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Abstract Heat stress may adversely affect physiochemical and immune responses of livestock and alter biological functions. The comfort or thermoneutral zone for livestock, which has long been a subject of research, mainly depends on species, breed, and health. Heat stress is associated with impaired livestock productivity due to reductions in feed intake, growth rates and immunity and changes in blood constituents and biological pathways. In ruminants, elevated temperatures have deleterious consequences on protein synthesis. Exposure of ruminant animals to elevated temperatures may induce release of heat shock proteins (HSPs); HSPs usually enter the blood circulation during tissue damage and causes cell necrosis or death. Additionally, hyperthermia is associated with augmented production of cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), which cause protein degradation and further decrease protein synthesis by preventing protein translation. Moreover, it has been suggested that high environmental temperatures lead to increased inflammatory signalling in tissues via activation of the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) pathways as well as via alteration of skin colour gene (melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) and premelanosome protein (PMEL)) expression. Previous proteomics analyses have suggested that heat stress can reduce adenosine triphosphate (ATP) synthesis, alter gluconeogenesis precursor supply, and induce lipid accumulation in the liver with subsequent disturbance of liver structure. This review focuses on the scientific evidence regarding the impact of heat stress on immune and inflammatory responses, antioxidant status, stress biomarkers, skin colour gene (PMEL and MC1R) expression and proteomic profiles in ruminants. Highlights • Thermal stress adversely affects physiochemical and immune response of livestock. • Increased temperature induces flow of Heat Shocks Proteins causing death. • High temperature leads to increased inflammatory signaling in the body. • This review focuses on evidences for the adverse impacts of thermal temperature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study aimed to establish the relationship of infrared thermography (IRT) with fermentation dynamics in ruminants, and to initiate the development of a method that allows associating these images with the heat produced during feed digestion. The experiment was conducted at APTA, Brazil. Twenty-four Jersey heifers (mean liveweight of 221.25 ± 59.41 kg) were subjected to the following treatments: 30R (30% corn silage and 70% concentrate), 50R (50% corn silage and 50% concentrate) and 70R (70% corn silage and 30% concentrate) in a Latin square design. The diet (corn silage + concentrate) was offered at 3% of liveweight from 0800 hours to 1400 hours. Infrared images were collected from the whole body on the left and right sides, from the eyes, from the left foreleg on the cranial and caudal side, and from the forehead. IRT images were taken at 2-h intervals for 12 h (from 0600 hours to 1800 hours) and 24 h (0600 hours of the following day) after the beginning of feeding and so on. Physiological parameters were obtained at the same time as the IRT were taken. Ruminal parameters were collected after 4 h of feeding. The thermograms of the right (P < 0.001) and left flank (P < 0.001) differed among sampling times, with an increase in temperature until 1400 hours and a reduction thereafter. The temperatures on the right (P = 0.037) and left (P = 0.017) flank were higher in animals consuming the 50R diet and lower in those consuming the 70R diet. When the 50R diet was offered, the heifers exhibited higher dry-matter intake (P < 0.001), neutral detergent fibre (P < 0.001), non-fibrous carbohydrates (P < 0.001) and total digestible nutrients (P < 0.001). A decrease in the concentrations of butyric acid (P = 0.042), isobutyric acid (P = 0.001), isovaleric acid (P = 0.019) and ammonia nitrogen (P = 0.001) in the rumen fluid of heifers was observed with an increasing dietary roughage level. Infrared thermography was able to detect differences in the body temperature of animals associated with different fibre proportions in the diets. However, the magnitude of these differences was small and further research is needed to investigate the application of IRT to the detection of possible differences in the body temperature of ruminants as part of the digestive process. Infrared thermography contributes to animal nutrition studies as a non-invasive tool to capture heat digestion in ruminants. Infrared thermography was able to detect differences in the body temperature of animals associated with different fibre proportions in the diets. The sensitivity of infrared thermography in capturing small temperature variations and its non-invasive nature make it a useful tool in different fields of study that require the measurement of temperature differences of objects, plants, animals or humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP) is the causative pathogen for paratuberculosis, which is a chronic inflammation of the small intestine in ruminants and some wild animals. It affects negatively on the economics of dairy operations worldwide and has a zoonotic concern for its potential relationship to Crohn's disease in humans. In this study, we used different approaches to investigate genetic markers associated with MAP infection on bovine chromosome 7. The interleukin-2-inducible T-cell kinase (ITK) gene is a non-receptor tyrosine kinase expressed in T cells, which also is involved in regulation and development of immune cells and some inflammatory diseases. The gene was suggested in a previous GWAS analysis as a positional candidate gene located on BTA7 for MAP infection. In this study, bovine ITK was sequenced and seventeen identified SNPs were genotyped in 1419 Holstein and Jersey cows. Association analysis revealed no significantly associated SNP in the bovine ITK gene using either single marker or haplotype analyses. In a complementary analysis, Holstein genotypes were imputed from 50 K SNPs to the full genome sequence of BTA7. Single SNP association tests identified two SNPs at 15 Mb (p = 5 × 10−7) significantly associated with MAP infection. Our results suggest an additional region of BTA7 contributes to susceptibility to MAP infection in cattle, relative to our previous report, and further investigations are required. Highlights • This is the first report, which evaluated the contribution of the bovine ITK gene to MAP infection in dairy cattle. • This is the first association analysis of MAP infection susceptibility using imputed genome sequence for a chromosome. • No ITK polymorphisms were identified with strength of association superseding previous results • Two new, significantly associated SNPs in a different region of BTA7 were identified. • Results suggest potential markers and candidate genes for susceptibility to MAP infection in cattle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of the present work was to standardize and evaluate indirect plate and dot- enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using purified Paramphistomum epiclitum homologous antigens in the small ruminants. Electrophoretic separation of somatic antigen (PeSAg) in reducing condition on 15% polyacrylamide gel resolved into 16 proteins of the molecular weight ranging from 14 -100 kDa. Two step ethanolic precipitation of supernatant of in-vitro culture of the fluke yielded P. epiclitum excretory-secretory antigen (PeESAg) of molecular weight 28 kDa. The animals (Goats=123; Sheep=91) were broadly kept into post-mortem and faecal examined groups. At many occasion the PeSAg found to cross reacts with other helminths parasites thus minimizing the specificity of the tests and antigens. There was no any direct correlation between the parasites load and ELISA reactivity pattern. The noted prevalence rate after combining the results of post-mortem examination and PeESAg based ELISA (plate and paper/ dot) was 30.08% (37/123) in goats and 28.57% (26/91) in sheep. While using PeESAg, the calculated overall sensitivity% was 92.86 (goats)/ 100 (sheep) in both plate and dot- ELISA, specificity% was 91.58 (goats)/ 91.55 (sheep) in plate ELISA while 88.42 (goats)/ 92.96 (sheep) in dot-ELISA, positive predictive value% was 76.47 (goats)/ 76.92 (sheep) in plate ELISA while 70.27 (goats)/ 80 (sheep) in dot-ELISA and negative predictive value% was 97.75 (goats)/ 100 (sheep) in plate ELISA while 97.67 (goats)/ 100 (sheep) in dot- ELISA, these values were optimum for the field sera sample so the tests and PeESAg can be recommended for the detection P. epiclitum infection in the small ruminants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan capable of infecting all warm-blooded animals. This parasite has been classified into three major lineages. Our aim was to assess and compare the identified Types and genotypes in ruminants. From November 2014 to April 2015, four English language databases and four Persian databases that reported data on the T. gondii genotyping in ruminants were searched. Overall, typing results of the 250/307 T. gondii isolates in all animals showed that Type II was a predominant Type (81.4%). In addition, genotyping data from the 82/215 T. gondii isolates or strains