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Simple Summary: In former times, horses with stifle injuries could not be helped much due to restrictions in diagnostic and therapeutic options. With the technical progress and willingness of owners to pay for advanced veterinary services, operations to the stifle joint became feasible. As a detailed anatomical description of the blood supply in the stifle region was lacking for horses, the aim of the study was to fill this gap. Vessels were dissected and described so that a detailed map for the blood supply of the horse stifle is now available. This information will help veterinary surgeons to minimize unwanted damage or bleeding during operations. The vascularization pattern of the equine stifle joint is insufficiently described in the literature, even though there is a growing need for knowledge of the exact blood supply, as (i) arthroscopy and endoscopic surgery techniques are increasingly performed in horses and (ii) ex vivo models of menisci need nutrient supply that mimic the in vivo situation. The aim of this study was to describe the vessels involved in the stifle joint supply and the exact branching pattern of the popliteal artery. Colored latex was injected into the arteries of nine pelvic limbs of equine cadavers (n = 6) to evaluate the occurrences, variations and approximate diameters of vessels that supplied the stifle joints. Next to a branch of the saphenous and descending genicular arteries, eleven branches of the popliteal artery could be described in horses that feed the vascular network of the stifle joint. With a focus on the blood supply of the menisci, a vascularization map was created to show the main influx to these intra-articular structures in detail. These findings are potentially of great importance to both clinicians in preparation of best-suited incisions for arthroscopy and researchers designing new approaches for meniscal studies and choosing suitable animal models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Osteomyelitis is a bone infection disease causing progressive inflammation. Bone lysis, periosteal reactions and ischemic regions of infected necrotic and devitalized tissue are likely secondary abnormalities. A prolonged antibiotic therapy, an abundant lavage of the affected region and several revision surgeries to debride infected and necrotic bone are paramount treatments for osteomyelitis. The treatment of extensive bone defects and functional damage may require the use of prosthetic surgery, allowing the anatomical and functional recovery of the affected area, and in some cases, it is necessary to use a customized prosthesis for a better anatomical and functional adaptation. In veterinary medicine, the implementation of 3D-printing technologies and the application of custom-made surgical implants and prosthetics have enabled the management of intricate orthopedic conditions that were previously only addressed through salvage procedures, such as arthrodesis or amputations. The purpose of this report is to describe the surgical technique and outcome of a custom-made patellar groove replacement in a puppy with a severe bone defect in the femoral trochlea caused by hematogenous osteomyelitis. This surgery showed excellent short-, medium- and long-term outcomes, and it is the first report on a custom-made patellar groove replacement available in the literature. An 8-month-old male American Staffordshire terrier was referred for a no-weightbearing lameness of the right pelvic limb, hyperthermia, lethargy and inappetence. Two months before, endocarditis was diagnosed and treated in another veterinary hospital. Orthopedic, radiographic and tomographic examinations revealed a bone sequestrum of 4 × 1.4 cm and active periosteal reaction of the caudo-lateral cortical in the metaphysis and the distal third of the right femoral diaphysis, medullary osteolysis and interruption of the cranio-medial cortical profile, with involvement of the femoral trochlea leading to a secondary medial patella luxation. Hematogenous osteomyelitis was the suspected diagnosis. Once skeletally mature, after 4 months from surgical debridement and aggressive antibiotic therapy against Klebsiella oxytoca revealed by a bacteriological exam, the patient underwent prosthetic surgery for the application of a custom-made patellar groove replacement (PGR) to fill the bone defect and restore the femoral trochlea surface. Despite the serious injury that afflicted the right pelvic limb, the surgery had satisfactory outcomes until the last 18-month postoperative follow up. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The superficial medial collateral ligament (sMCL) of the human knee joint has functionally separate anterior and posterior fiber bundles. The two bundles are alternatively loaded as the knee flexion angle changes during walking. To date, the two bundles are usually not distinguished in knee ligament simulations because there has been little information about their material properties. In this study, we conducted quasi-static tensile tests on the sMCL of matured porcine stifle joints and obtained the material properties of the anterior bundle (AB), posterior bundle (PB), and whole ligament (WL). AB and PB have similar failure stress but different threshold strain, modulus, and failure strain. As a result, we recommend assigning different material properties (i.e., modulus and failure strain) to the two fiber bundles to realize biofidelic ligament responses in human body models. However, it is often inconvenient to perform tensile tests on AB and PB. Hence, we proposed a microstructural model-based approach to predict the material properties of AB and PB from the test results of WL. Such obtained modulus values of AB and PB had an error of 2% and 0.3%, respectively, compared with those measured from the tests. This approach can reduce the experimental cost for acquiring the needed mechanical property data for simulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Cranial closing wedge osteotomy (CCWO) is a functional stabilisation technique for cranial cruciate ligament (CrCL) ruptures. This biomechanical study aimed to evaluate the influence of CCWO on the stability of the stifle joint. Eighteen Beagle stifle joints were divided into two groups: control and CCWO. The stifle joints were analyzed using a six-degree-of-freedom robotic joint biomechanical testing system. The joints were subjected to 30 N in the craniocaudal (CrCd) drawer and proximal compression tests and 1 Nm in the internal–external (IE) rotation test. Each test was performed with an extension position, 135°, and 120° of joint angle. Results: The stifle joints were tested while the CrCLs were intact and then transected. In the drawer test, the CCWO procedure, CrCL transection, and stifle joint flexion increased CrCd displacement. The CCWO procedure and CrCL transection showed an interaction effect. In the compression test, the CCWO procedure decreased and CrCL transection and stifle joint flexion increased displacement. In the IE rotation test, CCWO, CrCL transection, and stifle joint flexion increased the range of motion. Conclusions: CCWO was expected to provide stability against compressive force but does not contribute to stability in the drawer or rotational tests. In the CCWO-treated stifle joint, instability during the drawer test worsened with CrCL transection. In other words, performing the CCWO procedure when the CrCL function is present is desirable for stabilizing the stifle joint. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Greater cane rats (Thryonomys swinderianus) are now being captive reared and domesticated in the sub-Saharan Africa because of increase in their demand for biomedical research and traditional medicine and as a source of meat. This research was performed to provide the normal radiological anatomy of the pelvis and pelvic limb in greater cane rats for a reference in biomedical research, in anatomical studies, and in clinical use. Radiological examination of the pelvis and right pelvic limb was done in five greater cane rats. Radiological results were correlated with bones of the pelvis and right pelvic limb. The pelvic bone had a prominent caudoventral iliac spine. The pelvic symphysis was long and obturator foramina appeared teardrop-shaped elongated craniocaudally. The prominent major trochanter extended proximally higher than the femoral head. The middle third of the body of the tibia presented a very prominent tuberosity. In all specimens, the tarsal sesamoid bone was visualised. Mineralised popliteal sesamoid bone was not visualised. In male greater cane rats, the os penis was visualised. The lateral and medial menisci of the stifle joint were seen with ossicles. The first metatarsal bone was rudimentary with greater plantar divergence. Despite of the pelvic limb and pelvis of greater cane rats sharing anatomical structures with other rodents, it retains some exceptional anatomical features. Findings of this study will serve as a reference for anatomical studies, clinical veterinary practice, and in biomedical research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to establish two new methods for measuring the tibial plateau angle (TPA): proximal tibial circle (PTC) as well as full tibial circle (FTC) method, and to test their reliability in comparison to the classical method (CM). Three radiologists implemented each method, and measurements were repeated three times. The results of consecutive measurements obtained by two observers had excellent reliability with an interclass correlation coefficient (ICC) greater than 0.9 for all methods, while measurements obtained by the third observer had good reliability for the CM (ICC=0.885) and PTC method (ICC=0.851). The results obtained by the three observers for all methods indicate good reliability for the PTC and FTC methods (ICC=0.848 and 0.880, respectively) and excellent reliability for CM (ICC = 0.909); the results of the different observers for each method were not significantly different. The significant difference resulting from the applied measurement method (ICC = 0.447 and P<0.01) was confirmed. Statistically significant differences were not found between the CM and PTC method (P>0.05), while differences between the PTC and FTC, as well as CM and FTC methods, were statistically significant (P<0.01). New methods for TPA measurements based on shorter tibial axes may be an alternative to a method based on the full-length axis. A high correlation between the methods indicates the precision of each of them. Newly established methods can be used when the tarsal joint is not included in radiographs or is affected by degenerative changes, making use of the classical method not possible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Quadriceps contracture is a rare disorder that occurs particularly in young animals. Prolonged immobilization of the stifle joint in the extended position is one factor in the development of quadriceps contracture. Clinical diagnostic methods include