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The physical demands of elite soccer players can affect the activity of the referees. During a competitive match, an elite soccer referee covers 9–13 km at 85–90% of the heart rate (HR). This systematic review aimed to scrutinize the scientific literature concerning HR values in football referees during matches. The search encompassed PubMed, Web of Science, MEDLINE, and Google Scholar databases up to April 24, 2023, alongside manual searches using specific keywords. Eligible studies included controlled observational trials involving soccer referees of various levels. Fifteen articles met the criteria, focusing on average heart rate (HRavg) and maximum heart rate (HRmax) during matches. The average HRavg among the sampled referees was 163.13 ± 8.89 bpm, with HRmax averaging 191.2 ± 7.01 bpm. HRavg ranged from 137.76 to 184.9 bpm, while HRmax ranged from 169.1 to 222 bpm. Despite variations in football competition levels, the monitored variables exhibited similar values across studies. These findings underscore the importance of HR monitoring for referee training and programming to ensure they can effectively manage the physical demands of matches at all levels of competition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An introduction is presented in which the author discusses articles within the issue on topics including international sports economy, sports sponsorship regulations, standardization of the International Federation of Association Football (FIFA) refereeing courses, and economic and tourism implications of the 1968 Olympic Games in Mexico City, Mexico.

In the late 1940s, international football refereeing courses originated, and they established a new, proactive, and highly practical regime in driving the global spread and standardization of refereeing knowledge. The contribution illuminates the extent to which the courses' organizers and participants might be described as 'agents of globalization', in the particular context of the courses' primary goal of generating binding worldwide standards regarding the interpretation and application of the Laws of the Game governing international football. In this light, the courses can be read as 'media of interconnection' – as meetings whose chief outcome was the creation of networks and communications among referees and the standardization and alignment of their knowledge and practices. The courses thus became one of the instruments of the emergence of 'world football' as a transnational interactional space. The standardizing effects of the refereeing courses constituted a necessary precondition for the worldwide standardization of the game, so that 'world football' could act on its subsequent expansion. From a more theoretical and inductively derived point of view, it can be argued that this enabled in turn football's step-by-step transformation into an entity amenable to commodification – or: a product marketed globally by FIFA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The manipulation of football match scores in Indonesia is familiar and continues to increase. The settlement of the case in the judge's decision was based on two criminal acts, namely the crime of fraud (Article 378 of the Criminal Code) and bribery (UU No. 11 of 1980). It is stated in several judge's decisions, including in Judge's Decision No.31/Pid.Sus/2020/PN.Smd and Judge's Decision No.48/Pid.Sus/2019/PN BNR. Manipulation of match scores as an attempt to violate the goals of the sport of football. This research aims to verify cases of match score manipulation by referees in realizing sports goals. The results of the discussion prove that the two judges' decisions that classify match score manipulation In the two judges' decisions that classify match score manipulation cases as fraud and bribery, there is the fulfillment of the elements in both of these crimes. In contrast, the subject of the violation is the referee who leads the match, which requires Integrity and leadership character. Then the goal of a soccer match is to support the embodiment of the formation of national values and character. Then when a referee is involved in a match score manipulation case, it means he has generally failed the goals of the sport. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Decision-making is a critical aspect of soccer referees' performance. Yet current training methods that simulate the refereeing task are limited. Skilled soccer referees (N = 22, M age = 27.14 years, SD = 6.40) were tested on a new decision-making simulator during the active part of the season. They ran on a treadmill for 60 min at varying paces while watching two video sections depicting real matches, in context and in mixed order, and called their match decisions out loud. They completed pre- and post-test assessments of their feelings and perceived exertion, and a post-test assessment of their performance. The referees reported positive feelings prior to and following the test, and rated their performance favourably. They felt the simulator was moderately representative of a real match, and their perceived exertion increased progressively during the test. Decision accuracy levels were higher for simple decisions, such as out of play (73.81%), than for careless fouls (62.86%) or yellow/red cards (25.97%). Decision accuracy levels for yellow/red cards decisions were significantly higher in the in-context section (28.91%) than in the mixed section (20.83%). Decision accuracy levels peaked in the third quarter and decreased during the final quarter. Self-control during the test correlated moderately with overall accuracy. Careless foul decision accuracy was on par with previous studies, supporting the simulator's validity. The findings support the use of the simulator as a potentially innovative method for training referees in sequential decision-making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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A