indicated that atypical genotypes were predominant (38.13%). This systematic review has demonstrated a large degree of genetic diversity in some countries. However, in the new nomenclature of genotyping, there are atypical or exotic genotypes, such as Chinese 1, Types Br (I, II, III and IV), and Type 12. Further genotyping studies are required to corroborate the current results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fungi have the ability to degrade vegetal cell wall carbohydrates, and their presence in the digestive tract of ruminants can minimize the effects of lignified forage on ruminal fermentation. Here, we evaluated enzyme production by Aspergillus spp. isolates from the digestive tracts of cattle grazed in tropical pastures during the dry season. Filamentous fungi were isolated from rumen and feces by culture in cellulose-based medium. Ninety fungal strains were isolated and identified by rDNA sequence analysis, microculture, or both. Aspergillus terreus was the most frequently isolated species, followed by Aspergillus fumigatus. The isolates were characterized with respect to their cellulolytic, xylanolytic, and lignolytic activity through qualitative evaluation in culture medium containing a specific corresponding carbon source. Carboxymethyl cellulase (CMCase) activity was quantified by the reducing sugar method. In the avicel and xilan degradation test, the enzyme activity (EA) at 48 h was significantly higher other periods (P < 0.05). Intra- and inter-specific differences in EA were verified, and high levels of phenoloxidases, which are crucial for lignin degradation, were observed in 28.9% of the isolates. Aspergillus terreus showed significantly higher EA for avicelase (3.96 ±1.77) and xylanase (3.13 ±.091) than the other Aspergillus species at 48 h of incubation. Isolates AT13 and AF69 showed the highest CMCase specific activity (54.84 and 33.03 U mg-1 protein, respectively). Selected Aspergillus spp. isolates produced remarkable levels of enzymes involved in vegetal cell wall degradation, suggesting their potential as antimicrobial additives or probiotics in ruminant diets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Epizootic haemorrhagic disease virus ( EHDV) is an emerging arboviral pathogen of wild and domestic ruminants worldwide. It is closely related to bluetongue virus ( BTV) and is transmitted by adult females of competent Culicoides vector species. The EHDV genome consists of ten linear double-stranded (ds) RNA segments, encoding five non-structural and seven structural proteins. Genome-segment reassortment contributes to a high level of genetic variation in individual virus strains, particularly in the areas where multiple and distinct virus lineages co-circulate. In spite of the relatively close relationship between BTV and EHDV herd-immunity to BTV does not appear to protect against the introduction and infection of animals by EHDV. Although EHDV can cause up to 80% morbidity in affected animals, vaccination with the homologous EHDV serotype is protective. Outer-capsid protein VP2, encoded by Seg-2, is the most variable of the EHDV proteins and determines both the specificity of reactions with neutralizing antibodies and consequently the identity of the eight EHDV serotypes. In contrast, VP6 (the viral helicase), encoded by Seg-9, is highly conserved, representing a virus species/serogroup-specific antigen. We report the development and evaluation of quantitative (q) RT- PCR assays targeting EHDV Seg-9 that can detect all EHDV strains (regardless of geographic origin/topotype/serotype), as well as type-specific assays targeting Seg-2 of the eight EHDV serotypes. The assays were evaluated using orbivirus isolates from the 'Orbivirus reference collection' ( ORC) at The Pirbright Institute and were shown to be EHDV pan-reactive or type-specific. They can be used for rapid, sensitive and reliable detection and identification (typing) of EHDV RNA from infected blood, tissue samples, homogenized Culicoides, or tissue culture supernatant. None of the assays detected RNA from closely related but heterologous orbiviruses, or from uninfected host animals or cell cultures. The techniques presented could be used for both surveillance and vaccine matching (serotype identification) as part of control strategies for incursions in wild and domestic animal species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A seroprevalence study carried out between June and September 2016 in the Belgian sheep population showed a significant increase in overall (from 25% to 62%) and between-herd (from 60% to 96%) seroprevalence against Schmallenberg virus ( SBV) during this period, indicating the most extensive recirculation of SBV since its original emergence in 2011. SBV recirculation was confirmed by the detection of SBV RNA-positive Culicoides obsoletus complex midges collected in the region of Antwerp in August 2016, reaching a minimum infection rate of 3%. The recirculation of SBV in the largely unprotected ruminant population during summer 2016 will likely cause an increase in the number of arthrogryposis-hydranencephaly cases in newborn ruminants during the coming months. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Data for the prevalence of brucellosis in ruminants in Egypt are scarce; recent studies suggest the disease is endemic, with a high prevalence. The aim of this study was to assess the financial costs and the impact of the current control programme on the pattern of brucellosis among ruminants between 1999 and 2011. A univariate binary logistic regression model was used to compare between seropositive proportions for different years for each species. The proportion of seropositive cattle was significantly increased from 2000 to 2004 then significantly decreased from 2005 to 2011. The proportion of seropositive buffalo fluctuated year to year; however, there was a significant increase in 2008 ( OR 3.13, 95% CI 2.69-3.66, P < 0.001). There was a decrease in the proportion of seropositive sheep during the study period except in 2001 and 2009 in which there was a significant increase. The proportion of seropositive goats increased in 2000 and 2001, and then decreased from 2002 to 2007. In 2008, there was a significant increase in the seropositive proportion of goats ( OR 2.53, 95% CI 2.21-2.90, P < 0.001). The average annual cost for the control programme including testing and compensation was more than US$3 million. The total cost for the control programme including testing and compensation for the period (13 years) between 1999 and 2011 was more than US$40 million, from which more than 56% for cattle. Further studies are required for the effectiveness of the current control strategies and alternative strategies should be considered. The socio-economic impact of brucellosis and its control measures should be investigated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The genus Mycoplasma, a group of free-living, wall-less prokaryotes includes more than 100 species of which dozens are primary pathogens of humans and domesticated animals. Mycoplasma species isolated from wildlife are rarely investigated but could provide a fuller picture of the evolutionary history and diversity of this genus. In 2013 several isolates from wild Caprinae were tentatively assigned to a new species, Mycoplasma (M.) feriruminatoris sp. nov., characterized by an unusually rapid growth in vitro and close genetic proximity to ruminant pathogenic species. We suspected that atypical isolates recently collected from Alpine ibex in France belonged to this new species. The present study was undertaken to verify this hypothesis and to further characterize the French ibex isolates. Phylogenetic analyses were performed to identify the isolates and position them in trees containing several other mycoplasma species pathogenic to domesticated ruminants. Population diversity was characterized by genomicmacrorestriction and by examining the capacity of different strains to produce capsular polysaccharides, a feature now known to vary amongst mycoplasma species pathogenic to ruminants. This is the first report of M. feriruminatoris isolation from Alpine ibex in France. Phylogenetic analyses further suggested that M. feriruminatoris might constitute a 4th species in a genetic cluster that so far contains only important ruminant pathogens, the so-called Mycoplasma mycoides cluster. A PCR assay for specific identification is proposed. These French isolates were not clonal, despite being collected in a restricted region of the Alps, which signifies a considerable diversity of the new species. Strains were able to concomitantly produce two types of capsular polysaccharides, β-(1→6)-galactan and β-(1→6)-glucan, with variation in their respective ratio, a feature never before described in mycoplasmas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fatty acids such as n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) are critical nutrients, used to improve male reproductive performance through modification of fatty acid profile and maintenance of sperm membrane integrity, especially under cold shock or cryopreservation condition. Also, PUFA provide the precursors for prostaglandin synthesis and can modulate the expression patterns of many key enzymes involved in both prostaglandin and steroid metabolism. Many studies carried out on