen concentrations increased significantly at T4. Creatinine concentrations increased significantly at T2 and T3. The AST, GGT, and CK decreased significantly. On the other hand, glucose increased significantly at T3 and T4. The pH decreased significantly at points T1, T2, T3, and T4. The PCO2 increased significantly at T3 and T4. The BE, HCO3, and TCO2 values decreased significantly at T2, T3, and T4. Contrary, the AG increased significantly at points T3 and T4. The potassium increased significantly at T1-T4 and chloride decreased significantly at T3 and T4. Lactate showed significant increases at T1-T4. The SAA, Hp, OC, b-ALP, and PYD did not differ significantly at T1-T4. Conclusion: In conscious non-sedated donkeys, induced bleeding resulted in significant changes in the hematobiochemical elements, the acid-base status, and blood gas and electrolyte parameters. However, it did not change the markers of inflammation and bone metabolism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: This study aimed to describe the epidemiological, clinicopathological, and therapeutic aspects of allergic dermatitis caused by Culicoides spp. bites in donkeys. Clinical signs included restlessness and severe itching. Skin lesions were observed across various parts of the body and included areas of alopecia with crusts and serosanguinous exudates. Overall, 378 Culicoides insects were collected and Culicoides ocumarensis Ortiz was identified as the most common species. These findings suggest an association between allergic dermatitis and Culicoides. Additionally, a combination of copaiba oil and a multivitamin emulsion showed therapeutic potential. To date, this is the first study on allergic dermatitis in donkeys in Brazil. An allergy to bites from Culicoides (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) occurs because of a hypersensitivity reaction caused by the inoculation of insect salivary antigens during the bite, resulting in immune-mediated dermatitis. To the best of our knowledge, no previous studies have focused on allergic dermatitis in donkeys in Brazil. Therefore, this study aimed to describe the epidemiological, clinicopathological, and therapeutic aspects of allergic dermatitis in donkeys and to identify the insects involved in its epidemiology. This study reported the occurrence of dermatitis in 17 animals. The clinical signs were restlessness and severe itching. Skin lesions were found on the head, depigmented areas of the muzzle and cheeks, flanks, pelvic and thoracic limbs, and the scrotal sac. The lesions were characterized by areas of alopecia with crusts accompanied by serosanguineous exudates. Histologically, the lesions were characterized as moderate superficial dermatitis with irregular epidermal acanthosis and pronounced diffuse orthokeratotic hyperkeratosis. In total, 378 Culicoides specimens were collected, with Culicoides ocumarensis Ortiz being the most abundant species. The combined application of copaiba oil and a multivitamin emulsion exhibited potential for topical treatment of allergic dermatitis caused by insect bites in donkeys. Our study revealed an association between allergic dermatitis in donkeys and Culicoides. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Joint attention, the ability for interlocuters to coordinate their attentional state on an aspect of the environment or behaviour of mutual interest, is considered one of the key capacities underlying human cooperation. Originally considered unique to primates, emerging evidence in diverse taxa now suggests it may have convergently evolved in response to similar socioecological pressures. Here, we examine a previously undescribed visual signal in the plains zebra, Equus quagga : the 'headbob'. Headbobs are flexibly produced in two major contexts: initiating joint travel and initiating social behaviour between partners. We investigated whether this signal meets three key criteria used to infer joint attention in nonhuman animals: first-order intentional communication, sensitivity to receiver attentional state and common ground. In response to a headbob, receivers modified their behaviour to facilitate joint engagement in a coordinated act. We found that behaviour was more synchronized between social partners following a headbob and that travel initiations were more likely to result in coordinated travel than those without a headbob. These preliminary findings suggest this behaviour may serve as a joint attention mechanism, warranting further and more detailed investigation. This study illuminates the importance of including understudied taxa, such as ungulates, in the study of advanced sociocognitive and communicative capabilities. • We examined whether zebras use a visual signal, the headbob, to achieve joint attention. • Headbobs showed intentional communication and sensitivity to receiver attentional state. • Headbobs caused receiver response to the signal. • Headbobs were more likely to result in coordinated travel. • Our results show that joint attention is not limited to the primate lineage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Theodore Roosevelt National Park (TRNP) manages a herd of feral horses (Equus caballus) which was present on the landscape prior to the establishment of the park. The population presents a unique scenario in that it has experienced fairly intensive and well‐documented management since the park's establishment, including herd size reductions, intentional introduction of diversity, and subsequent attempts to remove introduced lineages. This provides an interesting case study on the genetic effects of diverse evolutionary forces on an isolated feral population. To explore the effects of these forces and clarify the relationship of this feral herd with other horses, we used genome‐wide markers to examine the population structure of a combined dataset containing common established breeds. Using the Illumina Equine 70k BeadChip, we sampled SNPs across the genome for 118 TRNP horses and evaluated the inbreeding coefficient f and runs of homozygosity (RoH). To identify breed relationships, we compared 23 representative TRNP samples with 792 horses from 35 different breeds using genomic population structure analyses. Mean f of TRNP horses was 0.180, while the mean f for all other breeds in the dataset was 0.116 (SD 0.079). RoH analysis indicates that the TRNP population has experienced recent inbreeding in a timeframe consistent with their management. With Bayesian clustering, PCA, and maximum likelihood phylogeny, TRNP horses show genetic differentiation from other breeds, likely due to isolation, historical population bottlenecks, and genetic drift. However, maximum likelihood phylogeny places them with moderate confidence (76.8%) among draft breeds, which is consistent with the known history of breeds used on early North Dakota ranches and stallions subsequently introduced to the park herd. These findings will help resolve speculation about the origins of the herd and inform management decisions for the TRNP herd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The donkey's extraordinary capacity to endure substantial loads over long distances while maintaining equilibrium suggests a distinctive cerebellar architecture specialized in balance regulation. Consequently, our study aims to investigate the intricate histophysiology of the donkey's cerebellum using advanced ultrastructural and immunohistochemical methodologies to comprehend the mechanisms that govern this exceptional ability. This study represents the pioneering investigation to comprehensively describe the ultrastructure and immunohistochemistry within the donkey cerebellum. Five adult donkeys' cerebella were utilized for the study, employing stains such as hematoxylin, eosin, and toluidine blue to facilitate a comprehensive histological examination. For immunohistochemical investigation, synaptophysin (SP), calretinin, and glial fibrillary acidic protein were used and evaluated by the Image J software. Furthermore, a double immunofluorescence staining of SP and neuron‐specific enolase (NSE) was performed to highlight the co‐localization of these markers and explore their potential contribution to synaptic function within the donkey cerebellum. This investigation aims to understand their possible roles in regulating neuronal activity and synaptic connectivity. We observed co‐expression of SP and NSE in the donkey cerebellum, which emphasizes the crucial role of efficient energy utilization for motor coordination and balance, highlighting the interdependence of synaptic function and energy metabolism. The Purkinje cells were situated in the intermediate zone of the cerebellum cortex, known as the Purkinje cell layer. Characteristically, the Purkinje cell's bodies exhibited a distinct pear‐like shape. The cross‐section area of the Purkinje cells was 107.7 ± 0.2 µm2, and the Purkinje cell nucleus was 95.7 ± 0.1 µm2. The length and diameter of the Purkinje cells were 36.4 × 23.4 µm. By scanning electron microscopy, the body of the Purkinje cell looked like a triangular or oval with a meandrous outer surface. The dendrites appeared to have small spines. The Purkinje cells' cytoplasm was rich with mitochondria, rough endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, multivesicular bodies, and lysosomes. Purkinje cell dendrites were discovered in the molecular layer, resembling trees. This study sheds light on the anatomical and cellular characteristics underlying the donkey's exceptional balance‐maintaining abilities. Highlights: The donkey's remarkable ability to endure substantial loads over long distances while maintaining equilibrium suggests the presence of a specialized cerebellar architecture dedicated to balance regulation.The objective of this study is to investigate the intricate histophysiology