geometric simplification of a recent proposal for a new geometry of the penalty area for football (soccer) is presented. A simplified line is necessary because the fully mathematical curve previously proposed can be difficult to implement in the real world of football, which has thousands of tournaments at all –economic and generational–levels of the sport. The idea behind the proposal is that the game and its fairness can be improved if the penalty area is drawn according to mathematics or a measure of actual scoring chance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyses referee home bias with data from the First Division of the Spanish Football League between the 2002/03 and 2009/10 seasons. The aim is to assess the behaviour of the referee in relation to two decisions, namely free kicks awarded and players booked. The main contribution of this paper is the way in which it analyses referee bias; free kicks and bookings are not considered independent elements, instead it is presumed that the number of free kicks awarded has an impact on the cards shown. Regarding methodology, two random effects panel-data regression models are estimated. The results obtained do not confirm, at least in the period under analysis, that Spanish soccer referees have been biased in favour of the home team when it comes to awarding free kicks. However, once a free kick has been awarded, there does appear to be a referee home bias in the disciplinary sanctions taken against a player for committing a foul. These findings suggest that when there is a large crowd in the stadium, the referee tends to be more inclined to book away team players than home players. A reasonable hypothesis that could explain this result is that the amount of time the referee has to make a decision affects the final outcome. While referees are not biased when it comes to awarding a free kick, they are when given more time to make a decision, as there are more opportunities for social pressure to work in favour of the home team. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soccer referees cope with a variety of demands on and off the field, and should be regarded as sport performers on their own merit. This study aimed at defining the soccer referee's career using the Scheme of Change for Sport Psychology Practice. We examined the experience of careerchange-events, and the referees’ responses to them, using a cross-sectional retrospective design. Soccer referees (N = 154) completed measures of career change-event experiences, refereeing identity, and coping strategy usage. The referees reported experiencing various and multiple change-events in their careers (M = 10.38, SD = 4.54). The most common ones werea transition to a higher league(97%),excelling in a big match(86%), anda very poor performance or a decision error in a big match(74%). Change-events varied in frequency rates as a function of referees’ professional level and role. The perceived significance of change-events was related to refereeing identity, and was affected by the nature of the change-events. Referees tended to make a strategic decision to consult with others in response to experiencing change-events, and subsequently made a decision to change reflecting their active coping efforts. These results indicate that the soccer referee's career is perceived as a dynamic one, and comprised various types of change-events that require consideration and coping. Practitioners should educate referees regarding these potential change-events, providing them with adequate support, and facilitating the decisions made in their change processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The evolution of referees' physical fitness has been studied over one or several seasons, however, the variation of the physical performance between the end of the competitive season (T1) and the start of the following pre-season (T2) has not been ascertained. Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyze the effects of the transition period on physical performance variables (i.e. linear straight sprint, change of direction ability and endurance) in National Soccer Division referees. Forty-five Spanish referees volunteered to participate in this study. Participants were classified according to competitive status, field referees (FR, n = 23) and assistant referees (AR, n = 22). A loss of performance (p < 0.05) was observed in the 20 and 30 m linear straight sprint between T1 and T2 in both FR (1.64-1.56%, d = 0.29 to 0.32) and AR (2.01-3.41%, d = 0.33 to 0.60). In T2 the FR significantly improved the distance covered (p < 0.05, 13.11%, d = 0.39) in the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery test (YYIR1). Besides, significant differences were observed between FR and AR in the distance covered (p < 0.05, −23.55%, d = −0.97) in the YYIR1 test in T2. More research may be necessary to focus on the off-season period in order to implement specific training programs and consequently reduce the loss of sprint ability in field and assistant referees and the decrease in cardiovascular fitness in assistant referees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we study the efficacy of the official ranking for international football teams compiled by FIFA, the body governing football competition around the globe. We present strategies for improving a team's position in the ranking. By combining several statistical techniques, we derive an objective function in a decision problem of optimal scheduling of future matches. The presented results display how a team's position can be improved. Along the way, we compare the official procedure to the famous Elo rating system. Although it originates from chess, it has been successfully tailored to ranking football teams as well. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The psychological demands of elite soccer referees have increased substantially in recent years. This article presents a psychological preparation framework for elite soccer referees, tailored to the unique demands of their task. First, psychological factors pertaining to elite soccer refereeing are reviewed in the areas of (a) decision-making, (b) game management, (c) the referee crew, and (d) referee evaluation. Second, a psychological preparation framework for elite soccer referees is presented, including components of match demands evaluation, motivational decisions, planning, mental simulation, and post-match analysis. Finally, the conclusions emphasize the role of the practitioner in each stage, providing recommendations for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Percy Harper (1892–1954) is best remembered for awarding a controversial goal which helped Newcastle United achieve victory over Arsenal in the FA Cup Final of 1932. That Harper was selected to take charge of the most important match of the English season indicated that he was among the elite of soccer referees. Letters and other papers assembled by Harper are used here to shed light on his career and on the pressures to which he was exposed in the course of 17 seasons (1922–1939) at the highest level of the English professional game. A top referee's life could be difficult at times, but there were significant rewards which more than compensated. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Objective To study the effect of changes in the score and of different playing positions, as well as the effect of recovery time on injury incidence during Fédération internationale de Football Association (FIFA) World Cups. Design Prospective injury surveillance at three international championships in 2002, 2006 and 2010. Official match statistics were obtained for all the games played in the three championships. Setting 2002, 2006 and 2010 FIFA World Cups. Participants National team players as well as the team doctors reporting all the injuries at the 2002, 2006 and 2010 FIFA World Cups. Main outcome measures Injury incidence and incidence rate ratios. Results There were statistically significant differences in injury incidence related to changes in the score (p=0.026) and to the teams' current drawing/losing/ winning status (p=0.008). Injury incidence was lowest (54.8/1000 match-hours (mh), 95% CI 46.4 to 64.3) during the initial 0-0 score and highest (81.2/1000 mh, 60.5 to 106.8) when the score was even but goals had been scored. Winning teams had a tendency towards a higher injury incidence (81.0/1000 mh, 67.5 to 96.4) than losing or drawing teams (55.5/1000 mh, 44.4 to 68.4 and 59.7/1000 mh, 51.8 to 68.6, respectively). There were also statistically significant differences in injury incidence between the playing positions (p<0.001), with forwards having the highest injury incidence (85.7/1000 mh, 69.8 to 104.2). There was a linear relationship (p=0.043) between an increasing number of recovery days between matches and a higher injury incidence. Conclusions There is a considerable variation in injury incidence during a match in international men's football related to changes in the score. Players in a winning team run a higher risk of suffering an injury than players n a drawing or losing team. Identifying time periods with a high injury incidence may be of major importance to players and team personnel, as it may enable them to take precautions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to determine the contribution of selected stressors to the level of stress experienced by South African soccer officials. Forty-two South African Football Association (SAFA) accredited officials, attending a training camp in Potchefstroom, participated in this study. The group comprised of 40 male and two female officials. The average age of the officials was 37.52 (±6.09) years, and the period for which they were accredited as a SAFA official ranged from 2 to 27 years. The Ontario Soccer Officials' Survey (OSOS) was used to determine the perceived levels of stress. The results indicated that fitness concerns were rated as the highest contributor to the stress experienced followed by role-culture conflicts, fear of failure, peer conflicts, interpersonal conflict, time pressures and lastly, fear of physical harm. The Spearman Rank Order Correlation showed a high correlation between the number of years the officials were accredited with SAFA and the total level of stress they experienced. Furthermore, the results indicated that 60% of the officials, who served as an accredited official for longer than 12 years, experienced five to seven stressors, which contributed to the total level of perceived stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Throughout the animal kingdom, larger males are more likely to attain social dominance. Several lines of evidence suggest that this relationship extends to humans, as height is positively related to dominance, status and authority. We hypothesized that height is also a determinant of authority in professional refereeing. According to the International Football Association Board, FIFA, football ("soccer") referees have full authority to enforce the laws of the game and should use their body language to show authority and to help control the match. We show that height is indeed positively related to authority status: referees were taller than their assistants (who merely have an advisory role) in both a national (French League) and an international (World Cup 2010) tournament. Furthermore, using data from the German League, we found that height was positively associated with authoritative behavior. Taller referees were better able to maintain control of the game by giving fewer fouls, thereby increasing the "flow of the game". Referee height was also positively associated with perceived referee competence, as taller referees were assigned to matches in which the visiting team had a higher ranking. Thus, height appears to be