diets supplemented with PUFA have demonstrated their capability to sustain sperm motility, viability and fertility during chilling and freezing as well as improving testis development and spermatogenesis in a variety of livestock species. In addition to the type and quantity of dietary fatty acids, ways of addition of PUFA to diet or semen extender is very crucial as it has different effects on semen quality in male ruminants. Limitation of PUFA added to ruminant ration is due to biohydrogenation by rumen microorganisms, which causes conversion of unsaturated fatty acids to saturated fatty acids, leading to loss of PUFA quantity. Thus, many strategies for protecting PUFA from biohydrogenation in rumen have been developed over the years. This paper reviews four aspects of PUFA in light of previous research including rumen metabolism, biological roles, influence on reproduction, and strategies to use in male ruminants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Here, we examined diurnal changes in the ruminal microbial community and fermentation characteristics of dairy cows fed total mixed rations containing either corn silage (CS) or grass silage (GS) as forage. The rations, which consisted of 52% concentrate and 48% GS or CS, were offered for ad libitum intake over 20 days to three ruminal-fistulated lactating Jersey cows during three consecutive feeding periods. Feed intake, ruminal pH, concentrations of short chain fatty acids and ammonia in rumen liquid, as well as abundance change in the microbial populations in liquid and solid fractions, were monitored in 4-h intervals on days 18 and 20. The abundance of total bacteria and Fibrobacter succinogenes increased in solids in cows fed CS instead of GS, and that of protozoa increased in both solid and liquid fractions. Feeding GS favored numbers of F. succinogenes and Selenomonas ruminantium in the liquid fraction as well as the numbers of Ruminobacter amylophilus , Prevotella bryantii and ruminococci in both fractions. Minor effects of silage were detected on populations of methanogens. Despite quantitative changes in the composition of the microbial community, fermentation characteristics were less affected by forage source. These results suggest a functional adaptability of the ruminal microbiota to total mixed rations containing either GS or CS as the source of forage. Diurnal changes in microbial populations were primarily affected by feed intake and differed between species and fractions, with fewer temporal fluctuations evident in the solid than in the liquid fraction. Interactions between forage source and sampling time were of minor importance to most of the microbial species examined. Thus, diurnal changes of microbial populations and fermentative activity were less affected by the two silages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Sterne 34F2 live spore vaccine (SLSV) developed in 1937 is the most widely used veterinary vaccine against anthrax. However, literature on the immunogenicity of this vaccine in a target ruminant host is scarce. In this study, we evaluated the humoral response to the Bacillus anthracis protective antigen (rPA), a recombinant bacillus collagen-like protein of anthracis (rBclA), formaldehyde inactivated spores (FIS) prepared from strain 34F2 and a vegetative antigen formulation prepared from a capsule and toxin deficient strain (CDC 1014) in Boer goats. The toxin neutralizing ability of induced antibodies was evaluated using an in vitro toxin neutralization assay. The protection afforded by the vaccine was also assessed in vaccinates. Anti-rPA, anti-FIS and lethal toxin neutralizing titres were superior after booster vaccinations, compared to single vaccinations. Qualitative analysis of humoral responses to rPA, rBclA and FIS antigens revealed a preponderance of anti-FIS IgG titres following either single or double vaccinations with the SLSV. Antibodies against FIS and rPA both increased by 350 and 300-fold following revaccinations respectively. There was no response to rBclA following vaccinations with the SLSV. Toxin neutralizing titres increased by 80-fold after single vaccination and 700-fold following a double vaccination. Lethal challenge studies in naïve goats indicated a minimum infective dose of 36 B. anthracis spores. Single and double vaccination with the SLSV protected 4/5 and 3/3 of goats challenged with > 800 spores respectively. An early booster vaccination following the first immunization is suggested in order to achieve a robust immunity. Results from this study indicate that this crucial second vaccination can be administered as early as 3 months after the initial vaccination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The sequencing of the bovine genome and development of mass spectrometry, in conjunction with flow cytometry (FC), have afforded an opportunity to complete the characterization of the specificity of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), only partially characterized during previous international workshops focused on antibody development for livestock (1991, Leukocyte Antigens in Cattle, Sheep, and Goats; 1993, Leukocyte Antigens of Cattle and Sheep; 1996, Third Workshop on Ruminant Leukocyte Antigens). The objective of this study was to complete the characterization of twelve mAbs incompletely characterized during the workshops that reacted with molecules predominantly expressed on bovine monocytes and use them to provide further information on the phenotypic complexity of monocyte subsets in ruminants. Analysis revealed that the mAbs could be grouped into three clusters that recognize three different molecules: CD11c, CD14, and CD163. Following characterization, comparison of the patterns of expression of CD14 and CD163 with expression of CD16, CD172a, and CD209 revealed the mononuclear cell population is comprised of multiple subsets with differential expression of these molecules. Further analysis revealed the epitopes recognized by mAbs to CD14 and CD163 are conserved on orthologues in sheep and goats. In contrast to CD14 that is also expressed on sheep and goat granulocytes, CD163 is a definitive marker for their monocytes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The survival of the nematode parasite free-living stages depends mainly on environmental factors (i.e. rainfall, temperature and relative humidity). To complete its life cycle outside the host the parasite eliminated as eggs in the fecal material, develop to three larval stages before is ingested by the host. Although the presence of infective third stage larvae (L3) on pasture is of great importance for producers and researchers to determine the level of infectivity, the quantification of L3 on pasture is often neglected. Such condition can be determined by pasture larval count (PLC) from a target area. As anthelmintic resistance is widely overspread PLC technique supports population dynamic and epidemiological studies and can be used for measuring the success rate of livestock management strategies under different climatic conditions. The present review article brings together some of the field applications and difficulties to run and interpret this technique, encouraging its use as a diagnostic procedure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gastrointestinal nematode ( GIN) infection of ruminants represents a major health and welfare challenge for livestock producers worldwide. The emergence of anthelmintic resistance in important GIN species and the associated animal welfare concerns have stimulated interest in the development of alternative and more sustainable strategies aimed at the effective management of the impact of GINs. These integrative strategies include selective breeding using genetic/genomic tools, grazing management, biological control, nutritional supplementation, vaccination and targeted selective treatment. In this review, the logic of selecting for 'resistance' to GIN infection as opposed to 'resilience' or 'tolerance' is discussed. This is followed by a review of the potential application of immunogenomics to genetic selection for animals that have the capacity to withstand the impact of GIN infection. Advances in relevant genomic technologies are highlighted together with how these tools can be advanced to support the integration of immunogenomic information into ruminant breeding programmes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Larkspurs ( Delphinium spp.) are a major cause of cattle losses in western North America, whereas sheep are thought to be resistant to larkspur toxicosis. Goats are often used as a small ruminant model to study poisonous plants. In this study, we compared the serum toxicokinetic profile of toxic larkspur alkaloids from Delphinium barbeyi in cattle, goats, and sheep. The results from this study indicate that kinetic differences could partially explain species differences in susceptibility to larkspur toxicosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lately, experimental medicine used the ruminants as experimental animals. On the sheep were achieved even heart experimental surgery. However, the literature about the vascularization of the heart is not very numerous especially regarding large ruminants. This study was conducted to provide supplementary data for the literature. The study was carried out on a total of 12 specimens in