of the donkey's cerebellum using advanced ultrastructural and immunohistochemical methodologies, aiming to comprehend the mechanisms governing this exceptional balancing ability.This study pioneers the comprehensive description of the ultrastructure and immunohistochemistry within the donkey cerebellum, representing a groundbreaking investigation in the field.Five adult donkeys' cerebella were utilized in this study, employing staining techniques such as hematoxylin, eosin, and toluidine blue to facilitate a comprehensive histological examination.Immunohistochemical investigation involved synaptophysin, calretinin, and glial fibrillary acidic protein, evaluated using Image J software, providing valuable insights into their potential roles in regulating neuronal activity and synaptic connectivity.Double immunofluorescence staining of synaptophysin and neuron‐specific enolase highlighted their co‐localization and potential contribution to synaptic function within the donkey cerebellum.Scanning electron microscopy revealed that Purkinje cells had a triangular or oval shape with a meandering outer surface, and the dendrites appeared to have small spines.Transmission electron microscopy showed that the cytoplasm of Purkinje cells contained various organelles, including mitochondria, rough endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, multivesicular bodies, and lysosomes.In conclusion, this study sheds light on the anatomical and cellular characteristics underlying the donkey's exceptional balance‐maintaining abilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Theodore Roosevelt National Park (TRNP) manages a herd of feral horses (Equus caballus) which was present on the landscape prior to the establishment of the park. The population presents a unique scenario in that it has experienced fairly intensive and well‐documented management since the park's establishment, including herd size reductions, intentional introduction of diversity, and subsequent attempts to remove introduced lineages. This provides an interesting case study on the genetic effects of diverse evolutionary forces on an isolated feral population. To explore the effects of these forces and clarify the relationship of this feral herd with other horses, we used genome‐wide markers to examine the population structure of a combined dataset containing common established breeds. Using the Illumina Equine 70k BeadChip, we sampled SNPs across the genome for 118 TRNP horses and evaluated the inbreeding coefficient f and runs of homozygosity (RoH). To identify breed relationships, we compared 23 representative TRNP samples with 792 horses from 35 different breeds using genomic population structure analyses. Mean f of TRNP horses was 0.180, while the mean f for all other breeds in the dataset was 0.116 (SD 0.079). RoH analysis indicates that the TRNP population has experienced recent inbreeding in a timeframe consistent with their management. With Bayesian clustering, PCA, and maximum likelihood phylogeny, TRNP horses show genetic differentiation from other breeds, likely due to isolation, historical population bottlenecks, and genetic drift. However, maximum likelihood phylogeny places them with moderate confidence (76.8%) among draft breeds, which is consistent with the known history of breeds used on early North Dakota ranches and stallions subsequently introduced to the park herd. These findings will help resolve speculation about the origins of the herd and inform management decisions for the TRNP herd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: The combination of an opioid compound with a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug can lead to additive or enhanced effects while minimizing adverse reactions. Recently, we reported the pharmacokinetic profiles of metamizole and tramadol in donkeys at single doses and without association. However, no studies have reported on the pharmacokinetic profile of the combination of tramadol and metamizole. The objective of this research was to assess pharmacokinetic profile of metamizole co-administered with tramadol at single dose. Behavioral changes in the animals were observed, and at specific intervals, blood samples were taken for subsequent analysis. Analyses were performed using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The findings indicate that tramadol and its metabolite presented modified profiles, implying that metamizole and tramadol interact and affect each other's metabolic processes at the dosages used in this study. Clinical researches are necessary to determine the optimal that effectively addresses the pain relief requirements of the species. Our objective was to assess the pharmacokinetic characteristics of metamizole when administered together with tramadol in a single intravenous dose to donkeys. Ten male animals received 10 mg∙kg−1 of dipyrone associated with 2 mg∙kg−1 of tramadol (T2M10) and 25 mg∙kg−1 of dipyrone with 2 mg∙kg−1 of tramadol (T2M25). Venous blood samples were taken from groups to determine the pharmacokinetics after drug administration, using initial brief intervals that were followed by extended periods until 48 h. Restlessness and ataxia were observed in two animals in the T2M25 group. Analysis revealed prolonged detectability of tramadol, 4-methylamine antipyrine, 4-aminoantipyrine (up to 24 h), and O-desmethyltramadol (up to 12 h) after administration. Although metamizole and its metabolites showed no significant pharmacokinetic changes, tramadol and O-desmethyltramadol exhibited altered profiles, likely because of competition for the active sites of CYP450 enzymes. Importantly, the co-administration of metamizole increased the bioavailability of tramadol and O-desmethyltramadol in a dose-dependent manner, highlighting their potential interactions and emphasizing the need for further dose optimization in donkey analgesic therapies. In conclusion, metamizole co-administered with tramadol interferes with metabolism and this interference can change the frequency of drug administration and its analgesic efficacy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Optimal foraging theory predicts that animals maximise energy intake by consuming the most valuable foods available. When resources are limited, they may include lower-quality fallback foods in their diets. As seasonal herbivore diet switching is understudied, we evaluate its extent and effects across three Kenyan reserves each for Critically Endangered eastern black rhino (Diceros bicornis michaeli) and Grevy's zebra (Equus grevyi), and its associations with habitat quality, microbiome variation, and reproductive performance. Black rhino diet breadth increases with vegetation productivity (NDVI), whereas zebra diet breadth peaks at intermediate NDVI. Black rhino diets associated with higher vegetation productivity have less acacia (Fabaceae: Vachellia and Senegalia spp.) and more grass suggesting that acacia are fallback foods, upending conventional assumptions. Larger dietary shifts are associated with longer calving intervals. Grevy's zebra diets in high rainfall areas are consistently grass-dominated, whereas in arid areas they primarily consume legumes during low vegetation productivity periods. Whilst microbiome composition between individuals is affected by the environment, and diet composition in black rhino, seasonal dietary shifts do not drive commensurate microbiome shifts. Documenting diet shifts across ecological gradients can increase the effectiveness of conservation by informing habitat suitability models and improving understanding of responses to resource limitation. Using metabarcoding, we found that seasonal dietary shifts were associated with slower breeding and acacia are fallback foods for black rhino. Grass was the highest value food for Grevy's zebra. Seasonal diet shifts did not drive microbiome shifts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Various ophthalmic disorders (conjunctivitis, corneal wounds, keratitis) have been reported in donkeys. There are no studies on the effect of medetomidine or tramadol on Schirmer tear test (STT) readings in donkeys. This prospective study investigated changes in STT readings in 24 clinically healthy donkeys (Equus asinus) (14 geldings and 10 mares) treated with commonly used doses of medetomidine hydrochloride and tramadol hydrochloride as mono- or combined therapy. Analgesia, sedation, ataxia, and STT readings were measured before treatment (baseline) and at different periods after administration (5-120 min) of the specific drug in each group. Tramadol monotherapy induced a mild analgesic effect (score 1) at 10 min post-administration. All treated donkeys exhibited mild to moderate ataxia. Medetomidine alone or in combination with tramadol induced a significant decrease (P<0.05) in the STT readings in both right and left eyes at 5, 15, 30, and 60 min relative to baseline, and the lowest values were observed 60 min after drug administration in both groups. Intravenous administration of medetomidine alone or in combination with tramadol induced a significant reduction in STT readings in clinically healthy donkeys. Therefore, in donkeys, the ocular surface treated with these sedatives should be carefully examined and adequately covered by an artificial tear solution or ophthalmic gel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Large parts of biodiversity in protected areas (PAs) and their ecosystem services have been deteriorated due to land cover change over time. To reverse these effects, analysis of land cover change is essential. One of the protected areas, Hallaydeghe Asebot Proposed National Park (HAPNP), was assumed its land cover change and was undergone from one habitat type to others during the last three decades. As a result, wildlife species particularly Grevy's zebra (Equus