positively related to authority in professional refereeing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the relationship between experience, social pressure and performance of match officials (referees) in professional soccer. Using data from European Cup competitions, it is found that officials with more experience are marginally less biased towards the home side in the issuing of disciplinary sanctions. However, it is also the case that officials with greater levels of experience are just as likely to be influenced by social pressure as their less experienced counterparts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to evaluate the personal meaning of refereeing for Portuguese football referees. Participants were 47 football referees from the 1st Portuguese Professional Football League evaluated through an open question: "Write down what refereeing means to you". The analysis was made according to Miles & Huberman (1994) procedures. The 5 categories are: relation with the football; costs of the practice; emotion for the arbitration; social interaction and way of life. The results show that be connected to the world of the football, passion and the relationship with other referees are important motivational factors, with that the referees have a high grade of excitement and pleasure in his labor activity. On the other hand the task of refereeing is generating of stress and burnout. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is alleged that AFL umpires have a poor reputation among the general AFL public, which is affecting umpire recruitment. The Australian Football League (AFL), by its own admission, has a perceived brand problem in relation to umpires and is struggling to meet the demands for more umpires in non-professional competitions. This paper aims to identify the current reputation for AFL field umpires and what are the determinants that contribute to this reputation. This information can provide guidance for public relations strategies to improve umpire reputation, and ultimately the AFL brand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Refereeing decisions in soccer has always been a controversial issue. In order to better understand this subject, foul calls made by Brazilian soccer referees were evaluated to determine the potential relationship between the distance from the referee to a foul play and the accuracy of the call. Soccer matches supervised by the São Paulo State Football Federation were recorded and 321 foul calls were analyzed. No significant association was found between the referee's distance from a foul play and accuracy of the call (p = 0.561). However, there was a significant increase in the number of correct calls in the last 15 minutes of the second half compared with the number of correct calls in the first 30 minutes of the same half (p = 0.003). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present study, we investigated the accuracy of offside judgements of assistant referees in the English Premier League. The moment in the match, the position and movement speed of the assistant referee, attacker and second-last defender, together with the angle of view for the assistant referee were all considered to underlie incorrect decisions. The error rate was 17.5% (868 of 4960 situations). As the English assistant referees tended not to signal in doubtful situations (c = 0.91), there was an overall bias towards non-flag errors (773 non-flag errors vs. 95 flag errors). The flash-lag hypothesis could explain all flag errors, whereas the optical-error hypothesis could explain a proportion of the non-flag errors (45.4%). Fatigue, movement speed, and angle of view did not have a detrimental effect on offside decision making. In conclusion, there were fewer flag errors than in the 2002 and 2006 FIFA World Cups, whereas the number of non-flag errors rose. The increased awareness of factors involved in offside decision making and the instructions to give the benefit of the doubt to attackers could have contributed to this situation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to assess the extent to which measures derived from the new FIFA referees' fitness tests can be used to monitor a referee's match-related physical capacity. Match-analysis data were collected (Prozone®, Leeds, UK) from 17 soccer referees for 5.0 (s = 1.7) FA Premier League matches per referee during the first 4 months of the 2007-08 season. Physical match performance categories included total distance covered, high-intensity running distance (speed >5.5 m · s-1), and sprinting distance (>7.0 m · s-1). The two tests were a 6 × 40-m sprint test and a 150-m interval test. Heart rate demand was correlated with total match distance covered (r = -0.70, P = 0.002) and high-intensity running (r = -0.57, P = 0.018) in the interval test. The fastest 40-m sprint was related to total distance covered (r = -0.69, P = 0.002), high-intensity running (r = -0.76, P < 0.001), and sprinting distance (r = -0.75, P = 0.001), while mean time for the 40-m sprints was related to total distance covered (r = -0.70, P = 0.002), high-intensity running (r = -0.77, P < 0.001), and sprinting distance (r = -0.77, P < 0.001). The referees who recorded the best interval-test heart rate demand and fastest 40-m time produced the best physical match performances. However, only the sprint test and in particular the fastest 40-m time had appropriate construct validity for the physical assessment of soccer referees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In association football, two similar but arguably different refereeing roles are required, those of the referee and assistant referee. Role specificity was investigated with a foul play assessment task and an offside decision-making task. Deliberate practice was investigated to account for role-specific differences. First, role specificity was clearly observed. Second, years of officiating, hours of practice per