history taking and physical examination. In most cases, a diagnosis of quadriceps contracture is obtained at an advanced stage of the disease when the prognosis is poor. Therefore, a method for the early clinical detection of quadriceps contracture is needed. We evaluated muscle elastic modulus using ultrasound shear wave elastography, muscle stiffness using a tissue hardness meter, and serum creatinine phosphokinase levels over time in quadriceps contracture model rats and compared their ability to detect pathology. Quadriceps contracture was induced by immobilization of the joints of the hindlimb. During the 4 week immobilization period, in addition to the three clinical examinations, we measured the range of joint motion, histopathology of the muscles, and levels of fibrosis-associated mRNA expression. The elastic modulus increased with the progression of quadriceps contracture, suggesting that ultrasound shear wave elastography is a useful method for the early detection of this disease. Quadriceps contracture is an abnormal pathological shortening of the muscle–tendon unit. To improve the prognosis of quadriceps contracture, improvement of its diagnostic method is needed. In this study, we evaluated the diagnostic utility of ultrasound shear wave elastography in a rat model of quadriceps contracture induced by immobilization. Fifty Wistar rats were randomly divided into control and immobilization groups. During up to 4 weeks of joint immobilization, the quadriceps elastic modulus, muscle hardness, creatinine phosphokinase levels, joint range of motion, histopathologic parameters, and levels of fibrosis-associated mRNA expression were measured every week in the immobilization and control groups and compared. In the immobilization group, the elastic modulus gradually but significantly increased (p < 0.05) throughout the immobilization period. However, muscle hardness and serum creatinine phosphokinase levels only increased at 1 and 2 weeks after the start of immobilization, respectively. Muscle atrophy and shortening progressed throughout the immobilization group. Collagen type I and III, α-SMA protein, and mRNA expression of IL-1β and TGF-β1 significantly increased (p < 0.05) throughout in the immobilization group. Ultrasound shear wave elastography is the most useful method for clinical assessment of muscle contracture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: At present, it is difficult to evaluate the cartilage of an equine stifle with the most accessible imaging modalities, such as ultrasonography and radiography. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has been established as the optimal noninvasive modality for a global evaluation of joints in humans. With technical advances, MRI is becoming more available for equine patients as well. Currently there is no general consensus on the optimal sequence for cartilage evaluation even though there are many possibilities. This study compares a routinely used two-dimensional (2D) sequence to four different three dimensional sequences (3D). Measuring the cartilage thickness in 30 different regions of interest (ROI) in each sequence and comparing them to macroscopic measurements showed that the 3D sequences were more accurate than the 2D sequence. Specifically, the 3D VIEW T2W HR and T1W VISTA SPAIR depicted cartilage thickness most accurately. Knowing the accuracy of different sequences improves the evaluation of equine cartilage and the early detection of cartilage pathologies. This promotes MRI as a noninvasive imaging modality for horses suffering from stifle lameness with no findings using conventional imaging methods. Furthermore, since 3D sequences are more accurate in depicting cartilage, they may replace 2D sequences, shortening scanning time. The objective of this study was to compare articular cartilage thickness observed in the different 2D and 3D sequences to the cartilage thickness of the equine stifle in cadavers to determine the accuracy of each sequence. The study was conducted as a blinded laboratory study using seven equine stifle specimens. The 2D (T2W TSE) and 3D (3D VIEW T2W HR, T2 3D mFFE, T1W VISTA SPAIR, 3D PDW SPAIR) 3-tesla MRI sequences of each stifle were obtained. Cartilage thickness was measured at 30 locations on MRI and on gross pathology. Thickness measurements were compared using a Bland–Altman plot and post hoc analysis tests. The 3D sequences were found to be generally more accurate than the 2D sequence (p < 0.001). The smallest difference to macroscopic measurements was observed in the 3D VIEW T2W HR and T1W VISTA SPAIR sequences with no statistical difference between each other. Knowing the accuracy of different sequences will improve the evaluation of equine cartilage and the early detection of cartilage pathologies. This would promote MRI as a noninvasive imaging modality for horses suffering from stifle lameness with no findings in conventional imaging methods. Furthermore, since 3D sequences seem to have better accuracy in depicting cartilage, they may replace 2D sequences, thereby shortening scanning times. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The patellar tendon (PT) is crucial for maintaining stability and facilitating movement in the stifle joint. Elastography has been recognized as a prominent method for evaluating PT properties in humans and dogs. The utilization of oscillation methods in canine studies remains limited despite their extensive documentation in human studies. Our study represents the first effort to quantitatively assess and compare the effects of muscle relaxant on the biomechanical and viscoelastic characteristics of the PT at varying stifle angles in living dogs. Five healthy female beagles were used in this study. Biomechanical (tone, stiffness, and decrement) and viscoelastic (relaxation time and creep) properties of the PT were measured using MyotonPRO (Myoton Ltd, Estonia) prior to and following administration of rocuronium (0.5 mg/kg/body weight) at normal, extended, and flexed positions. Rocuronium was selected for its safety, controllability, and widespread clinical use in veterinary anesthesia. Two-way analysis of variance showed that tone, stiffness, and decrement were significantly higher (P < 0.001) in the control group than in the muscle relaxation group. At the same time, relaxation time and creep were significantly lower (P < 0.001) in the control group than in the muscle relaxation group. The findings indicate that stifle angle position and muscle rexalant administration fundamentally alter the biomechanical loading conditions of the PT, leading to changes in its viscoelastic properties. Therefore, this novel quantitative data could benefit clinical settings that necessitate accurate and objective methods for risk identification and monitoring PT biomechanics in dogs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this report, thermography was evaluated as a portable diagnostic tool in addition to ultrasonography, which is frequently used in the diagnosis of medial patellar ligament tears in horses. Thermography revealed that the medial patellar ligament has difficulty absorbing quadriceps forces and that the cranial surface of the stifle joint shows elevated temperatures at rest. At the end of training, load sharing occurred between the cranial and caudal surfaces of the joint and the quadriceps muscle. Temperature changes captured by thermography may indicate the severity of the injury and help clinicians suspect ligament tears even without access to ultrasonography. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, it was aimed to make three‐dimensional reconstruction of the stifle joint computed tomography (CT) images of the Van cats, to obtain their osteometric measurements, and to determine the statistical biometric differences of these measurement values in terms of both sexual dimorphism and homotypic variations. A total of 16 healthy adult Van cats of both sexes were used. The stifle joints of the cats were scanned with a CT device and images were obtained. Three‐dimensional reconstructions of the bony structures of the stifle joint were performed using CT images using the MIMICS 20.1 modelling program. Then, osteometric measurements were calculated, and statistical analysis was performed. When the morphometric measurement values were examined in terms of gender, it was observed that almost all of the osteometric measurement values of the stifle joint in Van cats (except SPW measurement) were higher in male cats. According to homotypic variations, right side TPW (p = 0.009), TPCMA (p = 0.003) and TPMCA (p = 0.032) measurement values in female cats and right side TPLCA (p = 0.002) measurement values in male cats were found to be statistically significantly higher than the left side from the measurements of only the proximal tibia (p < 0.05). In general, although there were negative correlations between morphometric measurement values with age and body weight, mostly strong positive correlations were seen. As a result, statistical differences of the biometric values and anatomical features of the stifle joint between the sexes in Van cats between the sexes were examined using CT and a three‐dimensional modelling program. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The primary objective of our study was to determine the prevalence of cranial tibial translation on a single unstressed, standing angle, mediolateral radiograph of the stifle and the accuracy of diagnosing complete cranial cruciate ligament rupture in dogs with this finding using a previously published method. The secondary objective was to determine if there was a higher incidence of meniscal injuries associated with spontaneous radiographic cranial tibial translation as previously proposed. Medical records were reviewed for client owned dogs with cranial cruciate ligament rupture that underwent surgical stabilization with intra-operative evaluation of the stifle joint via arthrotomy between June 2013 to January 2022 and had pre-operative radiographs performed within 60 days prior to surgery. Pre-operative radiographs were evaluated for cranial tibial translation via the previously published method. Three hundred twenty-three dogs met the inclusion criteria for the study. Intra-operative findings and radiographic assessments were evaluated for correlations. Cranial tibial translation on pre-operative standing angle radiographs detected cranial cruciate ligament tears in 24.8% of cases but had a positive predictive value of 97.5% for diagnosing complete cranial cruciate ligament rupture with a specificity of 95.4% and an overall accuracy of 36.8%. Meniscal tears were present in 58.75% of cases with radiographic cranial tibial translation and 41.25% of cases without. There was no significant increase in the incidence of meniscal tears between the two groups. The presence of radiographic cranial tibial translation in dogs on an unstressed, standing angle, mediolateral radiograph of the stifle is diagnostic for cranial cruciate ligament rupture, but cannot be used to determine the presence of a meniscal tear. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: This study aimed to establish an image evaluation grading criteria for experimental stifle joint osteoarthritis (OA) in anterior cruciate ligament transection induced OA beagle dog models. The severity of OA was assessed using X-ray and computed tomography (CT) imaging. Results: A total of 32 dogs (8 controls and 24 OA-induced dogs) were included in the study. The OA-induced group showed significantly higher manual joint palpation, gait analysis, and OA severity scores than the control group. Based on these two results, we calculated correlation coefficients. There was a strong positive correlation between manual joint palpation scores and OA severity on diagnostic imaging and between gait analysis scores and OA severity. Conclusions: The developed grading criteria based on radiographic evaluation correlated with clinical assessments. The study also employed CT imaging to enhance the accuracy and sensitivity of early-stage OA change detection in the stifle joint. However, further studies with larger sample sizes and multiple evaluators are recommended for the validation and generalizability of this grading system. These established image evaluation grading criteria can help evaluate and monitor the efficacy of interventions and changes in OA lesions in canine models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A case study involves a 5-year-old Labrador Retriever presenting with chronic, progressive right hind limb lameness following trauma, unresponsive to NSAIDs and gabapentin. Radiographs reveal a large, well-circumscribed radiolucency within the right medial femoral condyle, suggestive of appendicular chondrosarcoma. Differential diagnoses include benign processes like a bone cyst versus neoplasia such as chondrosarcoma or osteosarcoma.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the effect of tibial compression on radiographic cranial tibial translation measurements in healthy dogs and those with cranial cruciate ligament (CCL) rupture and establish specific criteria for the radiographic diagnosis of CCL rupture. ANIMALS: 60 dogs. PROCEDURES: Dogs were divided into 3 groups with 20 dogs each: group 1, healthy adult dogs; group 2, adult dogs with CCL rupture; and group 3, healthy young dogs. For each dog, 2 images of the stifle joint in mediolateral projection were taken, of which 1 was conventional and 1 was under tibial compression. Variables were measured in each radiographic projection: the patellar ligament angle, the patellar ligament insertion angle, the angle of tibial translation measured by 2 different methods, and the linear distance between the points of CCL origin and insertion (DPOI). Additionally, a novel variable, DPOI ratio, was evaluated. RESULTS: Regarding radiographic positioning, tibial compression significantly changed most of the variables in the within-group comparison. The variable DPOI were not different with and without tibial compression in the group of healthy adult dogs but were different for dogs with CCL rupture. Thus, these are important parameters in the diagnosis of CCL rupture. In the analysis of a novel variable, DPOI ratio, dogs with CCL rupture could be distinguished from healthy dogs at a high level of specificity and sensitivity. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: DPOI ratio values above 1.18 were consistently indicative of CCL rupture, thus allowing for a precise radiographic diagnosis of the condition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: The endocannabinoid system (ECS) plays a crucial role in various processes in animals, including pain, inflammation, and immune function. In this study, the presence and distribution of specific ECS receptors (CB1R, CB2R, and GPR55) in the joints of middle-aged dogs was investigated. By analysing the synovial tissues from the hip and the stifle joints, it was found that both CB2R and GPR55 were more prominently expressed by the synoviocytes as compared to CB1R. In addition, immune cells, such as macrophages and neutrophils, also exhibited some of these receptors. This intriguing finding suggested that the receptors in the ECS, particularly CB2R and GPR55, could be promising targets for therapeutic interventions, such as using Cannabis sativa extract, to address arthropathies in dogs. The endocannabinoid system (ECS) has emerged as a potential therapeutic target in veterinary medicine due to its involvement in a wide range of physiological processes including pain, inflammation, immune function, and neurological function. Modulation of the ECS receptors has been shown to have anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and immunomodulatory effects in various animal models of disease, including dogs with osteoarthritis. The goal of this study was to identify and compare the cellular expression and distribution of cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1R) and type 2 (CB2R) and the cannabinoid-related G protein-coupled receptor 55 (GPR55) on the synovial cells of hip and stifle joints of seven dogs of different breeds without overt signs of osteoarthritis (OA). The synovial membranes of seven hips and seven stifle joints were harvested post mortem. The expression of the CB1R, CB2R, and GPR55 present in the synovial tissues was investigated using qualitative and quantitative immunofluorescence and Western blot (Wb) analysis. Synoviocytes of the stifle and hip joints expressed CB1R, CB2R, and GPR55 immunoreactivity (IR); no significant differences were observed for each different joint. Cannabinoid receptor 2- and GPR55-IR were also expressed by macrophages, neutrophils, and vascular cells. The ECS receptors were widely expressed by the synovial elements of dogs without overt signs of OA. It suggests that the ECS could be a target for the therapeutic use of Cannabis sativa extract in canine arthropathies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Patellar luxation in dogs is thought to be related to proximally (patella alta) or distally (patella baja) positioned patella in the femoral trochlea. Aim: The aim of the present study was to calculate and compare the values of Insall-Salvati (ISI), Caton-Deschamps (CDI), and Blackburne-Peel indices (BPI) in orthopedically healthy dogs and dogs with various grades of medial patellar luxation (MPL) from small breeds on mediolateral radiographs. Methods: The study included 87 dogs (138 stifles) from four breeds (Mini-Pinschers, Pomeranians, Chihuahuas, and Yorkshire terriers). Seventy joints (53 dogs) were diagnosed with various grades of MPL and another 68 joints from 34 dogs, free of orthopedic or neurological disorders, were used as controls. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis was performed to evaluate the diagnostic value of the three indices. Results: The CDI and BPI showed no significant difference between healthy and MPL joints. The ROC analysis showed that all three studied indices of proximodistal patellar position had poor diagnostic values with low sensitivity and specificity of respective cutoff values. Conclusion: In dogs from the studied four small breeds, the proximodistal ISI, CDI, and BPI patellar indices could not discriminate reliably between healthy stifle joints and joints with MPL. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Most of the problems that appear after tibial plateau leveling osteotomy surgery are lameness. The dog exhibited mild lameness due to pain and inflammation, impeding full recovery. The purpose of this study is to collect objective data using walking analysis and digital thermal imaging to aid recovery from potential pain, inflammation, and lameness resulting from delayed rehabilitation after tibial plateau leveling osteotomy. The dog had not experienced rehabilitation until 42 h post-surgery. Gait analysis revealed insufficient weight support and the digital thermal imaging confirmed an increase in relative body heat within the medial stifle joint. After that, cold treatment, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation, and treadmill exercise were applied to promote recovery. Veterinary rehabilitation is often neglected post-surgery, despite its ability to enhance a dog's quality of life. A 7-year-old neutered Maltese dog weighing 5.1 kg was presented, with a tibial plateau-leveling osteotomy (TPLO) on the right hindlimb 42 days prior. The patient's right hind limb showed lameness, intermittent limping, and atrophy, and the patient had not experienced rehabilitation since TPLO surgery. The patient showed a pain reaction at the end of the stifle extension, and an increased body temperature was identified on the medial side of the right hindlimb when compared with the left hindlimb using a digital thermal imaging device. In addition, a type of lameness, only partial weight bearing in the right hindlimb, was also identified during the gait analysis. The pain was relieved by applying a cold pack and transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation, and the patient's weak muscles were strengthened through treadmill exercises. In this study, physical therapy and rehabilitation exercises controlled pain and induced rapid recovery, indicating that rehabilitative intervention is required after TPLO surgery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Femur fractures are common in immature dogs. As compared to stainless steel, titanium implants are lighter and allow controlled micro-motion at the site of fracture that stimulates early callus formation by limiting stress shielding. Cited literature reports successful clinical use of titanium elastic nails for the stabilization of long bone fractures in young human patients; however, there is paucity of information on this technique is dogs. This study was planned with an objective to compare titanium elastic nails (TENS) and single end-threaded pin for the management of femoral fractures in young dogs. Methods: The study included 20 clinical cases (10 male and 10 female) of dogs suffering from distal femoral fracture with a mean±SD age of 5.70±5.60 month, body weight 11.09±4.48 kg since 3.05±2.35 days. The cases were divided into 2 groups; using TENS (n=10; group 1) and stainless steel end-threaded intramedullary pin (n=10; group 2). Result: Group 1 dogs demonstrated better fracture reduction score, early and uniform callus and better implant stability as compared to group 2, radiographically. Early weight bearing and minimum postoperative complications with better functional outcome including joint mobility was reported in group 1. In conclusions, TENS is superior fracture fixation technique for the repair of supracondylar or distal third femur fractures in young dogs with better functional outcome, minimal stiffness of stifle joint and early weight bearing, in comparison to single end threaded intramedullary pin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The knee joint capsules composed of a fibrous layer and a synovial layer. The knee meniscus consists of the superficial