grevyi) in HAPNP are facing conservation challenges. Here, we aimed to examine the land cover changes of HAPNP for the period of 1990–2021 and assess Grevy's zebra conservation challenges so as to improve the protection of the park and conservation of the species. Landsat images for the years 1990, 2006, and 2021 were generated to analyze land cover change of the study area. In addition, ground control points and information from elder and knowledgeable informants were collected to substantiate the result. Household survey, key informant interviews, and field observation checklist were utilized to collect data on conservation challenges. To generate land cover change maps, the satellite image for each period was classified using supervised classification. Content analysis was used to analyze conservation challenges of the species. The findings of this study revealed that 12.2% of grassland cover lost from 1990 to 2021 (i.e., an estimated annual average loss 0.4%). The remaining grassland cover in the HAPNP was aggregated in a small land area. On the other hand, the size of bushland increased by 26.4% during the same year (i.e., an estimated annual average gain 0.9%). These findings have implications for conservation and management of grazers. Major drivers for conservation challenges of Grevy's zebra were habitat degradation, unintegrated development, and poor law enforcement practices. Grassland restoration program and species conservation challenges' intervention strategy should be designed and implemented to safeguard the natural habitat and the species that occur in the HAPNP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Group living animals form striking aggregation patterns and display synchronization, polarization, and collective intelligence. Though many collective behavioral studies have been conducted on small animals like insects and fish, research on large animals is still rare due to the limited availability of field collective data. We used drones to record videos and analyzed the decision-making and behavioral spatial patterns in orientation of Kiang (Tibetan wild ass, Equus kiang). Leadership is unevenly distributed among Kiang, with the minority initiating majority behavior-shift decisions. Decisions of individual to join are driven by imitation between group members, and are largely dependent on the number of members who have already joined. Kiang respond to the behavior and position of neighbors through different strategies. They strongly polarize when moving, therefore adopting a linear alignment. When vigilant, orientation deviation increases as they form a tighter group. They remain scattered while feeding and, in that context, adopt a side-by-side alignment. This study reveals partially-shared decision-making among Kiang, whereby copying neighbors provides the wisdom to thrive in harsh conditions. This study also suggests that animals' spatial patterns in orientation depend largely on their behavioral states in achieving synchronization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Linxia Basin is characterized by an abundance of Cenozoic sediments, that contain exceptionally rich fossil resources. Equids are abundant in the Linxia Basin, the fossil record of equids in this region including 16 species that represent 10 genera. In comparison to other classic late Cenozoic areas in China, the Linxia Basin stands out, because the fauna and chronological data accompanying Linxia equids render them remarkably useful for biostratigraphy. The anchitheriines in the region, such as Anchitherium and Sinohippus, represent early equids that appeared in the late stages of the middle and late Miocene, respectively. Among the equines, most species of Chinese hipparions have been identified in the Linxia Basin and some species of the genera Hipparion and Hippotherium have FAD records for China. Furthermore, Equus eisenmannae is one of the earliest known species of Equus in the Old World and is well‐represented at the Longdan locality. Some species with precise geohistorical distributions can serve as standards for high‐resolution chronological units within this framework. Located at the eastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau and subject to considerable uplift, the Linxia Basin has served as a biogeographic transition area for equids throughout the late Cenozoic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the spatial dynamics of landscape use by free-ranging herbivores is essential for species management and conservation in its natural environment. We used Ivelv's selection index, binary logistic regression analyses and stepwise regression to understand how environmental factors shape habitat selection by the Grevy's zebra (Equus greyvi). We measured biotic, abiotic and human factors that may influence presence or absence of Grevy's zebra in Samburu-Laikipia landscape and showed: (1) during wet periods, percentage perennial grasses, livestock density and grass quality had the greatest effect on Grevy's zebra presence; but (2) during dry weather periods a different suite of factors determined their landscape distribution, namely, the percentage of tree and bush density, distance to water and overall grass abundance. In addition, different Grevy's zebra demographic and reproductive classes varied in their response to environmental selective forces, thus demonstrating flexibility in their pat-terns of habitat selection. While we recommend more detailed studies on how abiotic and biotic interact to shape habitat selection patterns, our findings underscored the need of maintaining both dry and wet season habitats to ensure essential grazing area refugia. Our findings show that 'soft' development with controlled livestock stocking rates within the landscape will enhance Grevy's zebra conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The core‐periphery hypothesis predicts niche cores should be associated with greater survivorship, reproductive output and population performance rates than marginal habitats at niche edges. However, there is very little empirical evidence of whether niche centrality influences population trends in animals. Using the Cape mountain zebra (Equus zebra zebra) as a model system, we evaluated whether niche centrality is associated with population trends, resource availability and diet across a core‐periphery gradient. Population growth rates and density progressively declined towards niche peripheries. Niche peripheries were resource‐poor and Cape mountain zebra consumed more phylogenetically diverse diets dominated by non‐grass families. In core habitats they consumed grass‐rich diets and female reproductive success was higher. This combination of spatial niche modelling and functional ecology provides a novel evaluation of how bottom‐up resource limitation can shape species distributions, population resilience and range change and can guide conservation management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Equus Linnaeus animals, as large non-ruminant herbivores, harbor a diverse array of microorganisms in their gastrointestinal tract, and the microbial composition varies across different segments of the gut. These microorganisms play a crucial role in the efficient utilization of feed, especially for nutrients that cannot be readily degraded by endogenous enzymes or are minimally susceptible to endogenous enzymatic breakdown. The intestinal microbiota of Equus Linnaeus animals interacts with the host, participating in energy metabolism and immune regulation. External factors (such as diet composition and environmental conditions) and internal factors (including age, gender, and genetic background) can disrupt the balance of intestinal microorganisms, leading to digestive system disorders such as diarrhea, colic, and colitis. The article provides an overview of core microbial communities in the Equus Linnaeus animals intestinal tract, community structures in different gut segments, factors influencing gut microbiota, and the relationship between gut microbiota and overall health. The aim is to serve as a reference for research related to the intestinal microbiota of Equus Linnaeus animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multimodality is a virtually ubiquitous feature of communication. With the increasing interest in how animals, including humans, use multimodal and multicomponent signals in social interactions, there is an acute need for standardized and rigorous tools that will allow us to visualize and analyse these signals as they occur in naturalistic interactions as a complex, integrated system. Network theory is a powerful methodology for intuitively visualizing and investigating the relationships between entities. Here, we propose a new framework for analysing multimodal communication. Using a case study of natural multimodal interactions in wild plains zebras, Equus quagga , we introduce the descriptive power of network metrics by providing an objective set of metrics to (1) describe the relationships between simultaneously produced signals within and between modalities and (2) infer signal meaning and function. We embed these tools in a theoretical framework that can be used to interpret and describe both the global structure of the repertoire and the role individual signals play in shaping and modulating meaning. Next, we review an array of common questions in animal behaviour that could benefit from the use of multimodal networks to facilitate meaningful comparisons of communication across social and environmental contexts, timescales and species. Finally, we discuss extending the use of network analyses to multimodal communication through the use of directed networks and the challenges to be overcome from this application. • Networks can describe relations between simultaneously produced