week, and number of matches officiated were each positively correlated with skill. The results support role specificity in association football refereeing. Further research should help to create role-specific perception and decision-making training programmes both for referees and assistant referees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Baldo et al. (2002) and Helsen et al. (2006) considered the flash-lag effect to explain errors made by assistant referees when judging offside in association football. The main aims of the present study were as follows: (1) to determine whether the flash-lag effect emerges in offside situations on the field of play or off the field when presented as computer animations or as video footage of real-life matches; (2) to examine offside decision-making errors in two standards of assistant referee - international FIFA and Belgian national referees. The results support the flash-lag hypothesis in several ways. First, both the FIFA and Belgian assistant referees were more likely to make errors by raising their flag when they had to assess offside situations on the field of play and when presented as three-a-side computer animations. Second, more flag errors were made when the defender moved in the opposite direction to that of the attacker. Third, the strategy of raising the flag in case of doubt was not observed when an interpretation of the offside law had to be made about the involvement of play of an attacker. Future research is needed to examine the extent to which on- and off-the-field training sessions can be used as training tools to improve offside decision-making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stress from officiating has been found to have a profound impact on official's mental health, attentional focus, performance, satisfaction with their profession and dropout intentions. Although some studies have been conducted regarding the frequency and intensity of the major sources of stress experienced by sport officials, no research has attempted to determine how sport officials cope or attempt to cope with these stressors. Through a national soccer official organization, questionnaire packets were administered to over 200 officials. Questionnaire packets included sources of stress and ways of coping questionnaires. The top sources of stress experienced by the officials included ‘conflict between officiating and family demands,’ ‘making a controversial call’ and ‘conflict between officiating and work demands.’ The top acute coping strategies utilized by the officials included ‘thought hard about steps to manage’ and ‘asked fellow officials what they did’ (problem-focused strategies). Other results indicated the importance of officials' learning and implementing numerous stress management interventions, including time management, restructuring unproductive thoughts, physiological relaxation techniques, communication training and mental skill training techniques such as imagery, relaxation breathing and self talk. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to examine the kinematic activity profiles, cardiovascular responses and physical fitness of top-class football referees (n = 11) during the FIFA Confederations Cup 2005. Computerised match-analyses (n = 9) were performed with a two-dimensional photogrammetric video system, and the cardiovascular demand imposed on the referees (n = 12) was measured using heart rate recordings. Total distance covered was 10,218, s = 643 m of which 3531, s = 510 m was covered at high intensities (> 3.6 m · s-1). Both total distance covered (r2 = 0.59; P = 0.02) and high-intensity activities (r2 = 0.44; P = 0.05) were related to the distance covered by the ball in the same match. The referees ran at high speed 37% further (P = 0.01) in the actual tournament than during under-17 top-level officiating. After the 5-min interval during which high-speed running peaked, in the following 5 min the performance was reduced by 19% (P = 0.01) in relation to the mean of the game. Mean heart rate was 161, s = 9 b · min-1 (86, s = 3% of maximal heart rate (HRmax)). Mean heart rate (expressed as percentage of HRmax) was related in part (r2 = 0.36; P < 0.01) to the number of high-intensity activities performed in the same 5-min interval. The results of this study show that: (1) kinematic activity profiles of top-class referees can be influenced by the distance covered by the ball; (2) the amount of high-speed running (>5 m · s-1) best describes the physical performance of referees; (3) heart rate recording can be a useful tool to determine the most intense periods of a match and (4) the new fitness tests adopted by FIFA were poor predictors of match activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study comparing the conditional abilities of European countries' Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) referees with those of Hungarian national and county referees. Results of the study showed that difference between groups in the endurance event were substantial in all cases. It mentions that in the basis of their fitness test results, Hungarian elite referees are comparable with international-level referees.

In a recent paper in this journal, Boyko and colleagues (2007) identified differences in attendance and referee bias as factors influencing home advantage at soccer matches in the English Premiership. A replication of their study using more recent data found no evidence to sustain either of their claims. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study which aims to determine and compare the somatotype and body composition of principal soccer referees and assistant soccer referees from the state of Paraná in Brazil. The participants are all working for the Brazilian Soccer Confederation (CBF Confederaçao Brasileira de Futebol). It is concluded that refereeing category was not influenced by the morphological profile of the referees who were analyzed.