which the hearts were dissected after insertion into the arteries of the contrast dye. It has been found that right coronary artery is smaller than the left. Subsinusal branch is given by left coronary artery, being an extension of the left circumflex branch in subsinusal groove. Right ventricular wall is crossed by 5-6 main collaterals of right coronary artery, some of their terminal branches showing anastomosis with corresponding branches of the paraconal branch of the left coronary artery. Right coronary artery is much better represented than the left. Its terminals have a size nearly equal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seasonal breeding is a remarkable adaptive feature, which allows animals to coordinate physiological functions throughout the year. However, in the context of animal production, it becomes an undesirable complication, which needs to be circumvented. Therefore, eco-friendly methods based on photoperiodic treatments and the use of the male effect have been developed to control seasonal reproduction in small ruminants. In practice, such treatments are hardly used and hormonal treatments constitute the benchmark, but practicality of hormonal treatments comes at a high cost for human health and the environment. Here, we summarize our current understanding of the molecular and neuroendocrine mechanisms underlying seasonal breeding in small ruminants. We then move on to describe current methods to control reproduction and detail why such methods are not sustainable. Finally, using the neuropeptide kisspeptin as an example, we show that an improved understanding of the molecular and neuroendocrine mechanisms that underlie photoperiodism might help design novel strategies for the development of improved and sustainable breeding schemes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although sheep have been widely adopted as an animal model for examining the timing of nutritional interventions through pregnancy on the short- and long-term outcomes, only modest programming effects have been seen. This is due in part to the mismatch in numbers of twins and singletons between study groups as well as unequal numbers of males and females. Placental growth differs between singleton and twin pregnancies which can result in different body composition in the offspring. One tissue that is especially affected is adipose tissue which in the sheep fetus is primarily located around the kidneys and heart plus the sternal/neck region. Its main role is the rapid generation of heat due to activation of the brown adipose tissue-specific uncoupling protein 1 at birth. The fetal adipose tissue response to suboptimal maternal food intake at defined stages of development differs between the perirenal abdominal and pericardial depots, with the latter being more sensitive. Fetal adipose tissue growth may be mediated in part by changes in leptin status of the mother which are paralleled in the fetus. Then, over the first month of life plasma leptin is higher in females than males despite similar adiposity, when fat is the fastest growing tissue with the sternal/neck depot retaining uncoupling protein 1, whereas other depots do not. Future studies should take into account the respective effects of fetal number and sex to provide more detailed insights into the mechanisms by which adipose and related tissues can be programmed in utero. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Because of its high fatality rate, listeriosis ranks among the most important infectious diseases worldwide. Although ruminants are known as natural reservoirs for Listeria monocytogenes and a possible source of human listeriosis, studies of the prevalence and risk factors associated with ruminant listeriosis are limited to some developed countries. Therefore, this report describes the development of a real-time PCR targeting the hly gene for the absolute quantification of L. monocytogenes based on circular and linear DNA standards. Results show that the PCR that uses circular plasmid as a template gave a 2.6–7.89 greater threshold cycle number than did equimolar linear standards. No cross-amplification was observed when bacteria commonly found in bovine and ovine diseases were tested. The PCR achieved good intra and inter-run reproducibility and a detection limit of 6.1 copies of linear plasmid per reaction. This PCR was then applied to 1134 samples taken from 378 Tunisian ruminants. Based on the test sensitivity (90%) and specificity (100%), the true individual animal prevalence of listeriosis was 5.7% in cattle and 10.2% in sheep. In addition, the true herd-level prevalence was 50.1% in cattle and 26.7% in sheep. A multivariable logistic regression analysis at the animal-population level indicated that for cattle, the variables strata and mastitis were important risk factors, whereas for sheep, the variables strata, age and abortion were found to be associated with listeriosis. At the herd level, risk factors for Listeria test-positivity they were: abortion, herd composition and silage storage for cattle, whereas for sheep were: management system, cleaning frequency, silage storage and floor type. Animal hygiene, food quality and sanitary practices on the farm should be applied as strategies to control this pathogen in ruminant herds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The remarkable genetic diversity of vector-borne pathogens allows for the establishment of superinfection in the mammalian host. To have a long-term impact on population strain structure, the introduced strains must also be transmitted by a vector population that has been exposed to the existing primary strain. The sequential exposure of the vector to multiple strains frequently prevents establishment of the second strain, a phenomenon termed superinfection exclusion. As a consequence, superinfection exclusion may greatly limit genetic diversity in the host population, which is difficult to reconcile with the high degree of genetic diversity maintained among vector-borne pathogens. Using Anaplasma marginale, a tick-borne bacterial pathogen of ruminants, we hypothesized that superinfection exclusion is temporally dependent and that longer intervals between strain exposures allow successful acquisition and transmission of a superinfecting strain. To test this hypothesis, we sequentially exposed Dermacentor andersoni ticks to two readily tick-transmissible strains of A. marginale. The tick feedings were either immediately sequential or 28 days apart. Ticks were allowed to transmission feed and were individually assessed to determine if they were infected with one or both strains. The second strain was excluded from the tick when the exposure interval was brief but not when it was prolonged. Midguts and salivary glands of individual ticks were superinfected and transmission of both strains occurred only when the exposure interval was prolonged. These findings indicate that superinfection exclusion is temporally dependent, which helps to account for the differences in pathogen strain structure in tropical compared to temperate regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mycoplasmas are minimal, wall-less bacteria but have retained the ability to secrete complex carbohydrate polymers that constitute a glycocalyx. In members of the Mycoplasma mycoides cluster, which are important ruminant pathogens, the glycocalyx includes both cell-attached and cell-free polysaccharides. This report explores the potential secretion of polysaccharides by M. agalactiae, another ruminant pathogen that belongs to a distant phylogenetic group. Comparative genomic analyses showed that M. agalactiae possesses all the genes required for polysaccharide secretion. Notably, a putative synthase gene (gsmA) was identified, by in silico reconstruction of the biosynthetic pathway, that could be involved in both polymerization and export of the carbohydrate polymers. M. agalactiae polysaccharides were then purified in vitro and found to be mainly cell attached, with a linear β-(1→6)-glucopyranose structure [β-(1→6)-glucan]. Secretion of β-(1→6)-glucan was further shown to rely on the presence of a functional gsmA gene, whose expression is subjected to high-frequency phase variation. This event is governed by the spontaneous intraclonal variation in length of a poly(G) tract located in the gsmA coding sequence and was shown to occur in most of the M. agalactiae clinical isolates tested in this study. M. agalactiae susceptibility to serum-killing activity appeared to be dictated by ON/OFF switching ofβ-(1→6)-glucan secretion, suggesting a role of this phenomenon in survival of the pathogen when it invades the host bloodstream. Finally,β-(1→6)-glucan secretion was not restricted to M. agalactiae but was detected also in M. mycoides subsp. capri PG3T, another pathogen of small ruminants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of condoms could provide a means of collecting high-quality spermatozoa from different species under physiological ejaculation conditions. However, certain condom materials may affect sperm functionality. This study examined the spermiotoxicity of different commercial condom materials towards ram and goat spermatozoa. Sperm samples were diluted in Tyrode's medium and placed in contact with a piece of condom material (polyurethane, polyisoprene or latex) and incubated for 30 or 90 min. Contact time in the polyisoprene and latex treatments affected some sperm variables; no such effects were seen, however, in the polyurethane treatments. For ram spermatozoa in contact with polyisoprene, the percentage of dead spermatozoa with a damaged acrosome increased at 90 min, while for spermatozoa in contact with latex, the percentage of live spermatozoa with an intact acrosome decreased. For goat spermatozoa in contact with both polyisoprene and latex, the percentage of dead spermatozoa with a damaged acrosome increased at 90 min, while for spermatozoa in contact with polyisoprene, the percentage of live spermatozoa with an intact acrosome decreased. In conclusion, latex and polyisoprene contain components that affect sperm motility, plasma membrane integrity and acrosome function. Polyurethane does not seem to reduce the quality of semen. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the discovery of leptin secreted from adipocytes, specialized tissues and cells have been found that secrete the several peptides (or cytokines) that are characterized to negatively and positively regulate the metabolic process. Different types of adipokines, hepatokines, and myokines, which act as cytokines, are secreted from adipose, liver, and muscle tissue, respectively, and have been identified and examined for their physiological roles in humans and disease in animal models. Recently, various studies of these cytokines have been conducted in ruminants, including dairy cattle, beef cattle, sheep, and goat. Interestingly, a few cytokines from these tissues in ruminants play an important role in the post-parturition, lactation, and fattening (marbling) periods. Thus, understanding these hormones is important for improving nutritional management in dairy cows and beef cattle. However, to our knowledge, there have been no reviews of the characteristics of these cytokines in beef and dairy products in ruminants. In particular, lipid and glucose metabolism in adipose tissue, liver tissue, and muscle tissue are very important for energy storage, production, and synthesis, which are regulated by these cytokines in ruminant production. In this review, we summarize the physiological roles of adipokines, hepatokines, and myokines in ruminants. This discussion provides a foundation for understanding the role of cytokines in animal production of ruminants [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present article deals with the poisoning of bracken fern in ruminants. The accumulation of the active principle leads to generation of a wide array of toxic syndromes. The diagnosis and treatment of the animals affected by the toxicity of braken fern. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The helminth parasite Fasciola hepatica causes fascioliasis in human and domestic ruminants. Economic losses due to this infection are estimated in U$S 2000–3000 million yearly. The most common method of control is the use of anthelmintic drugs. However, there is an increased concern about the growing appearance of F. hepatica resistance to Triclabendazole (TCBZ), an anthelmintic with activity over adult and young flukes. F. hepatica has eight Glutathione S-Transferase (GST) isozymes, which are enzymes involved in the detoxification of a wide range of substrates through chemical conjugation with glutathione. In the present work we identified and characterized the GST mu gene isolated from the TCBZ-susceptible and TCBZ-resistant F. hepatica strains. Total RNA was transcribed into cDNA by reverse transcription and a 657 bp amplicon corresponding to the GST mu gene was obtained. The comparative genetic analysis of the GST mu gene of the TCBZ susceptible strain ( Cullompton) and TCBZ resistant strain ( Sligo) showed three nucleotide changes and one amino acid change at position 143 in the GST mu isozyme of the TCBZ-resistant strain. These results have potential relevance as they contribute better understand the mechanisms that generate resistance to anthelmintics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Orf virus (ORFV) is the causative agent of Orf (also known as contagious ecthyma or contagious papular dermatitis), a severe infectious skin disease in goats, sheep and other ruminants. The rapid detection of ORFV is of great importance in disease control and highly needed. A isothermal molecular diagnostic approach, termed recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA), is considered as an novel and rapid alternative techonology to PCR assay. Results: In the present study, a novel fluorescent probe based on RPA assay (ORFV exo RPA assay) was developed. The developed ORFV exo RPA assay was capable of as low as 100 copies of ORFV DNA /reaction and was highly specific, with no cross-reaction with closely related viruses (capripox virus, foot-and-mouth disease virus or peste des petits ruminants virus). Further assessment with clinical samples showed that the developed ORFV exo RPA assay has good correlation with qPCR assays for detection of ORFV. Conclusions: These results suggest that the developed ORFV exo RPA assay is suitable for rapid detection of ORFV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ruminantia, the ruminating, hoofed mammals (cow, deer, giraffe and allies) are an unranked artiodactylan clade. Around 50–60 million years ago the BovB retrotransposon entered the ancestral ruminantian genome through horizontal gene transfer. A survey genome screen using 454-pyrosequencing of the Java mouse deer ( Tragulus javanicus ) and the lesser kudu ( Tragelaphus imberbis ) was done to investigate and to compare the landscape of transposable elements within Ruminantia. The family Tragulidae (mouse deer) is the only representative of Tragulina and phylogenetically important, because it represents the earliest divergence in Ruminantia. The data analyses show that, relative to other ruminantian species, the lesser kudu genome has seen an expansion of BovB Long INterspersed Elements (LINEs) and BovB related Short INterspersed Elements (SINEs) like BOVA2. In comparison the genome of Java mouse deer has fewer BovB elements than other ruminants, especially Bovinae, and has in addition a novel CHR-3 SINE most likely propagated by LINE-1. By contrast the other ruminants have low amounts of CHR SINEs but high numbers of actively propagating BovB-derived and BovB-propagated SINEs. The survey sequencing data suggest that the transposable element landscape in mouse deer (Tragulina) is unique among Ruminantia, suggesting a lineage specific evolutionary trajectory that does not involve BovB mediated retrotransposition. This shows that the genomic landscape of mobile genetic elements can rapidly change in any lineage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bioactive forages contain compounds, such as tannins, that are active against pathogens. They have been successfully used in ruminants to control parasite infections. Because cattle may find bioactive forages unpalatable, it is of interest to know if an afternoon harvest time, which has been shown to increase the percentage of nonstructural carbohydrates (NSC), hence palatability, may mitigate this. The objectives of this study were to quantify voluntary intake and preference of dairy cows for 2 bioactive forages, harvested in the morning and evening, in addition to determining their time spent grazing on each forage species. The forage species evaluated were fresh chicory harvested at 0700 h (FCAM) and 1800 h (FCPM), fresh birdsfoot trefoil harvested at 0700 h (FBAM) and 1800 h (FBPM), birdsfoot trefoil baleage harvested the previous summer at 0700 h (BBAM) and at 1800 h (BBPM), and thirdcut alfalfa baleage harvested the previous summer and used as control (CON). Single forages were offered ad libitum in 30-min tests to 14 dairy cows to determine intake in a 7 x 7 Latin square (experiment 1). Every possible pair of forages (21 pairs) was then presented for a 30-min test to 8 different dairy cows, and feed intake was measured (experiment 2). Finally, time spent grazing on chicory and birdsfoot trefoil was measured on 12 dairy cows (experiment 3). The tests consisted of 2 d of restriction on 1 of the 2 fields for 1 h, and 2 d of free-choice sessions (1 h) between the 2 fields adjacent to each other. Grazing time and location of the animals on the field was assessed through 2-min scan sampling. In experiment 1, the highest voluntary intakes were for CON, BBPM, and BBAM. In experiment 2, BBPM was preferentially consumed over all other forages followed by CON and BBAM. Multidimensional scaling showed that preference for BBPM, CON, and BBAM in dimension 1 was positively associated with dry matter and nitrogen content, and negatively associated with hemicellulose and soluble N/total N. No relationships between dimension coordinates and any of the measured chemical composition variables could be found for the other 2 dimensions. In experiment 3, cows spent 71% of their time grazing in the birdsfoot trefoil field and 23% in the chicory field during the free-choice sessions. In conclusion, cows in the present experiments showed an overall preference toward baled forages compared with fresh forages, most notably toward birdsfoot trefoil baleage. Cow preference did not appear to be linked to harvest time (a.m. vs. p.m.). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: The aim of the present study was to assess the prevalence of intestinal and haemoprotozoan parasites of small ruminants (Sheep and Goats) in North Western part of Tamil Nadu, India. Materials and Methods: A total of 630 faecal samples (251-sheep, 379-goats) and 554 blood smears (242-sheep, 312-goats) were examined, for the presence of eggs of intestinal and haemoprotozoan parasites, respectively. The samples were received from the Veterinary college hospital and Veterinary dispensaries in North Western part of Tamil Nadu. Faecal samples were processed by sedimentation technique and examined under low power objective (×10), and blood smears were stained using Giemsas technique and examined under oil immersion (×100). Result: The analysis of data on the prevalence of intestinal and haemoprotozoan parasites of sheep and goats in North Western part of Tamil Nadu for the period from 2004 to 2013, showed an overall prevalence of intestinal parasites was found to be 67% and 35% in sheep and goats, respectively, whereas only 11% of sheep and 3% of goats had the haemoprotozoan parasitic infection. Highly, significant difference (p<0.01) in the prevalence of intestinal (Χ265), and hemoprotozoan (Χ215.4) parasitism was observed between sheep and goats. Intestinal parasites such as strongyles, Trichuris, Moniezia, amphistome, and coccidia were identified in which the highest prevalence was observed with coccidia, followed by strongyles, Monezia, Trichuris, and least with amphistome in both the sheep and goats. The haemoprotozoan parasites recorded were Theileria and Anaplasma species, of which, Anaplasma spp. being the highest and Theileria spp. the least prevalent in both the sheep and goats. The seasonal prevalence of intestinal parasites showed highest in rainy season, followed by moderate in winter and least with summer in both the sheep and goats, whereas the haemoprotozoan parasites recorded were the highest in summer followed by winter and least with rainy season. Conclusion: The present study suggests that North Western part of Tamil Nadu is highly endemic for intestinal parasites such as coccidia and strongyles and haemoprotozoans such as Anaplasma and Theileria species in small ruminants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In addition to acute infection and disease, foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) can cause persistent infection in ruminants. Such 'carrier' animals represent a potential risk for FMDV transmission to susceptible animals. However, the mechanisms and the factors that determine FMDV persistence remain unknown. We describe here the establishment of FMDV type O persistent infection in a bovine epithelial cell line (Madin-Darby bovine kidney; MDBK). Preliminary experiments to assess the permissivity of MDBK cells to FMDV O infection revealed an unusual pattern of infection: after the initial phase of acute cell lysis, new monolayers formed within 48-72 h post-infection. We found that some cells survived cytolytic infection and subsequently regrew, thereby demonstrating that this bovine cell line can be persistently infected with FMDV type O. Further evidence that MDBK cells were persistently infected with FMDV includes: (i) detection of viral RNA in cells as well as in cell culture supernatants, (ii) detection of viral antigens in the cells by immunofluorescence analysis, and (iii) production of infectious viral particles for up to 36 cell passages. Furthermore, preliminary sequence analysis of persistent virus revealed a single nucleotide substitution within the VP1 coding region, resulting in the V50A amino acid substitution. This bovine model of FMDV persistence holds promise for the investigation of the viral and cellular molecular determinants that promote FMDV persistence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abortion outbreaks associated with congenital malformations in two distinct small-ruminant flocks were reported in Turkey in 2013-2014. This paper describes the first molecular characterization of Turkish Akabane virus strains in small-ruminant flocks using partial sequence analysis of the S segment and pathological findings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The present study aimed to determine the nutrient and energy content of fresh and ensiled grape pomace (GP) from different grape varieties originating from Germany, and to estimate the feed value of dried white, dried red and ensiled white GP by calculating nutrient digestibility and the content of metabolisable energy (ME) and net energy lactation (NEL) measured in sheep as a ruminant model. GP from red cultivars had higher contents of organic matter (OM), crude protein (CP), ether extract (EE), crude fibre (CF), total phenolic contents (TPC) and ME, whereas the concentrations of ash and sugar were lower than from white cultivars. Compared with untreated GP, ensiled GP had increased concentrations of CP (+19%), ether extract (EE; +23%) and CF (+12%) and a higher ME content (+7%) and markedly decreased concentrations of sugar (−99.6%) and TPC (−48%). The concentrations of dry matter, OM and ash were not different between ensiled and fresh GP. Compared with dried GP, ensiled GP had a higher nutrient digestibility (OM, +32%; CP, +43%; CF, +46%; neutral detergent fibre [NDF], +54%; acid detergent fibre [ADF], +69%) and higher energy values (ME, +16%; NEL, +19%). The digestibility of OM, CP, EE and CF and the energy content were higher for dried red than for dried white GP, whereas the digestibility of NDFOMand ADFOMwas lower for dried red than dried white GP. In conclusion, the results show that both red and white GP are suitable dietary sources for enrichment with TPC. Furthermore, compared with drying ensiling of GP improves the feeding value of GP and is a good possibility of preserving the seasonally produced by-product of winemaking for ruminant feeding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Livestock farming in Latin America has been criticized because of its large greenhouse gas (GHG) production resulting from the use of degraded forage and low-efficiency production performance. Agriculture contributes a significant amount of the three main greenhouse gases: methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2), and nitrous oxide (N2O). Methane has a global warming potential 25 times greater than CO2. Enteric methane is an important greenhouse gas responsible for approximately 15% of global warming. The trend and legal obligation of mitigating greenhouse gas emissions will likely directly influence improved efficiency of livestock systems, including animal nutrition and handling. The development of mitigation strategies and the viability of their practical applications have been researched around the world. Various nutritional strategies to mitigate enteric methane have been studied and developed. All of them differ in terms of viability, cost, and acceptance by the producers. Their adoption should be based on the capacity to reduce methane emissions in association with economic viability and animal performance. Animal performance improvement will be achieved in production systems (mainly those related to efficient forage use) associated with good management of nutrition, health and reproduction. These are important strategies to consolidate Brazil as a food producer to the world, respecting the demands regarding land, water, biodiversity conservation and emission of greenhouse gases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, the etiological agent of Lyme disease, is tick transmitted and has a wide range of mammalian reservoirs in nature, including both wild and domestic animals. To understand the seroprevalence of B. burgdorferi s.l. in small ruminants will add value to the risk analysis of Lyme disease. The current study was intended to map the potential endemic regions of Lyme disease by large-scale investigation of sera from sheep and goats. In this study, a total of 2,758 serum samples from sheep and goats in 21 provinces located in 40 different districts of China were tested for antibodies against B. burgdorferi s.l. by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The results of this survey indicated that the overall prevalence of B. burgdorferi s.l. infection ranges from 5.3 - 63.5 % (mean: 26.3%), and the infection was found in all provinces investigated. Generally, the positive rate declined from the south (south - 34.7%, southwest - 32.4%) towards the north of China (north - 18.4%, northeast - 16.5%, northwest - 17.2%). A significant difference was also observed in the infection rate between south and north (33.2% vs. 17.4%, P<0.001). This study presents a comprehensive investigation of the serological distribution of B. burgdorferi s.l. in small ruminants in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural prion diseases of ruminants are moderately contagious and while the gastrointestinal tract is the primary site of prion agent entry, other mucosae may be entry sites in a subset of infections. In the current study we examined prion neuroinvasion and disease induction following disruption of the olfactory epithelium in the nasal mucosa since this site contains environmentally exposed olfactory sensory neurons that project directly into the central nervous system. Here we provide evidence for accelerated prion neuroinvasion and clinical onset from the olfactory mucosa