network, lamellar layer, tie fibre and circumferential bundles. However, the continuous structure of the knee joint capsule and meniscus has not been reported. Fetal and adult pigs were used to investigate the structural relationship between the stifle joint capsule and meniscus based on the gross anatomy and histological findings. In the gross anatomical examination, the joint capsule appeared to have separated attachments to the meniscus, except for the lower aspect of the popliteal hiatus. Histologically, the lower half of the popliteal hiatus was found to have separated attachments, with vessels running between the attachments of the joint capsules. The synovial layer of the joint capsule continued to the superficial network, and the fibrous layer of the joint capsule continued to the lamellar layer and tie fibres. There were two routes of arterial entry into the meniscus: intracapsular and intercapsular. It appeared that the presence of separated attachments of the joint capsule was necessary to allow the intercapsular route. This study clarified for the first time the routes of feeding vessels entering the meniscus and proposed to call this entry point the meniscus hilum. We consider that this detailed anatomical information is important for understanding the continuation between the joint capsule and the meniscus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Cranial cruciate ligament (CCL) disease is one of the most common causes of lameness in dogs. The extracapsular stabilization (ECS) utilizing bone anchors and monofilament nylon leader was an alternative treatment for CCL-deficient (CCLD) dogs. However, the biomechanical response of the canine stifle to such a surgical repair strategy in conjunction with the use of recently reported quasi-isometric anchoring points remains unclear. The objectives of the study were to evaluate the mobility and stability of CCL-intact, CCLD, and CCLD stifles repaired with ECS at two different pairs of quasi-isometric points (quasi-IPs). Methods: Twelve stifle specimens from 7 dogs underwent mobility and stability tests under 4 different conditions, namely, CCL-intact, CCLD, and ECS-repaired at 2 different pairs of quasi-IPs (referred to as ECS-IP1 and ECS-IP2). The mobility tests evaluated 6 degrees-of-freedom stifle kinematics during flexion and extension. The stability tests involved cranial drawer and tibial internal rotation (IR) tests at various stifle opening angles and quantifying the cranial tibial translation (CTT) and tibial IR angles under constantly applied loadings. Results: The ECS repaired at quasi-IPs was shown to restore cranial instability of the stifles with averaged CTT magnitudes < 1.4 mm. During the tibial IR test, the ECS treatments resulted in significantly less tibial IR compared to those in intact CCL stifles. The mobility tests showed similar results. Conclusion: The 2 chosen pairs of quasi-IPs were shown to effectively correct the excessive CTT caused by CCLD stifles, whereas the excessive tibial external rotation in comparison to those of intact stifles should be considered for its subsequent influence on joint alignment and the contact pressure applied to the stifle joint. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: In dogs, the current techniques for the preoperative planning of tibial tuberosity advancement do not appear to restore joint stability due to under-advancement after surgery. This cadaveric study compared the tibial-anatomy-based method and the common tangent method for measuring tibial tuberosity advancement. The postoperative patellar tendon angle was not significantly different between the two methods. However, the tibial-anatomy-based method yielded advancement similar to the sizes of commercially available wedges. Both techniques yielded a tibial tuberosity advancement within the suggested range. However, TAM resulted in a mean value of the postoperative patellar tendon angle corresponding to 90°. This study paves the way for developing intraoperative methods capable of achieving a patellar tendon angle that may not be influenced by preoperative variables. Previous studies have suggested that the preoperative methods used to plan tibial tuberosity advancement in dogs may result in under-advancement. Therefore, this cadaveric study compared the effectiveness of the common tangent method and the tibial-anatomy-based method for achieving a target patellar tendon angle (PTA) of 90° after the modified Maquet procedure. Twenty stifle joints of mesomorphic dogs were randomly assigned to the two measurement methods. Radiographs taken in the mediolateral projection were used to measure tibial tuberosity advancement, and the wedge size was selected accordingly. For each surgical procedure, a custom-made three-dimensional wedge matched to an OrthoFoam wedge was used as a spacer. Postoperative radiographs were used to measure the PTA and to evaluate the position of the wedge. The measured advancement was not significantly different between the two methods. For 60% of the cases, the advancement measured using the common tangent method was <5.3 mm and the wedge size was increased to match that of commercially available wedges. Consequently, there was a significant difference between the measurements and wedges selected between the two procedures. The postoperative PTA did not differ significantly between the two methods and was 90° ± 5° in 80% of the stifles. The position of the wedge relative to the osteotomy was not significantly different between the methods. In conclusion, the advancement determined using the tibial-anatomy-based method was generally consistent with the size of commercially available wedges, and the method yielded a mean postoperative PTA of 90°. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: In order to prevent the onset of osteoarthritis, timely detection of cartilage damage is essential. We hypothesized that the diagnostic performance of computed tomography arthrography (CTA) would be superior to that of 3-Tesla MRI when diagnosing cartilage lesions in the stifle joint of horses. A total of 79 cartilage defects were created arthroscopically in 15 cadaver stifles from adult horses, with 68 sites serving as negative controls. A radiologist unaware of the lesion distribution evaluated the images, followed by macroscopic evaluation including measuring lesion surface area, depth, and volume. The sensitivity and specificity of MRI and CTA were calculated and compared between modalities. The sensitivity values of CTA (53%) and MRI (66%) were not significantly different (p = 0.09). However, the specificity of CTA (66%) was significantly greater compared to MRI (52%) (p = 0.04). In conclusion, CTA achieved a similar diagnostic performance compared to high-field MRI in detecting small experimental cartilage lesions. Despite this, CTA showed a higher specificity than MRI; thus, CTA was more accurate in diagnosing normal cartilage. Small lesion size was a discriminating factor for lesion detection. In a clinical setting, CTA may be preferred over MRI due to higher availability and easier image acquisition. Background: The purpose of the study was to determine the diagnostic performance of computed tomographic arthrography (CTA) and 3-Tesla magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for detecting artificial cartilage lesions in equine femorotibial and femoropatellar joints. Methods: A total of 79 cartilage defects were created arthroscopically in 15 cadaver stifles from adult horses in eight different locations. In addition, 68 sites served as negative controls. MRI and CTA (80–160 mL iodinated contrast media at 87.5 mg/mL per joint) studies were obtained and evaluated by a radiologist unaware of the lesion distribution. The stifles were macroscopically evaluated, and lesion surface area, depth, and volume were determined. The sensitivity and specificity of MRI and CTA were calculated and compared between modalities. Results: The sensitivity values of CTA (53%) and MRI (66%) were not significantly different (p = 0.09). However, the specificity of CTA (66%) was significantly greater compared to MRI (52%) (p = 0.04). The mean lesion surface area was 11 mm2 (range: 2–54 mm2). Greater lesion surface area resulted in greater odds of lesion detection with CTA but not with MRI. Conclusions: CTA achieved a similar diagnostic performance compared to high-field MRI in detecting small experimental cartilage lesions. Despite this, CTA showed a higher specificity than MRI, thus making CTA more accurate in diagnosing normal cartilage. Small lesion size was a discriminating factor for lesion detection. In a clinical setting, CTA may be preferred over MRI due to higher availability and easier image acquisition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Cranial cruciate ligament disease is one of the leading causes of pelvic limb claudication in canines and osteoarthritis in the stifle joint. Historically, studies have focused on surgical options to improve the stability of the stifle joint, although none of the techniques described in the literature prevents the development of osteoarthritis. Aim: This study aimed at proving the presence of osteoarthritis at the time of diagnosis of cranial cruciate ligament rupture, as well as evaluating the benefits of administering diacerein (DAR) or chondroprotective coadjuvants to the extracapsular fabelo-tibial technique. Methods: Seventeen dogs aged between 2 and 8, weighing more than 25 kg, with no predilection for breed or sex, were operated on using this technique. These were divided into three groups: DAR, Chondroprotector (CP), and Control. The animals were treated for 90 days and controlled clinically, radiologically, and using multidimensional scales for pain and quality of life. The statistical analysis used was descriptive and through non-parametric tests. Results: All patients had some degree of osteoarthritis at the beginning of the study associated with the presence of pain. The treated groups improved the claudication scores; however, the changes were significant for the DAR group. The pain score improved in all animals, including those in the Control group; however, the differences were significant only in the treated groups. On the other hand, no significant differences were detected in the radiological studies, so it would be convenient to perform this study over more than 90 days. Conclusion: The surgical treatment accompanied by drugs that act on the degradation of articular cartilage has better clinical results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: The heritability of a trait is the proportion of phenotypic variance explained via genetic variance. Prior to the advent of genomics, heritability was estimated using extensive pedigree analyses. With the availability of genome-wide genotyping arrays, an alternative method became available to estimate heritability using genomic relationship matrices derived from genotype data. We used approaches that consider patterns of linkage disequilibrium and relatedness to estimate heritability of