This study investigated the effect of referees' errors on players' perceived injustice in soccer. The conditions investigated were Referee Decision, with three types: Correctly Called a foul vs Wrongly Called a foul vs Did not Call a foul and Repetition of the Situation, with two types: Isolated vs Repeated. Male soccer players at regional and departmental levels of practice (N=95, Mage=23.2, SD=5.1) were asked to rank six hypothetical situations according to the perceived injustice. Analysis indicated significant effects of Referee Decisions and Repetition of the Situation on the perception of injustice, but showed no differences between the types of error. However, age and years of soccer experience were associated with perception of injustice when the referee correctly called a foul. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Data were collected on the number of first yellow cards awarded during 857 games, over six seasons (1996 - 2002), played in the Football Association (FA) Cup. Overall, a significantly higher number of yellow cards were awarded against the away team, while a non-linear relationship between crowd size and yellow cards was observed. In general, the probability of a yellow card being awarded against the home team decreased as crowd size increased, but was attenuated for the largest crowd sizes. Crowd size may be related to the probability of the home team receiving a yellow card in two potential ways. Crowd noise may be a decision-making heuristic whereby the likelihood that an incident is a foul is increased when accompanied by crowd noise. Alternatively, referees may seek to appease the crowd and are more likely to do so as crowd size increases. The present findings have implications for the training of match officials and for coaches and players as they prepare to play away from home. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Officiating bias is thought to contribute to home advantage. Recent research has shown that sports with subjective officiating tend to experience greater home advantage and that referees' decisions can be influenced by crowd noise, but little work has been done to examine whether individual referees vary in their home bias or whether biased decisions contribute to overall home advantage. We develop an ordinal regression model to determine whether various measures of home advantage are affected by the official for the match and by crowd size while controlling for team ability. We examine 5244 English Premier League (EPL) match results involving 50 referees and find that home bias differs between referees. Individual referees give significantly different levels of home advantage, measured as goal differential between the home and away teams, although the significance of this result depends on one referee with a particularly high home advantage (an outlier). Referees vary significantly and robustly in their yellow card and penalty differentials even excluding the outlier. These results confirm that referees are responsible for some of the observed home advantage in the EPL and suggest that home advantage is dependent on the subjective decisions of referees that vary between individuals. We hypothesize that individual referees respond differently to factors such as crowd noise and suggest further research looking at referees' psychological and behavioural responses to biased crowds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Referees are routinely subjected to a wide range of potential physical and psychological stressors, yet little is known about the extent to which these are perceived as aversive or the mechanisms which motivate officials to maintain their activities. The purpose of this study was to give experienced soccer referees the opportunity to offer explanations for and responses to criticism and abuse. A 4-page postal questionnaire was completed by 42 referees. Results indicated that an average of over 16 hours per week was spent on refereeing duties, and 71% of the respondents felt physically drained after matches. However, 100% asserted that the time and energy they put into refereeing was worthwhile. A number of strategies to cope with negative evaluations were noted. The referees expect to be the object of censure by players, coaches and spectators, but use external attributions such as people's bias and lack of knowledge to explain dissent. While admitting to making errors, they perceive their misjudments as representing opportunities to improve. Although respecting other referees and making use of support systems, they believe that their skills are superior to those of fellow officials. They also identify their devotion to soccer, rather than the desire for power and prestige, as the main reason for their involvement. The findings portray soccer officials as confident and resilient individuals who admit to occasional errors but interpret these as positive opportunities for self-improvement. A range of coping mechanisms serve to enhance self-esteem and help referees resolve the mismatch between their perceived competence and the criticism received from others. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To review 15 years of National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) injury surveillance data for men's soccer and to identify potential areas for injury prevention initiatives. Background: The NCAA sanctioned its first men's soccer championship in 1959. Since then, the sport has grown to include more than 18 000 annual participants across 3 NCAA divisions. During the 15 years from 1988-1989 to 2002-2003, the NCAA Injury Surveillance System accumulated game and practice injury data for men's soccer across all 3 NCAA divisions. Main Results: The injury rate was 4 times higher in games compared with practices (18.75 versus 4.34 injuries per 1000 athlete-exposures, rate ratio = 4.3, 95% confidence interval = 4.2, 4.5), and preseason practices had a higher injury rate than in-season practices (7.98 versus 2.43 injuries per 1000 athlete-exposures, rate ratio = 3.3, 95% confidence interval = 3.1, 3.5). In both games and practices, more than two thirds of men's soccer injuries occurred to the lower extremities, followed by the head and neck in games and the trunk and back in practices. Although player-to-player contact was the primary cause of injury during games, most practice injuries occurred without direct contact to the injured body part. Ankle ligament sprains represented the most common injury during practices and games, whereas knee internal derangements were the most common type of severe injury (defined as 10+ days of time loss). Recommendations: Sprains, contusions, and strains of the lower extremities were the most common injuries in men's collegiate soccer, with player-to-player contact the primary injury mechanism during games. Preventive efforts should focus on the player-to-player contact that often leads to these injuries and greater enforcement of the rules that are in place to limit their frequency and severity. Emphasis also should be placed on addressing the high rate of first-time and recurrent ankle ligament sprains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Little is known about the physiological demands placed on officials during sporting activities. The purpose of this study was to ascertain the movement activities of referees during English Premiership rugby football union matches, and to determine the frequency and duration of these activities. Nine referees who were ranked in the top 20 referees in England were videotaped during a total of 19 matches. During playback of the videotapes, a single observer coded the referees' activities into one of six distinct categories (standing, walking forwards, walking backwards, jogging, running and sprinting) using a computerized video editing system (Observer Video-Pro). The referees were timed over a 20 m distance for the modes of locomotory activity, and the average velocity of the referee for each activity was used to calculate the total distance covered in each mode of activity during matches. The total distance covered during a match was (χ ± SD) 8581 ± 668 m. The mean percentage of total playing time spent in each activity was: standing still, 37.0 ± 11.0%; walking forward, 29.5 ± 7.2%; walking backward, 9.9 ± 3.2%; jogging, 12.8 ± 3.2%; running, 9.8 ± 2.3%; and sprinting, 1.0 ± 0.4%. There were a total of 672 transitions between modes of activity during a match. The results of this study suggest that refereeing top English rugby football union matches is physically demanding. Although the major physiological load is placed on the oxygen transport system, frequent sprint bouts and the associated requirements for acceleration and deceleration impose additional metabolic demands on referees. This information may be used in the design of physical training programmes to optimize performance in referees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper draws on ethnographic fieldwork undertaken with a group of young men known collectively as the Bad Blue Boys (BBB)[1]. These young men use the supporting of a soccer team (Sydney United in the national league) as a means of parading nationalistic allegiance to their parent's homeland, Croatia. Given the history1 of crowd conflict at Australian soccer matches and the current trends within soccer officialdom to move the sport away from its traditional affiliation with ethnic communities, it is inevitable that the BBB have come into confrontation with agents of social authority, such as the police, during an afternoon at the football The participant observation aspect of the research is used to discuss the interaction between the police and the BBB at soccer matches, while interviews with members of the BBB are recounted to reveal group attitudes held about the police. The paper is written to articulate with other academic contributions which have investigated the relationship between youth from non-English speaking backgrounds (NESB) and the police in contemporary Australian urban contexts. A leading contributor to such studies, Janet Chan, has commented, 'Australian research specifically on police-ethnic youth relations [paints] a negative portrait' (Chan 1994, p. 176). The portrait painted by the present study is intended for comparison with such research. At the outset it must be stressed that the findings are peculiar to the study and that no great claim is made for extrapolation. However, this is not to say that the study does not reflect trends in relations between NESB youth and police in Australian cities. On the contrary, a conclusion will be drawn which argues that ethnographic studies of particular ethnic youth groupings and subcultures facilitate a social mapping of police youth relations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article responds to a letter published in the 2014 issue of the journal which claims that inconsistencies are evident in a universally accepted method of calculating home advantage when three points are awarded for a win. Topics discussed include the assessment of performance at home against performance away from home and a comparison of English and U.S. football.

A recent letter sent to the Journal of Human Kinetics' editor (Gómez & Pollard, 2014) warned about a supposed methodology error in the calculation of home advantage in football leagues used in Saavedra et al. (2013) and took the liberty of modifying the research's data. The aim of this letter is to demonstrate that the evaluation system of the home advantage proposed by Pollard (1986) contains serious inconsistencies when applied to competitions which give three points for a win and one point for a draw, as it is the case of the UEFA football leagues in the 21th century [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]