after disruption and regeneration of the olfactory epithelium and when prion replication is restricted to neurons. In transgenic mice with neuron restricted replication of prions, there was a reduction in survival when the olfactory epithelium was disrupted prior to intranasal inoculation and there was >25% decrease in the prion incubation period. In a second model, the neurotropic DY strain of transmissible mink encephalopathy was not pathogenic in hamsters by the nasal route, but 50% of animals exhibited brain infection and/or disease when the olfactory epithelium was disrupted prior to intranasal inoculation. A time course analysis of prion deposition in the brain following loss of the olfactory epithelium in models of neuron-restricted prion replication suggests that neuroinvasion from the olfactory mucosa is via the olfactory nerve or brain stem associated cranial nerves. We propose that induction of neurogenesis after damage to the olfactory epithelium can lead to prion infection of immature olfactory sensory neurons and accelerate prion spread to the brain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Border Disease (BD), caused by Pestivirus from the family Flaviviridae, leads to serious reproductive losses and brain anomalies such as hydranencephaly and cerebellar hypoplasia in aborted fetuses and neonatal lambs. In this report it is aimed to investigate the expression of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), A Disintegrin And Metalloprotease with Thrombospondin type I repeats-13 (ADAMTS-13), and neurofilament (NF) in the brain tissue in small ruminants infected with Border Disease Virus (BDV) and to identify any correlation between hypomyelinogenesis and BD neuropathology. Results of the study revealed that the levels of ADAMTS-13 (p<0.05), nNOS (p<0.05), and NF (p<0.05) were remarkably higher in BDV-infected brain tissue than in the uninfected control. It was suggested that L-arginine-NO synthase pathway is activated after infection by BDV and that the expression of NF and nNOS is associated with the severity of BD. A few studies have focused on ADAMTS-13 expression in the central nervous system, and its function continues to remain unclear. The most prominent finding from our study was that ADAMTS-13, which contain two CUB domains, has two CUB domains and its high expression levels are probably associated with the development of the central nervous system (CNS). The results also clearly indicate that the interaction of ADAMTS-13 and NO may play an important role in the regulation and protection of the CNS microenvironment in neurodegenerative diseases. In addition, NF expression might indicate the progress of the disease. To the best of the authors’knowledge, this is the first report on ADAMTS-13 expression in the CNS of BDV-infected small ruminants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interferon tau (IFNT) was discovered as the pregnancy recognition signal in ruminants, but is now known to have a plethora of physiological functions in the mammalian uterus. The mammalian uterus includes, from the outer surface to the lumen, the serosa, myometrium and endometrium. The endometrium consists of the luminal, superficial glandular, and glandular epithelia, each with a unique phenotype, stromal cells, vascular elements, nerves and immune cells. The uterine epithelia secrete or selectively transport molecules into the uterine lumen that are collectively known as histotroph. Histotroph is required for growth and development of the conceptus (embryo and its associated extra-embryonic membranes) and includes nutrients such as amino acids and glucose, enzymes, growth factors, cytokines, lymphokines, transport proteins for vitamins and minerals and extracellular matrix molecules. Interferon tau and progesterone stimulate transport of amino acids in histotroph, particularly arginine. Arginine stimulates the mechanistic target of rapamycin pathway to induce proliferation, migration and protein synthesis by cells of the conceptus, and arginine is the substrate for synthesis of nitric oxide and polyamines required for growth and development of the conceptus. In ruminants, IFNT also acts in concert with progesterone from the corpus luteum to increase expression of genes for transport of nutrients into the uterine lumen, as well as proteases, protease inhibitors, growth factors for hematopoiesis and angiogenesis and other molecules critical for implantation and placentation. Collectively, the pleiotropic effects of IFNT contribute to survival, growth and development of the ruminant conceptus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extensive studies are published concerning the distribution of monocarboxylate transporters (MCTs) in various animal issues including ruminants; nonetheless, nothing is known about their cellular expression and localization in the ruminant pancreas. The present study was carried out to examine the expression and cellular localization of all the fourteen MCT isoforms in cattle pancreas. RT-PCR verified the existence of mRNA transcripts for eight MCT isoforms, namely, MCT1, MCT2, MCT3, MCT4, MCT5, MCT8, MCT13, and MCT14 in cattle pancreas. Western blotting analysis confirmed the protein expression of these eight MCTs in the cattle pancreatic tissue. Immunohistochemical study, within the whole pancreas, was conducted to localize the eight MCTs identified, and the results showed strong positive immunoreactive staining for MCT1, MCT2, MCT4, MCT5, MCT13, and MCT14 on nearly all the islet cells of Langerhans, while we could not detect immunopositive signals in the acinar cells with any of MCTs antibodies used. This study, for the first time, showed the cellular localization and expression of MCT1-MCT5, MCT8, MCT13, and MCT14 within the ruminant pancreas. The distribution and expression pattern of MCT1, MCT2, MCT4, and CD147 in the cattle pancreas are different from that previously published on monogastric pancreas. Our study suggested that MCT1, MCT2, MCT4, MCT5, MCT13, and MCT14 may participate in the regulation of the pancreatic endocrine secretions in ruminants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC) is a highly contagious ocular inflammatory condition, which is often reported in domestic small and large ruminants. Multiple infectious aetiologies are reported to be involved, but information about the role of certain fastidious bacterial pathogens such as chlamydiae and mycoplasmas is limited in India. Hence, this study was performed to determine the role of these pathogens and their identification by molecular approach. A total of 53 samples from 31 ovine, 14 caprine and eight bovine having clinical symptoms were collected and tested using species-specific PCR tests for chlamydiae and mycoplasmas followed by nucleotide sequence analysis. The results showed 77·41, 14·29 and 25% samples were chlamydiae positive in ovine, caprine and bovine, respectively, whereas 41·93, 14·29 and 37·5% prevalence of mycoplasma infection was detected in ovine, caprine and bovines, respectively. Chlamydophila abortus, Chlamydophila psittaci, Mycoplasma arginini and Mycoplasma hyorhinis were detected from tested samples. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time these species are identified in IKC cases from India. Coinfection of both chlamydial and mycoplasmal species was detected in eight IKC cases of ovine which suggest synergistic roles played by both chlamydiae and mycoplasma in IKC samples. Significance and Impact of the Study Infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC) in ruminants has multiple aetiologies, but the role of fastidious chlamydial and mycoplasmal species in clinical cases remains largely unknown. We screened a total of 53 cases of IKC from 31 ovine, 14 caprine and eight bovine, and Chlamydophila abortus, C. psittaci, Mycoplasma arginini and Mycoplasma hyorhinis were detected. These are rarely reported bacteria in clinical IKC. The detection of mixed infection in few cases is also indicative of interspecies synergism. This study highlights the role of lesser reported ocular pathogens in the precipitation of clinical IKC among ruminants that may contribute to a better understanding of pathogenesis and the treatment of IKC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Earth already experienced numerous episodes of global warming and cooling. One of the latest impressive events of temperature rising was the Late Oligocene Warming that occurred around 25 Mya. An increase of the marine temperature of 2 to 4°C has been observed in a short time interval. In Europe, this major climatic event can be correlated to the continental faunal turnover “Microbunodon Event”. This event is marked by a huge faunal turnover (40% of the ungulate fauna during the first 500k years) and environmental changes. Drier conditions associated to the appearance of the seasonality lead to new environmental conditions dominated by wooded savannahs. This is correlated to a major arrival of Asiatic immigrants. Moreover, from a homogenous fauna during the main part of the Oligocene, local climatic variations between the European Western coast and the more central Europe could have provided faunal regionalism during the latest Oligocene and earliest Miocene. Considering the ruminants, this event is the major ever known for this group in Europe. A total renewal at the family level occurred. Thanks to a precise stratigraphic succession, major evolutionary elements are highlighted. Typical Oligocene species, mainly Tragulina, were adapted to wooded environments and were leaves/fruits eaters. They disappeared at the end of MP27 or the early MP28. This corresponds to the appearance of the Asiatic immigrants. The Tragulina (Lophiomerycidae, Bachitheriidae) and stem Pecora gave way to more derived stem and maybe crown Pecora (e.g. “Amphitragulus”, Babameryx, Dremotherium). These newcomers were adapted to more open environments and mixed feeding. The disappearance of the Tragulina is probably linked to environmental and vegetation changes, and competition. They give way to more derived ruminants having a more efficient metabolism in drier conditions and a better assimilation of less energetic food. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sheep and goats of Lahore district were examined for the prevalence, hematology and treatment of Balantidium coli. A total of 752 sheep and goats were examined (n=376 sheep; n=376 goats). Sheep had a somewhat greater prevalence (3.99%) than goats (3.46%). In both species, decrease in hemoglobin (Hb) and increased packed cell volume (PCV) was observed in infected animals. Efficacy of Secnidazole was higher as compared to Oxytetracycline and Metronidazole in all experimental animals. Balantidiasis is rarely studied infection in small ruminants and this is the first report published on the disease from Pakistan. It is still unclear whether this is an emerging infection, or whether it is a newly reported endemic in the studied area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of a vaccine for Fasciola spp. in livestock is a challenge and would be advanced by harnessing our knowledge of acquired immune mechanisms expressed by resistant livestock against fluke infection. Antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity directed to the surface tegument of juvenile/immature flukes is a host immune effector mechanism, suggesting that antigens on the surface of young flukes may represent prime candidates for a fluke vaccine. A Type 1 immune response shortly after fluke infection is associated with resistance to infection in resistant sheep, indicating that vaccine formulations should attempt to induce Type 1 responses to enhance vaccine efficacy. In cattle or sheep, an optimal fluke vaccine would need to reduce mean fluke burdens in a herd below the threshold of 30–54 flukes to ensure sustainable production benefits. Fluke infection intensity data suggest that vaccine efficacy of approximately 80% is required to reduce fluke burdens below this threshold in most countries. With the increased global prevalence of triclabendazole-resistant Fasciola hepatica , it may be commercially feasible in the short term to introduce a fluke vaccine of reasonable efficacy that will provide economic benefits for producers in regions where chemical control of new drug-resistant fluke infections is not viable. Commercial partnerships will be needed to fast-track new candidate vaccines using acceptable adjuvants in relevant production animals, obviating the need to evaluate vaccine antigens in rodent models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Solute carrier family 11 member a1 gene (Slc11a1) previously known as natural resistance-associated macrophage protein 1 (Nramp1) is a gene of member of family of metal ion-transport protein. The cellular expression is restricted to phagocytic cells. Slc11a1 delivers bivalent metal cations from the cytosol into acidic endosomal and lysosomal compartments where Fenon and Haber-Weiss reaction generates toxic antimicrobial radicals for direct antimicrobial activity against harmful microorganisms. The present study was undertaken with the objective of analyzing Slc11a1 gene to gain insight into the evolutionary proximity and divergence as well as the polymorphism of this gene in ruminants and non-ruminants including the attendant effects of the genetic variants on the function of the Slc11a1 protein. Thirty Slc11a1 gene sequences of 6 mammalian species classified as ruminant (goat, sheep, cattle, Bubalus bubalis and Bubalus carabanensis) and non-ruminant (swine and horse) animals were investigated. The length of the Slc11a1 gene varied from 448-2,357. There was substantial genetic variation and polymorphism in the aligned sequences of Slc11a1 gene within and across species. Functional analysis of non-synonymous mutations in cattle revealed that twenty five of the amino acid substitutions at the peptide binding region could be beneficial, (E36G), (T52A), (N161S) and (V248I) were likely to be beneficial while only (Q312K) was harmful. In horse, two of the amino acid mutations were harmful, two were likely to be harmful, one was undecided, four were likely beneficial and the rest twenty were beneficial. The phylogenetic trees showed some form of proximity and differentiation in Slc11a1 sequences within and across species. The present information on the polymorphism of Slc11a1 gene might be exploited in the search for association with disease resistance in Nigerian livestock species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This article is part of a Special Issue “Energy Balance”. The interface between metabolic regulators and the reproductive system is reviewed with special reference to the sheep. Even though sheep are ruminants with particular metabolic characteristics, there is a broad consensus across species in the way that the reproductive system is influenced by metabolic state. An update on the neuroendocrinology of reproduction indicates the need to account for the way that kisspeptin provides major drive to gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons and also mediates the feedback effects of gonadal steroids. The way that kisspeptin function is influenced by appetite regulating peptides (ARP) is considered. Another newly recognised factor is gonadotropin inhibitory hormone (GnIH), which has a dual function in that it suppresses reproductive function whilst also acting as an orexigen. Our understanding of the regulation of food intake and energy expenditure has expanded exponentially in the last 3 decades and historical perspective is provided. The function of the regulatory factors and the hypothalamic cellular systems involved is reviewed with special reference to the sheep. Less is known of these systems in the cow, especially the dairy cow, in which a major fertility issue has emerged in parallel with selection for increased milk production. Other endocrine systems – the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis, the growth hormone (GH) axis and the thyroid hormones – are influenced by metabolic state and are relevant to the interface between metabolic function and reproduction. Special consideration is given to issues such as season and lactation, where the relationship between metabolic hormones and reproductive function is altered. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The nitrotoxins 3-nitro-1-propionic acid (NPA) and 3-nitro-1-propanol (NPOH) are produced by a wide variety of leguminous plants, including over 150 different species and varieties of Astragalus potentially grazed by livestock. These toxins are known to be detoxified by at least one ruminal bacterium but detoxification by bacteria from other gut habitats is not known. In the present study, mixed populations of bovine ruminal and equine cecal microbes were enriched for NPA-metabolizing bacteria via consecutive 24–72 h culture in a basal minimal rumen fluid-based medium supplemented with 4.2 mM NPA and H2 as the energy source. Rates of NPA metabolism by the respective populations increased from 58.4 ± 4.8 and 8.6 ± 11.6 nmol NPA/mL per h during initial culture to 88.9 ± 30.6 and 50.2 ± 30.9 nmol NPA/mL per h following enrichment. Results from 3-tube most probable number tests indicated that numbers of NPA-degrading microbes increased 2.1 and 1.8 log10 units during enrichment from numbers measured pre-enrichment (3.9 × 103 and 4.3 × 101 cells/mL for ruminal and equine cecal populations, respectively). Hydrogen, formate, and to a lesser extent, dl-lactic acid, served as electron donors to the enriched populations and CO2 or formate were needed to maintain high rates of NPA-metabolism. The NPA-enriched populations were able to metabolize nitrate which, being a preferred electron acceptor, was antagonistic to NPA metabolism. Supplemental NPA was inhibitory to methanogenesis. Fermentation balance estimates indicated that only 47.6% of carbon available in potential substrates was recovered in headspace CO2, volatile fatty acids or unmetabolized NPA after 72 h incubation of NPA-enriched populations that had metabolized 98% of 8.4 mM added NPA. Overall, these results reveal low level carriage of NPA-metabolizing, CO2 or formate-requiring bacterial populations in the equine cecum yet support the concept that Denitrobacterium detoxificans-like organisms may well be the functional agents of NPA and NPOH detoxification in the populations studied here. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] BTV infection triggers innate and adaptive immune responses. [•] These immune responses mediate virus clearance. [•] Antibodies confer serotype specific resistance to reinfection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]