multimodal signals. • We propose a framework for using network theory to analyse multimodal communication. • We use multimodal interactions in plains zebras to illustrate these techniques. • Network theory can be applied to a range of interdisciplinary, comparative questions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Equines' ability in racing and riding as well as gaitedness have influenced the human civilization. Aim of this study was to identify and characterize the novel polymorphisms or SNPs in DMRT3 gene in Indian horse and donkey breeds. In this study, the DMRT3 gene was sequenced and characterized in 72 Indian horses' and 33 Indian donkeys' samples. One SNP (A > C) at 878 was found in studied horses while identical SNPs (A > C) at two different nucleotide positions i.e., 878 and 942 in DMRT3 gene (chromosome 23) were observed in studied Indian donkey breeds. Horses and donkeys both have a non-synonymous mutation (A > C) at nucleotide 878 (codon 61) that converts a Stop codon (TAG > TCG) to coding codon Serine, whereas donkeys have a synonymous mutation at nucleotide 942 (codon 82) that converts Serine (TCA > TCC) into Serine. A phylogenetic tree indicated that the DMRT3 gene was equally distributed among the equine breeds. Most of the donkey breeds have been shown high levels of genetic diversity while horse breeds and Halari donkey showed the least genetic diversity. Mutation in DMRT3 has a major impact on gaitedness in horses and is presented at a high frequency in gaited breeds and in horses breed for harness racing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ulcerative keratitis is a common disease in horses which may cause blindness. To prevent secondary bacterial and fungal infections and promote quick re-growth of the epithelial layer, different treatment approaches have been employed. This study aimed to examine the effects of advanced platelet-rich fibrin (A-PRF) gel on the healing process of experimentally induced corneal ulcers in donkeys. Nine healthy adult donkeys were used for the study. The donkeys were divided into two groups: the control group, where no medication was applied to the corneal ulcer, and the A-PRF gel group, where A-PRF gel was applied once a day on specific days after ulcer induction. The healing process was evaluated through various examinations and analyses. The results demonstrated that the A-PRF gel group showed significant improvement in the corneal ulcer area, with epithelial and stromal regeneration. At day 35, about 60% of the A-PRF group showed negative fluorescein uptake. Additionally, fewer complications were observed during the healing process compared to the control group. In conclusion, A-PRF gel is an important and safe therapeutic option for controlling ocular surface infection and promoting corneal healing. We recommend using A-PRF gel as an alternative approach, avoiding eyelid suturing, and minimizing corneal irritation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Donkey milk has high nutritional and medicinal value, but there are few researches in donkey milk traits, especially on genome. The whole lactation of 89 donkeys was recorded and it was found that Xinjiang donkey had good lactation performance while great differences among individuals. In our previous study, four genes including LGALS2, NUMB, ADCY8 and CA8 were identified as milk-associated with Chinese Kazakh house, based on Equine 670k Chip genomic analysis. And then 15 SNPs of the four key genes were conducted for genotyping in Xinjiang donkey in this study, one of Chinese indigenous breed, 14 SNPs were successful classified. And those SNPs were correlation analysis with milk yield of Xinjiang donkeys. The results showed that NUMB g.46709914T > G was significantly correlated with daily milk yield of Xinjiang donkey in the early, middle, and late periods, while ADCY8 g.48366302T > C, CA8 g.89567442T > G and CA8 g.89598328T > A were significantly correlated with lactation in the late periods. These results indicate that NUMB g.46709914T > G can be as markers of candidate genes for lactating traits in donkeys, SNPs of ADCY8 and CA8 as potential. Our findings will not only help confirm key genes for donkey milk traits, but also provide future for genomic selection in donkeys. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The earliest records of horses in Mexico date back to the Eocene. However, this group of mammals disappeared from the territory towards the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene and came back accompanying the Europeans in their "discovery" and conquest of America at the end of the 15th and the beginning of the 16th century. The impressions in the imaginary of the inhabitants of that multicultural territory regarding the presence of the human upon the beast are manifested in the chronicles, the codices, and the languages of each one of these societies. This article presents the first testimonies about this animal in Hispaniola and of those who arrived with the Spanish invasion. We address the media in which they were represented, their meaning and the evidence of bone remains found in colonial contexts. Our objective is to explain the relationship that the natives established with this animal that had recently arrived in their territories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The genus Equus comprises six species and 22 subspecies. Ethiopia is the only country in the world that has all three surviving species of zebra. The population status, structure, and seasonal range of Grevy's zebra (Equus grevyi) were studied in the Hallaydeghe Asebot Protected Area (HAPA), southeast Ethiopia, using line transects and silent detection methods. Data were collected from 2021 to 2022 covering both the wet and dry seasons. The seasonal range of Grevy's zebra was studied using the minimum convex polygon method. We counted 89 and 61 Grevy's zebra during the wet and dry seasons, respectively. The total population size was estimated to be 75 individuals with a 95% confidence interval of 60–90 individuals. The adult to sub-adult ratio was 3.1:1.0 during the wet season and 4:1 during the dry season. The sex ratio of adult female to adult male was 5:1 during the wet season and 4:1 during the dry season. The seasonal range of the species in the HAPA was 477 km2 (n = 89) during the wet season and 711 km2 (n = 61) during the dry season. During the dry season Grevy's zebra move out of the protected area to the Blen hot spring and its associated wetlands for green grazing and water. Hence, further study is needed on the possibility of incorporating the Blen hot spring and its associated wetlands into the protected area to promote the sustainable conservation of the species in the HAPA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ex situ conservation is the main method for the protection of endangered wildlife. To explore the effect of ex situ conservation on the gut microbiota of the kiang (Equus kiang), metagenomic sequencing combined with bioinformatics analysis was used to investigate the composition and function of the gut microbiota of the kiang. The results showed that ex situ conservation not only protected wildlife, but also affected the composition and function of gut microbiota, as well as the health of animals. In the zoo, the ratio of the relative abundance of Firmicutes to that of Bacteroidetes (F/B) is higher, clusters of potentially pathogenic bacteria (such as Catonella, Catonella, and Mycoplasma) are more numerous, the abundance of resistance genes is higher, and the abundance of metabolic functions is increased. The dynamic changes of the gut microbiota also played an important role in the nutritional absorption, energy metabolism, and environmental adaptation of the kiang. Improving the rearing environment and increasing food diversity play important roles for increasing the diversity of gut microbiota, reducing the spread of potentially pathogenic bacteria, and reducing diseases. In the wild, especially in winter and in food‐deficient areas, food supplementation can enhance the gut microbial homeostasis of wild animals and reduce the impact of crises. In depth studies of the gut microbial function of wildlife have important implications for improving ex situ conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents historical and evolutionary insights into the "tarpan" group of small horses by examining molar tooth enamel ultrastructure. Mathematical methodologies were applied to enhance the analysis. Tooth enamel from species such as Equus gmelini (tarpan), E. latipes, and E. hydruntinus from Pleistocene Ukrainian localities, E. przewalskii from the Chornobyl Exclusion Zone in Ukraine, and E. caballus form sylvaticus (Polish konik) from Roztocze National Park, Poland, underwent scanning microscope examination. Measurements of enamel structures, including prisms (PE) and interprismatic matrix (IPM), were conducted, with the K-index used as their ratio, categorized by enamel type (I, II, III). The findings confirmed that the crystal structures of enamel in these horse groups vary based on genus evolution, diet, and environmental conditions, shaping the enamel's morphological features. Through analysis, clusters were identified, allowing for potential reconstructions of relationships among study groups. The results revealed distinct differences between species, enabling their classification within an established phenogram. Two primary clusters emerged: one consisting of extinct small horse forms from diverse localities and another grouping modern forms. Notably, the Late Pleistocene European species E. latipes showed close affinities to the latter cluster. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Species within the genus Equus are valued for their draft ability. Skeletal muscle forms the foundation of the draft ability of Equus species; however, skeletal muscle development-related conserved genes and their target miRNAs are rarely reported for Equus. In this study, a comparative genomics analysis was performed among five species (horse, donkey, zebra, cattle, and goat), and the results showed that a total of 15,262 (47.43%) genes formed the core gene set of the five species. Only nine chromosomes (Chr01, Chr02, Chr03, Chr06, Chr10, Chr18, Chr22, Chr27, Chr29, and Chr30) exhibited a good collinearity relationship among Equus species. The micro-synteny analysis results showed that TPM3 was evolutionarily conserved in chromosome 1 in Equus. Furthermore, donkeys were used as the model species for Equus to investigate the genetic role of TPM3 in muscle development. Interestingly, the results of comparative transcriptomics showed that the TPM3 gene was differentially expressed in donkey skeletal muscle S1 (2 months old) and S2 (24 months old), as verified via RT-PCR. Dual-luciferase test analysis showed that the TPM3 gene was targeted by differentially expressed miRNA (eca-miR-1). Furthermore, a total of 17 TPM3 gene family members were identified in the whole genome of donkey, and a heatmap analysis showed that EaTPM3-5 was a key member of the TPM3 gene family, which is involved in skeletal muscle development. In conclusion, the TPM3 gene was conserved in Equus, and EaTPM3-5 was targeted by eca-miR-1, which is involved in skeletal muscle development in donkeys. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: The current research aimed to evaluate the potential effect of adding platelet-rich fibrin (PRF) to the decellularized bovine pericardium (DBP) on the distal limb of donkeys' full-thickness cutaneous wounds healing (Equus asinus). Materials and Methods: Healthy male donkeys (n = 12) were used in this study. Under general anesthesia, 6 cm2 full-thickness incisions were made on the middle dorsolateral surface of both forelimbs' metacarpi. The left forelimbs were control wounds, while the right wounds were treated with PRF/DBP. Control wounds were bandaged with a standard dressing after saline irrigation and were evaluated at days 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22, 25, and 28 post-wounding. PRF/DBP-treated wounds were dressed with a combination of PRF/DBP at the first, second, and third weeks post-wounding. Clinical and histopathological examinations of the wounds were performed to assess the healing process. Additionally, the immunohistochemical evaluation and gene expression profiles of myofibroblastic and angiogenic genes (transforming growth factor-β1, vascular endothelial growth factor-A, fibroblast growth factor 7 (FGF-7), and collagen type 3α1) were analyzed. Results: PRF/DBP wounds had a significantly faster healing process (61.3 ± 2.6 days) than control wounds (90.3 ± 1.4 days) (p < 0.05). The immunohistochemical examination and gene expression profile revealed significant enrichment in PRF/DBP wounds compared to control wounds. Conclusion: PRF/DBP dressing can be considered a natural and cost-effective biomaterial for enhancing the recovery of donkeys' distal limb injuries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: We estimated the population density and the population size of feral donkeys in northwest Saudi Arabia. The estimated overall population density was 1.03 (0.19 SE) donkey/km2 and an abundance at ~1135 individuals. The negative impact of feral donkeys on natural resources included overgrazing, habitat fragmentation, and competition for resources with native species. Our study adds evidence to the detrimental impacts of feral donkeys and calls for urgent actions to control the presence of feral donkeys in the region. We recommend humane eradication for controlling the feral donkeys as it would be the most efficient and applicable action that can significantly abate the feral donkeys' negative impacts. The feral donkey (Equus asinus L.) is an invasive species in Saudi Arabia and can cause severe damage to natural and cultural heritage. Over the last 30 years, feral donkeys have become a serious problem, as their abundance and geographic distribution has increased drastically. The impacts of feral donkeys are not well documented, and information about their abundance and distribution is lacking, certainly in Saudi Arabia, which hampers the implementation of effective management plans. Accordingly, we used the minimum population number approach (MPN) to determine the number of feral donkeys in this part of northwest Saudi Arabia. A total of 1135 feral donkeys were encountered in the region. The area around Khaybar harbors ~25% (n = 338) of the feral donkey population, whereas Tayma and AlGhrameel nature reserves were the least-inhabited sites (almost absent). The average population density of feral donkeys was estimated as 1.03 (0.19 SE) donkey/km2. We documented the negative ecological impact of feral donkeys on natural resources, which constituted overgrazing that resulted in habitat fragmentation and competition for resources with native species. We propose urgent actions to control the presence of feral donkeys in the region and suggest humane eradication as the most efficient and applicable to significantly reduce the negative impacts of feral donkeys. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Critically Endangered African wild ass Equus africanus is one of the most threatened equids, with fewer than 400 individuals persisting in the Danakil Desert (Eritrea), and fewer than 600 globally. To effectively conserve the species, it is essential to determine the extent of available suitable habitats and understand the environmental factors that most influence its current distribution. During 2016–2019 we observed African wild asses, recorded their locations during both the wet and dry seasons and analysed the bioclimatic data and topography using the maximum entropy species distribution model. Distance from water sources and precipitation of the driest month were the top predictors of suitable habitat for the dry season, whereas seasonal temperature variability and precipitation during the warmest quarter were the top predictors for the wet season. Model performances were high, with area under the curve values of 0.97 and 0.98 for the dry and wet seasons, respectively. In the Danakil Desert of Eritrea, the extent of optimal habitat for African wild asses is estimated to be 130 km2 in the dry season and 739 km2 in the wet season, with a potential range of 11,000 km2 for both seasons. Our model results also indicate that in the dry season 89 km2 of the Messir Plateau is optimal habitat, and the entire plateau area of 124 km2 provides optimal habitat during the wet season. These findings provide wildlife management authorities with substantive information and rationale for the establishment of a protected area on the Messir Plateau for African wild asses in Eritrea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Equids have shaped past Eurasian societies in many ways. This applies in particular to domestic horses, donkeys, and their hybrids. Key to documenting modes of exploitation and cultural trajectories in past societies is the correct taxonomic classification of tooth and bone specimens found in archaeological sites. However, close osteomorphological resemblance of wild and domestic equids and their economically valuable hybrids, that is, mules and hinnies, complicates the identification of intentionally fragmented or naturally damaged archaeological specimens. Here, we apply geometric morphometrics (GM) to mandibular teeth and metapodials, two skeletal elements commonly found in archaeological collections and known for their diagnostic properties using traditional morphometric methods. We registered a statistically representative set of 2D and 3D coordinates on mandibular teeth (P3, P4, M1, and M2) and metapodials of 92 domestic horses (Equus caballus Linnaeus, 1758), 70 domestic donkeys (Equus asinus Linnaeus, 1758), 30 hybrids, and 63 Asiatic wild asses (Equus hemionus Pallas, 1775). Taxonomic classification of these 255 specimens considered both shape and form, applying linear discriminant analysis, k‐nearest neighbors algorithm, and artificial neural networks to seven combinations of taxa. We obtained correct classifications in over 87% and 80%, respectively, of the premolars and molars and in over 93% and 89%, respectively, of the metacarpals and metatarsals. This modern dataset was then used to classify equid specimens from three archaeological sites in the Middle East already analyzed morphologically. Taking into account the past zoogeography of wild equids and the historical distribution of their domesticated descendants and hybrids, the GM approach presented in this study offers the possibility to morphologically classify archaeological equids with far greater certainty than has been the case so far. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Expansion of feral burro (Equus asinus) populations across the southwestern United States is causing human–wildlife conflicts including rangeland degradation, competition with livestock and native species, and burro–vehicle collisions. On the Fort Irwin National Training Center (NTC) in California, feral burros interfere with military training and are involved in vehicle collisions and other conflicts (e.g., burros blocking access to buildings). Limited data on burro movements and resource use poses a challenge for the development of management plans and mitigation strategies. We estimated home range size, second‐ and third‐order seasonal resource selection, and water dependency of 10 adult female feral burros fitted with global positioning system (GPS) collars on the NTC from November 2015 to April 2017. Mean 95% autocorrelated kernel home range size of female burros (253.9 ± 30.7 km2 [SE]) did not differ among seasons or between burros that resided close to or far from urban areas. Burros selected areas closer to water in all seasons and at both spatial scales, but selection was stronger in the dry season and at the landscape scale. When available, burros strongly selected for areas closer to urban areas. Burros consistently selected for areas with green forage and at lower elevations, but selection for other topographical features was variable. Water use patterns were consistent with the resource selection results. Burros visited water sources twice as often (every 22.2 ± 6.3 hr) during the hot‐dry season (Apr–Oct) compared to the cool‐wet seasons (Nov–Mar; 2015: 45.9 ± 21.0; 2016: 39.7 ± 9.3 hr). Our results suggest that urban areas, and resources therein, and water sources have the biggest influence on burro resource selection, and management plans could focus mitigation programs on these areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Predators differ in various attributes: body size, sociality, speed, preferred prey size, hunting mode, etc. Together, these characteristics contribute to the predator's overall dangerousness, which is likely to underlie variations in the nature and strength of a prey's antipredator responses. This link, although somehow intuitive, has rarely been quantified in natural ecosystems. The goal of this study was to compare the antipredator response of a prey to two predators with contrasting dangerousness in large terrestrial mammals, focusing on the less studied reactive spatial response. We assessed whether the reactive spatial response of plains zebras, Equus quagga , differed after an encounter with African lions, Panthera leo , or spotted hyaenas, Crocuta crocuta. We expected lions to be perceived as more dangerous and hence to induce a stronger reactive spatial response than hyaenas. Using data from GPS collars deployed simultaneously on the three species, we studied the reactive spatial responses of zebras after they came close to either predator. We found that zebras responded differently, and more strongly to lions than to hyaenas. Indeed, zebras were twice as likely to flee after encountering a lion than a hyaena and, immediately after an encounter with a lion, zebras moved on average faster and further than after an encounter with a hyaena. The results of this study are consistent with a correlation between predator dangerousness and the strength of the prey's antipredator response. Future studies covering other pairs of large carnivores are needed to rigorously assess the role of the different predator attributes (body size, speed, preferred prey and hunting mode). • Zebras' reactive response is stronger after encountering a lion than a hyaena. • Zebras were twice as likely to flee after an encounter with a lion than a hyaena. • Zebras moved faster and further after an encounter with a lion than a hyaena. • Large mammal predators' dangerousness may affect the reactive response of prey. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The roundworms, Parascaris spp., are important nematode parasites of foals and were historically model organisms in the field of cell biology, leading to many important discoveries. According to karyotype, ascarids in Equus are commonly divided into Parascaris univalens (2n = 2) and Parascaris equorum (2n = 4). Methods: Here, we performed morphological identification, karyotyping and sequencing of roundworms from three different hosts (horses, zebras and donkeys). Phylogenetic analysis was performed to study the divergence of these ascarids based on cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) and internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences. Results: Karyotyping, performed on eggs recovered from worms of three different Equus hosts in China, showed two different karyotypes (2n = 2 in P. univalens collected from horses and zebras; 2n = 6 in Parascaris sp. collected from donkeys). There are some differences in the terminal part of the spicula between P. univalens (concave) and Parascaris sp. (rounded). Additionally, it was found that the egg's chitinous layer was significantly thicker in Parascaris sp. (> 5 μm) than P. univalens (< 5 μm) (F(2537) = 1967, P < 0.01). Phylogenetic trees showed that the sequences of Parascaris from Equus hosts were divided into two distinct lineages based on sequences of the COI and ITS. Conclusions: Comparing the differences in roundworms collected from three different Equus hosts, this study describes a Parascaris species (Parascaris sp.) with six chromosomes in donkeys. It is worth noting that the thickness of the chitinous layer in the Parascaris egg may serve as a diagnostic indicator to distinguish the two roundworms (P. univalens and Parascaris sp.). The Parascaris sp. with six chromosomes in donkeys in the present study may be a species of P. trivalens described in 1934, but the possibility that it is a new Parascaris species cannot be ruled out. Both karyotyping and molecular analysis are necessary to solve the taxonomic problems in Parascaris species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The giant Cape zebra (Equus capensis) is one of the extinct Quaternary large mammal species of southern Africa, and the largest equid from the Quaternary of Africa. Twenty-six Pleistocene equid tracksites have been identified in aeolianites on the Cape south coast of South Africa. An age range of 161 ± 12 ka to 43 ± 4 ka has been established through Optically Stimulated Luminescence. More than half of the sites contain large-equid tracks, representing the first ichnosites attributed to E. capensis. Smaller equid tracks may have been registered by the quagga (E. quagga quagga). The abundance of E. capensis tracksites on the Cape south coast contrasts with the paucity of body fossils of the species from the region, contrasting with the impression obtained from the body fossil record that E. capensis was predominantly a west coast species in the region. The new data illustrate the capacity of the body fossil and trace fossil records to complement each other. The loss of suitable habitat provided by the Palaeo-Agulhas Plain was probably a contributing factor in the extinction of this large-bodied grazer. A long trackway at Driefontein, attributed to E. capensis, adds to a sparse global record of fossil horse trackways. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In equine practice, inguinal hernia is a common disease and can be either acquired (direct) or congenital (indirect). This retrospective study aimed to describe the presentation and surgical management of acquired inguinal/scrotal herniation in 11 working donkeys (nine intact males, one gelding, and one female). All donkeys had a unilateral acquired inguinal/scrotal hernia, which was noticed by the owner for a period of two to 24 weeks. All the swellings were reducible, painless, not accompanied by an acute abdomen. Ultrasonography, rectal, and clinical examination are useful tools for the diagnosis of inguinal/scrotal hernias in donkeys. Eight animals underwent successful inguinal herniorrhaphy with the removal of the testicle at the affected side, and the superficial inguinal ring was closed by application double-layer polypropylene mesh. The recovery period ranged from 14 to 25 days (average, 16.8 ± 2.8 days). All donkeys released from the clinic returned to their previous levels of exercise. Our study showed that acquired inguinal or scrotal herniation in donkeys is not a clinical emergency requiring prompt intervention. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report describing this condition in donkeys. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: The mammalian body plan is like a 'blueprint' that supports the survival and procreation of a species. This plan includes specialized bony structures for muscle attachment such as the ventral process of C6, a two-part bony projection divided into cranial and caudal ventral tubercles (CVT). In modern horses, muscles such as the longus colli attach to the ventral process of C6 and aid in the flexion, stabilization, fixation, and force redirection of cervical vertebrae. Recent studies identified an anomalous variation where the CVT was either unilaterally or bilaterally absent. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to determine if anomalous variations of the CVTs, as described in modern horses, is a post-domestication congenital abnormality or a normal presentation throughout evolution. For this purpose, the ventral processes of C6 in extinct and extant Equus specimens in museums and research/educational facilities were examined. The findings revealed the CVT of C6 was present in those extinct and extant specimens examined, and that its absence was only evident in modern horses. This implies that the absent CVT manifested post-domestication. Although the clinical significance is unknown, the relevance might be considered when reporting on diagnostic images of C6, and especially, for potential buyers in pre-purchase cases. In this study, we examined the ventral process of C6 in extinct and extant Equus (sister taxa to Equus ferus caballus only) with the purpose of describing normal morphology and identifying anomalous variations relevant to recent studies describing a congenital malformation in E. ferus caballus. Overall, 83 specimens from 9 museums and 3 research/educational facilities were examined, totalling 71 extinct specimens from 12 species and 12 extant specimens from 5 species. The lateral view revealed that a large convexity exists in the ventral process between the cranial ventral tubercle (CrVT) and the caudal ventral tubercle (CVT) in the earliest ancestor, Hyracotherium grangeri, from 55 mya, which receded throughout the millennia to become a smaller convexity in E. ferus