osteochondrosis dissecans in Hanoverian Warmblood horses based on genotype data from SNP arrays and imputed genotype data. Taking into account linkage disequilibrium patterns and relatedness in the data, heritability estimates on the linear scale for fetlock-, hock- and stifle-OCD were 0.41–0.43, 0.62–0.63, and 0.23–0.25, respectively, with standard errors of 0.11–0.14. In summary, SNP-based approaches are able to capture a greater proportion of additive genetic variance than previous estimates based on pedigree data. Before the genomics era, heritability estimates were performed using pedigree data. Data collection for pedigree analysis is time consuming and holds the risk of incorrect or incomplete data. With the availability of SNP-based arrays, heritability can now be estimated based on genotyping data. We used SNP array and 1.6 million imputed genotype data with different minor allele frequency restrictions to estimate heritabilities for osteochondrosis dissecans in the fetlock, hock and stifle joints of 446 Hanoverian warmblood horses. SNP-based heritabilities were estimated using a genomic restricted maximum likelihood (GREML) method and accounting for patterns of regional linkage disequilibrium in the equine genome. In addition, we employed GREML for family data to account for different degrees of relatedness in the study population. Our results indicate that we were able to capture a larger proportion of additive genetic variance compared to pedigree-based estimates in the same population of Hanoverian horses. Heritability estimates on the linear scale for fetlock-, hock- and stifle-osteochondrosis dissecans were 0.41–0.43, 0.62–0.63, and 0.23–0.25, respectively, with standard errors of 0.11–0.14. Accounting for linkage disequilibrium patterns had an upward effect on the imputed data and a downward impact on the SNP array genotype data. GREML for family data resulted in higher heritability estimates for fetlock-osteochondrosis dissecans and slightly higher estimates for hock-osteochondrosis dissecans, but had no effect on stifle-osteochondrosis dissecans. The largest and most consistent heritability estimates were obtained when we employed GREML for family data with genomic relationship matrices weighted through patterns of regional linkage disequilibrium. Estimation of SNP-based heritability should be recommended for traits that can only be phenotyped in smaller samples or are cost-effective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Canine osteoarthritis (OA) is a common disease in aging dogs and mostly affects the synovial joint. Non-invasive imaging modalities, such as digital radiography (DR) and computed tomography (CT), are often used to diagnose and evaluate the severity of OA. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the preferred diagnostic method for the assessment of OA, is considered the gold standard in humans, and has been applied in several canine experimental studies. However, the value of MRI in diagnosing spontaneous canine OA and the comparison of different imaging modalities have seldom been addressed. This study compared multiple noninvasive imaging modalities in canine spontaneous stifle OA cases. The results showed that MRI provides the most comprehensive and superior lesion detection sensitivity for ligament, meniscus, cartilage, and synovial effusions. DR provides adequate bony structure information, while CT provides the most delicate images of bony structure lesions. These imaging findings may provide further understanding of the disease and help clinicians draft a more precise treatment plan. Canine stifle joint osteoarthritis (OA) is characterized by damage and degeneration of the articular cartilage and subchondral bone, bony hypertrophy at the margins, and synovial joint membrane changes. Non-invasive imaging modalities, such as digital radiography (DR), computed tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), can be used to describe these changes. However, the value of MRI in diagnosing spontaneous canine OA and the comparison of different imaging modalities have seldom been addressed. This study compared multiple noninvasive imaging modalities in canine spontaneous stifle OA cases. Four client-owned dogs with five spontaneously affected OA stifle joints were recruited and underwent DR, CT, and MRI. Information on osteophytes/enthesophytes, ligament/tendon lesions, synovial effusion and membrane thickening, subchondral bone lesions, and meniscal and cartilage lesions were scored and compared. The results showed that MRI provides the most comprehensive and superior lesion detection sensitivity for ligament, meniscus, cartilage, and synovial effusions. DR provides adequate bony structure information, while CT provides the most delicate images of bony structure lesions. These imaging findings may provide further understanding of the disease and help clinicians draft a more precise treatment plan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Van cats attract attention with their unique physical features and live in the Van region. This study was performed to analyze the morphological features of the bony and soft anatomical structures in the stifle joint by using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in Van cats. In the study, 16 (8 male, 8 female) adult healthy Van cats were used. Cats were anesthetized by intramuscular administration of xylazine-ketamine combination. Anesthetized Van cats were placed in the dorsal recumbent position and the stifle joint region was scanned with an MRI device (Siemens Symphony 1.5 Tesla Magnetom). Proton density (PD) weighted fat-suppressed (Fs: Fat-suppressed) sagittal, T1-weighted sagittal, and T2-weighted coronal data sequences obtained from the MRI device were used for image analysis. In general, when MRI was examined, the anatomical structures of the stifle joint in Van cats were detected to be compatible with domestic cats. In MRI, the collateral ligaments were observed only on T2-weighted coronal images, while the cruciate ligaments were easily seen on T1-weighted sagittal and T2-weighted coronal images. However, infrapatellar fat pad and other fatcontaining tissues appeared bright white on T1-weighted sagittal images. Proton density weighted fatsuppressed sagittal images showed isointense appearance of fat-containing tissues. As a result, anatomical structures in the stifle joint were analyzed in terms of morphological features in Van cats using MRI. It is thought that the study will be beneficial to veterinarians in clinical practice areas in the evaluation of magnetic resonance images of the stifle joint in Van cats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

OBJECTIVE This study aims to quantitatively characterize the passive kinematics of the healthy, soft tissue-intact equine stifle to establish an objective foundation for providing insights into the etiology of stifle disorders and developing a possible surgical treatment for stifle degenerative disease. ANIMALS 5 whole-horse specimens. PROCEDURES Reflective markers with intracortical bone pins and a motion capture system were used to investigate the stifle joint kinematics. Kinematics of 5 whole-horse specimens euthanized within 2 hours were calculated for internal/external rotation, adduction/abduction, and cranial/caudal translation of the medial and lateral femoral condyles and estimated joint contact centroids as functions of joint extension angle. RESULTS From 41.7° to 121.6° (mean ± SD, range of motion: 107.5° ± 7.2°) of joint extension, 13° ± 3.7° of tibial external rotation and 6° ± 2.7° of adduction were observed. The lateral femoral condyle demonstrated significantly greater cranial translation than the medial during extension (23.7 mm ± 9.3 mm vs. 14.3 mm ± 7.0 mm, P = .01). No significant difference was found between the cranial/caudal translation of estimated joint contact centroids in the medial and lateral compartment (13.3 mm ± 7.7 mm vs. 16.4 mm ± 5.8 mm, P = .16). CLINICAL RELEVANCE The findings share similarities with kinematics for human knees and sheep and dog stifles, suggesting it may be possible to translate what has been learned in human arthroplasty to treatment for equine stifles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Osteoarthritis occurs frequently after joint injury. Currently, osteoarthritis is diagnosed by radiographic changes that are typically found after the disease has progressed to multiple tissues. The primary objective was to compare potential metabolomic biomarkers of joint injury between synovial fluid and serum in a mouse model of posttraumatic osteoarthritis. The secondary objective was to gain insight into the pathophysiology of osteoarthritis by examining metabolomic profiles after joint injury. Twelve‐week‐old adult female C57BL/6 mice (n = 12) were randomly assigned to control, Day 1, or Day 8 postinjury groups. Randomly selected stifle joints were subjected to a single rapid compression. At Days 1 and 8 postinjury, serum was extracted before mice were euthanized for synovial fluid collection. Metabolomic profiling detected ~2500 metabolites across serum and synovial fluid. Of these, 179 were positively correlated and 51 were negatively correlated between synovial fluid and serum, indicating the potential for the development of metabolomic biomarkers. Synovial fluid captured injury‐induced differences in metabolomic profiles at both Days 1 and 8 after injury whereas serum did not. However, synovial fluid and serum were distinct at both time points after injury. In synovial fluid, pathways of interest mapped to amino acid synthesis and degradation, bupropion degradation, and transfer RNA (tRNA) charging. In serum, pathways were amino acid synthesis and degradation, the phospholipase pathway, and nicotine degradation. These results provide a rich picture of the injury response at early time points after joint injury. Furthermore, the correlations between synovial fluid and serum metabolites suggest the potential to gain insight into intra‐articular pathophysiology through analysis of serum metabolites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: With hydrotherapy rising in the United Kingdom, before understanding the effect of hydrotherapy in animals with pathologies, kinematics data for healthy animals is required. Objectives: To assess how different water levels on an underwater treadmill (UWTM) can affect joint kinematics. Methods: Zinc oxide markers were placed on bony landmarks on the limbs of 10 healthy dogs, randomly split into five groups. An UWTM was used with water levels to the digits, tarsus, stifle and hip. The maximum flexion, extension and ROM were determined and a repeated measures ANOVA or Friedman's was used to determine significant differences. Results: We have detected various changes in kinematics following exercise at different water levels, in comparison with a dry treadmill, including consistent increases in flexion of the elbow, stifle and tarsal joints, which were observed for all water levels. The carpal joint had increases in flexion all water levels apart from digit level. An increase in shoulder flexion was seen only with water on or above stifle level, while hip kinematics had the fewest changes with only ROM increasing at high water level (hip level). Extension of the limbs joints was not markedly affected, with only a few data being significant. The carpal joint had an overall decrease in extension with water at all levels, and the stifle joint had a decreased extension when water was at stifle height. Conclusions: Water level can significantly affect joint kinematics, and knowledge of how each water level affects the joints is relevant to design tailored hydrotherapy protocols. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are important regulators of intercellular signaling and are promising biomarkers in osteoarthritis (OA). In this study, comprehensive analysis was performed to identify miRNAs involved in the pathogenesis of spontaneous OA in dogs. Dogs diagnosed with OA based on radiography and arthroscopy of the stifle joint were included in the OA group. Dogs without any evidence of orthopedic disease were included in the unaffected group. To investigate miRNA expression levels, RNA sequencing analysis (RNA-seq) was performed in synovial tissue (OA group: n = 3, Unaffected group: n = 3) and RT-qPCR was performed in synovial tissue, synovial fluid and serum (OA group: n = 17, Unaffected group: n = 6), and compared between the two groups. The RNA-seq results showed that 57 miRNAs were significantly upregulated and 42 were significantly downregulated in the OA group. Specifically, miR-542 and miR-543 expression levels in the synovial tissue, synovial fluid, and serum were consistently higher in the OA group than in the unaffected group, suggesting that these miRNAs may be used as biomarkers for detecting canine OA. This is the first report to comprehensively analyze the expression patterns of miRNAs in the synovial tissue of dogs with spontaneous OA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Many orthopedic and neurological pathologic conditions can potentially lead to or be affected by joint instability. Standard magnetic resonance imaging, as a static technique that examine joints and body parts in functional rest, can underestimate or overlook key diagnostic findings. As a result, kinematic magnetic resonance imaging techniques were developed to evaluate joints and body parts under stress and load conditions or during movement. In human medicine, the real-time acquisition technique is one of the modalities for acquiring kinematic magnetic resonance imaging, and has gained popularity in recent years. This proof-of-concept study was designed to test the feasibility of real-time acquisition techniques in veterinary medicine for the first time. Based on the results of this preliminary cadaveric study, real-time kinematic magnetic resonance imaging may be a feasible and valuable procedure to be applied to the canine cervical spine and stifle joints. Moreover, given the ease of execution and the concise duration of acquisitions, it could be applied in a regular standard protocol MRI with little additional effort, risk, and cost. In this proof-of-concept study, a good visualization of the canine cervical spine and stifle joint was achieved, showing the potential of real-time acquisition techniques for clinical and research applications. Kinematic MRI (kMRI) is a novel human imaging technique that couples the excellent soft tissue contrast and multiplanar capabilities of traditional MRI with kinematic potential. The study's goals are: (1) testing the feasibility of spinal cord and joints real-time kMRI; and (2) evaluating the quality of these kinematic studies as a new diagnostic option in veterinary medicine. Standard and real-time kinematic MRI were performed on cervical spine, elbow, and stifle joints of seven cadavers. Studies were repeated after a surgical insult aimed to create a certain degree of joint instability. A total of 56 MRI were performed—7 cervical spinal tracts, 3 elbow joints, and 4 stifle joints were examined. The technique was feasible in all the three regions examined. The images were considered of excellent quality for the stifle joint, good to fair for the cervical spine, whereas two of three elbow studies were considered to have unacceptable image quality. Additionally, real-time kMRI provided good to excellent information about stifle instability. Therefore we consider kMRI a promising technique in veterinary medicine. Further studies and an in vivo setting are needed to increase the quality of the kMRI images, and to fully evaluate clinical usefulness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

OBJECTIVE To determine the following: (1) whether an irrigation solution that is hyperosmolar (HYPER) relative to synovial fluid decreases tissue extravasation during an arthroscopic protocol when compared to a relatively hypoosmolar solution, (2) the safety of a HYPER solution based on viability of joint tissues following joint irrigation, and (3) if the use of a HYPER solution decreases water content in stifle joint tissue. ANIMALS 8 adult horses. PROCEDURES A prospective, blinded, randomized controlled trial was performed to compare lactated Ringer’s solution (LRS; 273 mOsm/L) and a HYPER (600 mOsm/L) irrigation solution for routine medial femorotibial joint (MFTJ) arthroscopy. Primary outcomes included quantification of periarticular fluid retention based on measured changes in defined stifle joint girth and ultrasonographic (US) criteria. Water content of tissue samples was assessed. The viability of articular cartilage was determined using a microscopic fluorescent cell viability staining system. RESULTS No significant difference in postprocedural joint swelling was observed between LRS and HYPER treatment groups. Percent increments in femorotibial joint dimensions (mean ± SD) were seen in both treatment groups based on US (LRS, 83.9 ± 84.6%; HYPER, 131.2 ± 144.9%) and caliper measurements (LRS 5.5 ± 4.3%; HYPER 7.5 ± 5.8%) (P ≤ .05). Chondrocyte viability and tissue water content were maintained in both treatment groups, and differences were not statistically significant. CLINICAL RELEVANCE Doubling the osmolarity of an irrigation solution used routinely for arthroscopy does not result in detrimental effects on chondrocyte viability or tissue water content. However, use of a relatively HYPER irrigation solution did not attenuate procedural tissue swelling of the equine stifle joint. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Equine breeding is often based on conformation traits, describing the proportions, shape and joint angles of a horse. These conformations traits are, however, mostly subjectively judged and not measured objectively, affecting the response of selection through lower heritabilities and precision. In this study, we measured joint angles, quantified the variation in shape of 608 Swiss Franches-Montagnes (FM) horses and estimated the heritability of these traits. We found that the poll angle had the highest heritability of all joint angles (h2 = 0.37), and variation in shape describing the type (heavy–light) was also fairly heritable (h2 = 0.36–0.37). Furthermore, the shape of the FM stallions has clearly evolved towards a lighter type from 1940 to 2018 without stabilisation in recent years, risking the loss of the light draught horse type. Phenotyping based on photographs allowed us to improve the accuracy of certain joint angle traits, and to monitor the conformational development of the FM breed. Conformation traits such as joint angles are important selection criteria in equine breeding, but mainly consist of subjective evaluation scores given by breeding judges, showing limited variation. The horse shape space model extracts shape data from 246 landmarks (LM) and objective joint angle measurements from triplets of LM on standardized horse photographs. The heritability was estimated for 10 joint angles (seven were measured twice with different LM placements), and relative warp components of the whole shape, in 608 Franches-Montagnes (FM) horses (480 stallions, 68 mares and 60 geldings born 1940–2018, 3–25 years old). The pedigree data comprised 6986 horses. Genetic variances and covariances were estimated by restricted maximum likelihood model (REML), including the fixed effects birth year, age (linear and quadratic), height at withers (linear and quadratic), as well as postural effects (head, neck, limb position and body alignment), together with a random additive genetic animal component and the residual effect. Estimated heritability varied from 0.08 (stifle joint) to 0.37 (poll). For the shape, the type was most heritable (0.36 to 0.37) and evolved from heavy to light over time. Image-based phenotyping can improve the selection of horses for conformation traits with moderate heritability (e.g., poll, shoulder and fetlock). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: This study provides initial information on the effect of platelet rich plasma in some of the most important pro-inflammatory cytokines identified in osteoarthritic stifle joint in dogs. The use of platelet rich plasma is getting more popular in the veterinary field but its effect in those cytokines is not known. Evaluation of effect of Leukoreduced Platelet Rich Plasma (LrPRP) on TNF-α and IL-6 (pro-inflammatory cytokines) in joint fluid in dogs with cranial cruciate ligament rupture (CCLR). Eight client-owned dogs with CCLR were assigned to treatment (2 mL LrPRP) or control (2 mL saline) injection groups. Day of evaluation (day 0) and day of surgery (day 10–14), joint fluid was collected and joint injected. Joint fluid was also collected on day of suture removal (day 20–28). TNF-α and IL-6 concentrations of joint fluid were measured using a bead-based antibody assay. Concentrations at the later time points were expressed as a ratio to the initial level within each stifle. LrPRP had a mean concentration of platelets 1.7 times higher that of whole blood on day of evaluation and 1.4 times higher on day of the surgery. Leukocytes were reduced by 99.7%. On day of surgery, TNF-α ratios in the joint fluid from dogs injected with LrPRP were significantly different that TNF-α ratios of control group. On the day of suture removal ratios of IL-6 and TNF-α were lower in LrPRP treatment group compared with control group; however, differences were not significant. LrPRP modulate ratios of pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α in dogs with CCLR. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was the preliminary assessment of a new cationic contrast agent, the CA4+, via the analysis of spatial distribution in cartilage of ex vivo bovine samples, at micrometer and millimeter scale. Osteochondral plugs (n = 18) extracted from bovine stifle joints (n = 2) were immersed in CA4+ solution up to 26 h. Planar images were acquired at different time points, using a microCT apparatus. The CA4+ distribution in cartilage and saturation time were evaluated. Tibial plates from bovine stifle joints (n = 3) were imaged with CT, before and after 24 h-CA4+ bath immersion, at different concentrations. Afterward, potential CA4+ washout from cartilage was investigated. From microCT acquisitions, the CA4+ distribution differentiated into three distinct layers inside the cartilage, reflecting the spatial distribution of proteoglycans. After 24 h of diffusion, the iodine concentration reached in cartilage was approximately seven times that of the CA4+ bath. The resulting saturation time was 1.9 ± 0.9 h and 2.6 ± 2.9 h for femoral and tibial samples, respectively. Analysis of clinical CT acquisitions confirmed overall contrast enhancement of cartilage after 24 h immersion, observed for each CA4+ concentration. Distinct contrast enhancement was reached in different cartilage regions, depending on tissue's local features. Incomplete but remarkable washout of cartilage was observed. CA4+ significantly improved cartilage visualization and its qualitative analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Osteochondrosis is a major cause of leg weakness in pigs. Selection against osteochondrosis is currently based on manual scoring of computed tomographic (CT) scans for the presence of osteochondrosis manifesta lesions. It would be advantageous if osteochondrosis could be diagnosed automatically, through artificial intelligence methods using machine learning. The aim of this study was to describe a method for labelling articular osteochondrosis lesions in CT scans of four pig joints to guide development of future machine learning algorithms, and to report new observations made during the labelling process. The shoulder, elbow, stifle and hock joints were evaluated in CT scans of 201 pigs. Results: Six thousand two hundred fifty osteochondrosis manifesta and cyst-like lesions were labelled in 201 pigs representing a total volume of 211,721.83 mm3. The per-joint prevalence of osteochondrosis ranged from 64.7% in the hock to 100% in the stifle joint. The lowest number of lesions was found in the hock joint at 208 lesions, and the highest number of lesions was found in the stifle joint at 4306 lesions. The mean volume per lesion ranged from 26.21 mm3 in the shoulder to 42.06 mm3 in the elbow joint. Pigs with the highest number of lesions had small lesions, whereas pigs with few lesions frequently had large lesions, that have the potential to become clinically significant. In the stifle joint, lesion number had a moderate negative correlation with mean lesion volume at r = − 0.54, p < 0.001. Conclusions: The described labelling method is an important step towards developing a machine learning algorithm that will enable automated diagnosis of osteochondrosis manifesta and cyst-like lesions. Both lesion number and volume should be considered during breeding selection. The apparent inverse relationship between lesion number and volume warrants further investigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Osteochondrosis (OC) is a focal disturbance of endochondral ossification due to a failure of blood supply to the epiphyseal growth cartilage. In dogs, OC most commonly affects the shoulder joint, followed by the elbow, tarsal, and stifle joints. The condition is associated with clinical signs such as lameness and pain and the prognosis varies depending on the affected joint. Most epidemiologic studies of OC in dogs were performed over 20 years ago, and updated estimates of disease incidence are lacking. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to provide population-based estimates of the incidence rate, cause-specific mortality rate, and age at diagnosis of appendicular OC (AOC, including OC of the shoulder, elbow, stifle, and tarsal joints) and stifle and tarsal OC separately, using data from Agria Djurförsäkring in Sweden (2011–2016). Further, the study aimed to evaluate the risk of OC in subgroups divided by breed and sex and describe previous, concurrent, and subsequent diagnoses of the affected joint in dogs with stifle or tarsal joint OC. The study population included just over 600,000 dogs, of which 685 were affected by AOC. Stifle joint OC (n = 113) was more common than tarsal joint OC (n = 80). The incidence rate of AOC was 3.77 (95% confidence interval (CI): 3.49–4.07) cases per 10,000 dog-years at risk, while the incidence rate of stifle and joint tarsal OC was 0.64 (95% CI: 0.53–0.77) and 0.43 (95% CI: 0.34–0.54) cases per 10,000 dog-years at risk, respectively. All breeds at increased risk of AOC were large or giant, and male dogs had an increased risk of AOC compared to female dogs (RR 1.76, 95% CI: 1.50–2.07, p < 0.001). The median age at first diagnosis during the study period was 0.74 (0.32–11.5) years for AOC, 2.62 (0.45–8.82) years for stifle joint OC, and 0.73 (0.35–7.35) years for tarsal joint OC. Of the dogs with stifle or tarsal joint OC, 30.2% and 15.0% had a previous diagnosis of stifle/tarsal joint pain or other unspecific clinical signs, respectively, and 13.8% of the dogs with stifle joint OC suffered subsequent cruciate ligament rupture. Osteochondrosis was the most common reason for euthanasia in the affected dogs. In total, 77 dogs were euthanised due to AOC during the study period. • There were 685 cases of appendicular osteochondrosis (AOC) in the study population. • Stifle joint OC was more common than tarsal joint OC. • All breeds at increased risk of AOC were large or giant. • The median age at first diagnosis of AOC was 0.74 years. • The risk of OC-related euthanasia varied with breed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Osteoarthritis is one of the most common diseases in veterinary medicine. There are various causes for joints developing OA, with some of them being well investigated, while others are still a matter of speculation. In this retrospective study we examined the prevalence of OA in the shoulder, elbow, hip and stifle joints in a clinic population of dogs older than 8 years, which were presented mostly due to orthopaedic complaints. Dogs were included in the study if one or more of the aforementioned joints was included in the radiographs. Radiographs were reviewed by three different observers and graded by severity. Prevalence of OA was 39.2%, 57.4%, 35.9% and 36.4% for the shoulder, elbow, hip and stifle, respectively. There was no correlation between higher grades of OA and weight as well as age, but significantly higher prevalence of OA in heavier groups when grouped for weight. Sex and castration status did not affect presence of OA. As most of the examined joints were free of OA, radiographic findings suggestive of OA should not be considered normal in senescent dogs. • Most examined joints were free of osteoarthritis (OA). • Most examined elbows showed radiographic signs of OA. • Heavier dogs showed more and higher grades of OA than lighter ones. • Of 126 examined joints in Dachshunds, 119 (91.3%) were found to be free of OA. • There was no difference in prevalence of OA for gender and castration status. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to report approaches to surgical and medical management of proximal tibial metaphyseal fractures (PTMF) and short-term case outcome. Medical records of immature dogs with PTMF were reviewed and data were collected including history, signalment and side affected. Data pertaining to surgical and medical management including radiographic evaluation and short-term complications were recorded. Forty-five dogs with a total of 47 PTMF identified and treated between 2007–2019 were included in this study. Six cases were managed with external coaptation alone. Forty-one cases were treated surgically with constructs including K-wires in different configurations, bone plate and screws, and external skeletal fixation. Of the cases managed conservatively, 4 developed complications, including bandage sores, diffuse osteopenia of the tarsus/metatarsus, and angular limb deformities. Surgical complications including pin migration necessitating removal, osteopenia, and screw placement in the proximal tibial growth plate or into the stifle joint were found in 16 cases. PTMF treated with surgery had a subjectively more predictable outcome compared to those treated with external coaptation alone. Conservative management may result in complications including development of excessive tibial plateau angle (TPA) as well as distal tibial valgus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to evaluate the complications and the short-, medium-, and long-term outcomes following treatment of cranial cruciate ligament (CCL) rupture in dogs using the lateral fabello-tibial suture technique. The patients were ten dogs of various breeds, 62.5 ± 18.8 months of age, weighing 30.2 ± 3.3 kg, with unilateral CCL rupture. At 2, 6, 12, 24, and 52 weeks after surgery, the dogs were re-evaluated with clinical examination, gait and pain analysis, and radiography. A major complication was identified in one dog (10%), requiring second surgery due to implant failure and destabilisation of stifle joint. Minor complications occurred in two dogs postoperatively (one late meniscal injury and one case of seroma formation). The short-term outcome at two and six weeks postoperatively was considered good in six dogs and satisfactory in four dogs, while the mid-term outcome (between 12 and 24 weeks) was good to excellent in eight dogs and satisfactory in two dogs. All ten dogs had a good to excellent outcome 52 weeks after surgery. The lateral suture technique is generally safe and given the major benefits, such as lower costs, lower technical difficulty, and minimal requirement for specialised equipment, will probably remain a popular and alternative method for treatment of CCL insufficiency in dogs with good degree of owner satisfaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Segmentation of medical images into different tissue types is essential for many advancements in orthopaedic research; however, manual segmentation techniques can be time- and cost-prohibitive. The purpose of this work was to develop a semi-automatic segmentation algorithm that leverages gradients in spatial intensity to isolate the patella bone from magnetic resonance (MR) images of the knee that does not require a training set. The developed algorithm was validated in a sample of four human participants (in vivo) and three porcine stifle joints (ex vivo) using both magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT). We assessed the repeatability (expressed as mean ± standard deviation) of the semi-automatic segmentation technique on: (1) the same MRI scan twice (Dice similarity coefficient = 0.988 ± 0.002; surface distance = − 0.01 ± 0.001 mm), (2) the scan/re-scan repeatability of the segmentation technique (surface distance = − 0.02 ± 0.03 mm), (3) how the semi-automatic segmentation technique compared to manual MRI segmentation (surface distance = − 0.02 ± 0.08 mm), and (4) how the semi-automatic segmentation technique compared when applied to both MRI and CT images of the same specimens (surface distance = − 0.02 ± 0.06 mm). Mean surface distances perpendicular to the cartilage surface were computed between pairs of patellar bone models. Critically, the semi-automatic segmentation algorithm developed in this work reduced segmentation time by approximately 75%. This method is promising for improving research throughput and potentially for use in generating training data for deep learning algorithms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