caballus and the sister taxa. The CrVT is visibly shorter and narrower than the CVT, with a constricted section directly ventral to the transverse process, essentially demarcating the CrVT and CVT. No congenital malformations were evident. As the ventral process of C6 is an integral component for muscle attachment in supporting the head/neck during posture and locomotion, this would indicate that the caudal module in the cervical column might be compromised when a partial or complete absence of the CVT is detected via radiographs in modern E. ferus caballus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Early Pleistocene site of Palan-Tyukan is located in Transcaucasia, northwestern Azerbaijan. More than 300 mammalian bones were laid close to each other in a 25 m2 lens-like accumulation, in a stratum of normally magnetised (the upper part of the Olduvai subchron) yellowish-grey Lower Apsheron loams. The present study is based on the analysis of the Equidae and Suidae remains. The taxonomic scenario of the Early Pleistocene Equidae is intricate and has been a matter of long debate with a multitude of hypotheses. The small-sized horse remains from the locality are ascribed here to species Equus (Allohippus) senezensis. The species likely used here are mostly open landscapes for their main habitat. The main conclusion about the Suidae remains from Palan-Tyukan was reached after a detailed morphological and metrical analysis. The fossil material is here referred to Sus strozzii. Seemingly, during the initial phase of the Early Pleistocene the species lived in humid subtropical Transcaucasian riverine forests and swamps. An Equidae/Suidae community of the Palan-Tyukan type presents evidence of the wider variety of environments ranging from wooded areas including bodies of water to scrub and even savannas as a landscape in a relatively humid subtropical climate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural Trap Cave (Bighorn Mountains, Wyoming) preserves an abundance of fossil remains from extinct Late Pleistocene fauna and is situated near a past migration route that likely connected populations in Eastern Beringia and the contiguous US—the ice-free corridor between the Cordilleran and Laurentide icesheets. Some palaeontological evidence supports a correspondingly high affinity between fauna recorded in Natural Trap Cave and Eastern Beringia versus elsewhere in the contiguous US, but this hypothesis has not yet been extensively tested using genetic data. In the present study, we analysed 16 horse specimens and one camel specimen from Natural Trap Cave. Of the horse specimens we analysed, we obtained 10 unique and previously unreported mitochondrial haplotypes belonging to two distinct (extinct) genetic clades—two haplotypes corresponded to a caballine horse (Equus sp.) and eight corresponded to the stilt-legged horse (Haringtonhippus francisci). With only one exception, it appears these newly sequenced individuals all shared a common ancestor more recently with Eastern Beringian individuals than with others from the contiguous US. In addition, mitochondrial data from a specimen assigned to Camelops sp. revealed that it shares a closer affinity with specimens from the Yukon Territory than those from Idaho or Nevada, though all appear to belong to a single species ("yesterday's camel"; Camelops cf. hesternus). Together, these results are consistent with a high level of genetic connectivity between horse and camel populations in the Bighorn Mountains and Eastern Beringia during the Pleistocene. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural Trap Cave is an enigmatic site in Wyoming that has been accumulating fossils for tens of thousands of years from animals falling into it. One of the more common taxa present at this site are horses. North American equids have been separated into two main groups: caballine "stout legged" horses, which include the modern Equus ferus caballus ; and the extinct non-caballine so-called "New World Stilt Legged" horses, which possess more gracile distal limb elements than modern horses. Genetic evidence has shown that both taxa are present at the Natural Trap Cave site. While post-cranial elements of both have been found, the most common horse specimens recovered have been isolated teeth, which have historically been difficult to identify to a specific taxon, though recent studies have been successful using geometric morphometrics on the occlusal surfaces of cheek teeth to differentiate equid taxa and populations. This study also uses geometric morphometrics to attempt to differentiate upper cheek tooth specimens between caballine and non-caballine stilt legged horses from Natural Trap Cave. Two landmark schemes were employed, one with fewer landmarks, and one with greater coverage, including sliding semi-landmarks. These schemes were used first on a dataset of only known specimens that had been taxonomically identified, and then unknown specimens from Natural Trap Cave were added. These analyses showed that the two taxa do indeed occupy statistically significant different areas of morphospace, as do premolars and molars. Surprisingly, the smaller landmark scheme produced better resolution on the Principal Components Analysis plots, possibly because the larger landmark scheme introduced ontogenetic variation due to different levels of tooth wear. While definitive identification does not seem advisable with this methodology, the unknown specimens grouped more with the known stilt legged specimens, suggesting that this taxon was more prevalent at Natural Trap Cave than the caballine Equus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural Trap Cave (NTC) preserves abundant late Pleistocene herbivore remains including equids (Equus and Haringtonhippus) and the sheep Ovis. The NTC equid sample contains a minimum of two taxa, while other large herbivore genera are represented by single species. In modern communities, sympatric herbivores partition resources by feeding on different plants or different plant parts. Previous dental isotopic studies indicated that most NTC herbivores consumed C3 plants, including grasses. To test the hypothesis that resource partitioning occurred among grass-feeders at NTC, we collected mesowear data from both equids as well as Ovis , using samples collected by teams from the University of Kansas between 1974 and 1985. Assessed on upper cheek teeth, mesowear derives from either attritional (tooth on tooth) or abrasional (tooth on abrasive food) wear. The paracone and metacone were examined on each specimen to determine cusp shape (sharp, rounded, or blunt) and occlusal relief (high or low). A diet of non-abrasive material yields high and sharp cusps and one of heavily abrasive materials results in low and blunt cusps, while rounded cusps indicate intermediate levels of abrasion. A large sample (N = 143) of equid teeth included two morphs. A smaller sample (N = 10) of Ovis teeth provided comparison with the equid teeth. Data collected consisted of individual variables of cusp heights and shape, as well as stages of mesowear combining both variables. Upper adult M1/2s and P4s were used. Results from the equid sample revealed that 8% exhibited high and sharp/rounded cusps, indicating little dietary abrasion; 58% had low and rounded cusps; and 34% had low and blunt cusps. The latter grouping is evidence for a highly abrasive diet. In the sample of Ovis , the results are strikingly different: 40% had high and sharp cusps and 60% had high and rounded cusps. Even though mountain sheep are often interpreted to be grass feeders, their mesowear suggests they did not eat an abrasive diet at NTC. The distribution of mesowear scores among the equid fossils conforms with an interpretation of two equid taxa at NTC , as well as supporting our hypothesis that these taxa partitioned grass resources. The very different nature of the mesowear signature seen in Ovis , compared to the equid fossils, also supports our hypothesis that these grass-feeders either consumed a more mixed or browse-dominated diet with different overall levels of abrasion, or else ate different parts of grass plants. As observed in the Serengeti grazing succession, we propose that equids may have moved through the area first, consuming taller, older, more abrasive parts of grass plants, followed by mountain sheep eating softer, younger plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study aimed to evaluate the effects of melatonin administration on rectal and body surface temperature (RT and BST, respectively) responses and their circadian rhythmicity in donkeys subjected to packing (load carrying) during the hot-dry season. Twenty donkeys were divided into two equal groups randomly: Groups 1 (packing + melatonin) and 2 (packing – melatonin), subjected to packing and both covered 20 km. The RT, BST, and thermal environmental parameters were measured before and after packing. The procedure was carried out three times within the week, one day apart. This was followed 16-h after the last (third) packing procedure by 27-h recording period of all the parameters at 3-h intervals. The RT (37.77 ± 0.1℃) recorded in packing + melatonin donkeys was lower (P < 0.05) than in (packing – melatonin) (38.29 ± 0.1℃) post-packing, while the BSTs in packing + melatonin donkeys were lower than in (packing – melatonin) donkeys, especially the neck (33.07 ± 0.6℃ vs 35.4 ± 0.7℃, respectively) and coronary band (30.58 ± 0.5℃ vs 33.38 ± 0.7℃, respectively) temperatures. In both groups 16-h post-packing, overall mean RT and BST values were not different, except the coronary band temperature (26.61 ± 0.8℃) that was lower (P < 0.05) in packing + melatonin donkeys than (packing – melatonin) donkeys (28.78 ± 1.4℃). Melatonin-exerted biphasic effects on circadian rhythms of RT and BSTs by reducing body temperatures during the photophase and increasing the values during the scotophase in pack donkeys. In conclusion, melatonin may enhance packing output in donkeys during the hot-dry season. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: A 7‐year‐old plains zebra (Equus quagga) mare was presented to the Clinic for Horses, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Germany as an emergency. The owner reported that the mare was unable to stand after a suspected traumatic episode at the home yard. The mare was transported in lateral recumbency in a trailer. Clinical examination revealed tachycardia (up to 102 beats/min), tachypnoea (28 breaths/min), mild fever (38.7°C) and clinical dehydration with elastic skin and dry and red mucous membranes. Neurological examination showed paraplegia with complete loss of nociception of the mid‐thoracic region and caudal to it. In contrast, examination of the thoracic limbs revealed marked extensor rigidity and hyperaesthesia resulting in an enhanced acute response to minimal touch of the neck and shoulder region. Lateral radiographs of the thoracic vertebral column led to the diagnosis of a complete fracture of the vertebral body of the 7th thoracic (T) vertebra with suspected traumatic compression of the spinal cord. Post‐mortem examination confirmed the diagnosis. Gross pathology revealed a complete comminuted fracture of T7 with marked compression of the spinal cord. This is the first report describing the clinical, radiological and pathological findings of a fracture of a thoracic vertebra leading to a Schiff‐Sherrington syndrome in a zebra (Equus quagga). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Optimally foraging animals should minimise time spent foraging in order to perform other fitness-enhancing activities. The ruminants' more efficient digestive system, requiring lower volumes of forage, is predicted to provide an advantage over hindgut fermenters with respect to foraging effort, but this may be offset by their need for higher quality forage. We contrasted the activity of two similarly-sized, syntopic grazers, black wildebeest (Connochaetes gnou), a ruminant, and Cape mountain zebra (Equus zebra zebra), a hindgut fermenter, using camera trap data and tested the volume-requirement and the nutrient-driven hypotheses, seasonally. Zebra and wildebeest activity varied seasonally, potentially due to differences in resource availability. In winter, a greater proportion of wildebeest were recorded grazing relative to zebra, supporting the nutrient-driven hypothesis, whilst the inverse occurred (although not significantly) in summer, supporting the volume-requirement hypothesis. Seasonal variation in resources may provide temporal foraging trade-offs of benefits for ruminants and hindgut fermenters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Equine species are not a common protein source in South Africa, despite being popular in European countries. Horses are known for producing highly nutrient-dense, lean meat, with high dressing percentages. An African equine species with promising production potential is the Plains zebra, which has received very little attention in this regard. The Plains zebra is known to produce nutritious lean meat, but little is known about the carcass composition. Due to its natural resistance to foot-and-mouth disease and the lack of current meat export restrictions for African Horse Sickness, Plains zebra meat is a game meat that can thus be exported from South Africa. This makes it an ideal species for meat production, with the game meat industry being heavily focused on growth, expansion, and formalization. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the meat production potential of the Plains zebra by investigating carcass characteristics as well as meat and offal contributions. Dressing percentages were favourably comparable to equine, game, and livestock species. The considerable contribution of the edible by-products and the high muscle yield, indicate that the Plains zebra can potentially be used as a valuable protein source, thereby contributing to food security in especially rural areas of South Africa. This study presents descriptive data on the meat and offal production of Plains zebras harvested in the winter (n = 8) and summer (n = 12) seasons, at different respective locations in the Western Cape Province of South Africa. The cold dressing percentages were numerically higher for the winter (58.0 ± 0.60%) than for the summer-harvested animals (56.60 ± 0.70%). Heavier internal offal yields were reported for the winter-harvested group (70.76 ± 21.8 kg) compared to the summer-harvested animals (66.13 ± 3.78 kg). As harvest season had no influence, pooled data of the percentage contribution of each muscle to cold carcass weight indicated that the Longissimus et lumborum (3.5 ± 0.18%), semimembranosus (1.6 ± 0.04%), biceps femoris (2.7 ± 0.05%) and semitendinosus (0.9 ± 0.02%) muscles differed significantly in their respective contributions to cold carcass weight. No significant differences were recorded between the contribution of the infraspinatus (0.6 ± 0.02%), supraspinatus (0.4 ± 0.03%) and psoas major (0.6 ± 0.02%) muscles. Carcass and muscle yields, as well as low-cost protein offal yields from this study indicate that the Plains zebra has the potential to be used and distributed as an alternative protein source. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Male infanticide has been reported in a wide range of taxa as a strategy for redirecting maternal investment and increasing a male's chance of siring future offspring. Plains zebras (Equus quagga) possess many of the social organization and life history traits found to favour infanticide. However, most documented cases are from captive animals, while it has not been detected in studies of free-ranging populations. Here, we report an apparent infanticide attempt in which the historical associations of all participants were known. In addition, we report the first instance of non-kin female–female cooperative defence against male aggression in this species. We discuss why this behaviour may not have been observed by other longitudinal studies. We then explore how intraspecific and inter-individual variation may factor into its relative rarity, how the reproductive biology of plains zebras relates to this behaviour, and how female–female cooperation between non-kin can operate as an effective counterstrategy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The metapodials of extinct horses have long been regarded as one of the most useful skeletal elements to determine taxonomic identity. However, recent research on both extant and extinct horses has revealed the possibility for plasticity in metapodial morphology, leading to notable variability within taxa. This calls into question the reliability of metapodials in species identification, particularly for species identified from fragmentary remains. Here, we use ten measurements of metapodials from 203 specimens of four Pleistocene horse species from eastern Beringia to test whether there are significant differences in metapodial morphology that support the presence of multiple species. We then reconstruct the body masses for every specimen to assess the range in body size within each species and determine whether species differ significantly from one another in mean body mass. We find that that taxonomic groups are based largely on the overall size of the metapodial, and that all metapodial measurements are highly autocorrelated. We also find that mean body mass differs significantly among most, but not all, species. We suggest that metapodial measurements are unreliable taxonomic indicators for Beringian horses given evidence for plasticity in metapodial morphology and their clear reflection of differences in body mass. We recommend future studies use more reliable indicators of taxonomy to identify Beringian horse species, particularly from localities from which fossils of several species have been recovered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Whereas most studies on overmarking in mammals analysed the rate of overmarking, that those investigate time between exploration of an olfactory stimulus and the response to it remain less common, with inconsistent results. We examined the latency in time between elimination by the sender and sniffing by the receiver, and from sniffing and overmarking, in four captive African equid species to explore differences among species, and among age and sex classes. We investigated these latency time periods in light of three potential hypotheses explaining overmarking behaviour in equids: social bonds, group cohesion, and intrasexual competition. Analysing 1684 events of sniffing and 719 of overmarking among 130 individuals, we found that (i) the time from elimination to overmarking was shorter among female friends and in parent–offspring dyads, proving support to the social bond hypothesis; (ii) intraspecific differences in time periods do not reflect the social organisation of species, thus not supporting the group cohesion hypothesis; (iii) males were more attracted to elimination of conspecifics than females, and female's eliminations were inspected longer, in line with the sexual competition hypothesis and/or reproductive behaviour. In addition, we found that the younger foals came to sniff eliminations faster than older ones, and in larger groups foals devoted longer time to sniffing the elimination before overmarking. We concluded that examination of the elimination could be driven by motivations other than the decision to overmark. Whereas overmarking serves to express bonds to a familiar individual, the latency of overmarking reflects more reproductive interests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]