OBJECTIVE: The objectives of this study were to investigate scattered radiation doses to the hands of equlne workers holding the cassette and the x-ray tube by hand, for both limb and vertebral column studies, and to compare the scattered radiation attenuation of lead with radiation protection lead-free gloves. Radiation doses to the hands of the cassette holder in the primary beam were also investigated. SAMPLE: A whole-body horse cadaver. PROCEDURES A portable x-ray unit was used to simulate 6 radiographic study types in the horse cadaver. Doses were measured with no shielding and, for cassette holders, with the ion chamber enclosed in a lead glove and a lead-free glove. Thirty exposures were performed for each study view and condition (n = 1,920). RESULTS: Mean scattered doses to x-ray unit operators were higher than doses to cassette holders for ungula (hoof), thoracic vertebrae, and lumbar vertebrae studies, whereas doses to cassette holders were higher than doses to x-ray tube operators for studies of the metacarpophalangeal joint (fetlock) and tarsus (hock). Doses did not differ forthe stifle joint. Mean percentage decrease in scattered radiation dose was 99.58% with lead gloves and 98.9% with lead-free gloves. CLINICALRELEVANCE: X-ray tube operators can be exposed to equal or higher scattered radiation doses to the hand as cassette holders. Lead-free hand shielding should only be considered as an alternative to lead gloves if their lighter weight increases frequency of use by workers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Tibial plateau levelling osteotomy (TPLO) is currently one of the most common surgical procedures for the correction of the stifle joint with a ruptured cranial cruciate ligament. TPLO is based on the preoperative tibial plateau angle (TPA); therefore, it is essential to optimise the consistency and repeatability of TPA measurements. Objectives: This study aims to compare computed tomography (CT) with conventional radiography in the preoperative planning of TPLO. Methods: This prospective study included six dogs (12 hindlimbs) and 13 canine cadaveric hindlimbs. In the six beagle dogs, TPAs were measured by three radiologists using digital radiographic and CT images to evaluate the intra‐ and inter‐observer agreement. To evaluate the intra‐observer agreement of the TPA before and after surgery, and the intended angle of the postoperative TPA according to the preoperative planning method, 13 cadaveric hindlimbs were evaluated thrice at random by a single radiologist. Results: The intra‐ and inter‐observer intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) of the CT method were higher than those of the radiographic method in normal beagle dogs. The intra‐observer ICC of the CT method before and after TPLO was generally higher than that of the radiographic method in the cadaver. However, no significant difference was noted in the evaluation of the intended postoperative TPA according to the preoperative planning method. Conclusions: The intra‐ and inter‐observer ICCs allowed for easy identification of landmarks required to consistently determine the TPA in the preoperative planning of TPLO based on CT images. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lubricin, a glycoprotein encoded by the proteoglycan 4 (PRG4) gene, is an essential boundary lubricant that reduces friction between articular cartilage surfaces. The loss of lubricin subsequent to joint injury plays a role in the pathogenesis of posttraumatic osteoarthritis. In this study, we describe the development and evaluation of an adeno-associated virus (AAV)-based PRG4 gene therapy intended to restore lubricin in injured joints. The green fluorescent protein (GFP) gene was inserted the PRG4 gene to facilitate tracing the distribution of the transgene product (AAV-PRG4-GFP) in vivo. Transduction efficiency of AAV-PRG4-GFP was evaluated in joint cells, and the conditioned medium containing secreted PRG4-GFP was used for shear loading/friction and viability tests. In vivo transduction of joint tissues following intra-articular injection of AAV-PRG4-GFP was confirmed in the mouse stifle joint in a surgical model of destabilization of the medial meniscus (DMM), and chondroprotective activity was tested in a rabbit anterior cruciate ligament transection (ACLT) model. In vitro studies showed that PRG4-GFP has lubricin-like cartilage-binding and antifriction properties. Significant cytoprotective effects were seen when cartilage was soaked in PRG4-GFP before cyclic shear loading (n = 3). Polymerase chain reaction and confocal microscopy confirmed the presence of PRG4-GFP DNA and protein, respectively, in a mouse DMM (n = 3 per group). In the rabbit ACLT model, AAV-PRG4-GFP gene therapy enhanced lubricin expression (p = 0.001 vs. AAV-GFP: n = 7–14) and protected the cartilage from degeneration (p = 0.014 vs. AAV-GFP: n = 9–10) when treatments were administered immediately postoperation, but efficacy was lost when treatment was delayed for 2 weeks. AAV-PRG4-GFP gene therapy protected cartilage from degeneration in a rabbit ACLT model; however, data from the ACLT model suggest that early intervention is essential for efficacy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A 6-year-old multiparous Borana breed cow, which has been suffering from difficulty walking for 6 months, was presented to veterinary teaching hospital. As her previous history indicated, the lameness started during the second gestation, especially in the early morning, and subsides after a few hours of sunrise. She was completely cured after giving her second birth and a similar condition reappeared from the 5th month of the third gestation until she gave birth. However, unexpectedly the disease aggravated after 2 days of parturition, and she was unable to walk and forced to stay indoors due to complete extension of the stifle joint. As a result, she was unable to lay down and maintained a permanent standing position for 2 months of aggravation. Clinical findings showed difficult mobilization of the right hind leg, which was locked in extension at the stifle joint, and the hoof was dragging on the floor. Based on history and clinical findings, upper fixation of the patella was diagnosed, and it was treated with median patellar desmotomy under local anesthetic infiltration. Finally, after the complete severing of the medial ligament and skin closure, the animal was able to walk normally, and the wound was healed uneventfully. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Posttraumatic osteoarthritis (PTOA) can develop after an injury to the knee. Previous studies have indicated that an intra‐articular (IA) injection of the potent glucocorticoid dexamethasone (DEX) may significantly prevent induction of PTOA. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effectiveness of a single IA injection of hyaluronic acid (HA), alone and in combination with DEX following a localized intra‐articular injury as a PTOA‐preventing treatment option. An established rabbit model of surgical injury consisting of dual intra‐articular (IA) drill holes in a non‐cartilaginous area of the femoral notch near the origin of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) to allow for bleeding into the joint space was used. Immediately following surgery, subjects were treated with HA, HA + DEX, or received no treatment. An uninjured control group was used for comparison (N = 5/group). Rabbits were sacrificed and investigated at 9 weeks post‐injury. At 9 weeks post‐injury, there was a significant protective capacity of the single IA treatment of DEX + HA on the histological grade of the synovial tissue, and some variable location‐specific effects of HA alone and HA + DEX interactions on cartilage damage. Thus, it is possible that co‐treatment with HA may interfere with the effectiveness of the DEX. In vitro friction testing indicated that DEX did not interfere with the lubricating ability of HA or synovial fluid on cartilage. These results suggest that a single IA administration of HA in combination with DEX following an IA injury is not recommended for inhibition of PTOA progression in this model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A patellar luxation and concomitant cranial cruciate ligament rupture is a common pathology in dogs. Diagnosis is based on clinical evidence of a patellar luxation and stifle joint instability. However, diagnostic imaging is required to assess the number of skeletal deformities and signs of instability. Surgical options include both soft tissue and osseous techniques, although, in most cases, a combination of multiple procedures is necessary to correct the patellar luxation and restore the stifle joint stability. Complication rates are generally low, but can include reluxation and implant-associated complications. This article describes the patellar luxation and cranial cruciate ligament rupture signs in dogs, including the clinical presentation and diagnosis, and discusses current treatment options. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this prospective study was to investigate the effects of focal spot size of X-ray tube on sharpness of clinical radiographic images of dogs and cats. Radiographic images of 24 stifle joints, 15 carpi, 18 lumbar spines, 61 thoraxes, and 47 abdomens of 102 dogs and 4 cats were obtained in the present study, using 2 X-ray tubes with nominal focal spots of 2.0 mm and 0.6 mm, respectively. The sharpness of specific anatomical structures in all the images of 5 projections was assessed. The radiographic sharpness of various anatomical structures of lumbar spine and cortex of stifle with fine focal spot was increased significantly compared with broad focal spot images. In addition, the blurred motion was significantly higher in the fine focal spot images of thorax. In conclusion, our study suggests that a selective use of fine foci for imaging of lumbar spine or cortex of stifle enhanced radiographic sharpness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The anatomical architecture of the hip and stifle joints of the Saimaa ringed seal was determined by dissection to be similar to that of the Baltic ringed seal. There was no ligament of the femoral head in the hip joint. The lateral side of the stifle joint lacked a collateral ligament but the collateral ligament on the medial side was of considerable size. The medial meniscus was larger and thicker than the lateral meniscus. The asymmetrical anatomical architecture allows for much lateral movement during aquatic motion, but it is poorly adapted to terrestrial locomotion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]