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International audience; Alors que le transport d’animaux vivants fait l’objet d’un intérêt crois- sant en matière de lutte contre la circulation des maladies animales, experts et législateurs butent, dans le cas des bovins, sur le fait que les professionnels condui- sant les camions ne respectent pas ou peu les réglementations en vigueur en matière de nettoyage et désinfection des camions. Ces écarts à la règle sont, le plus souvent, attribués au manque de formation et de connaissance des chauf- feurs.Appuyé sur des matériaux empiriques de première main, cet article montre que les pratiques de nettoyage et désinfection sont connues des chauffeurs d’ani- maux vivants dont les savoir-faire propres au monde agricole auxquels ils appar- tiennent, concurrencent l’expertise sanitaire. L’analyse souligne également les injonctions (temporelles, notamment) multiples et souvent contradictoires vécues par ces professionnels à la frontière du monde de l’élevage et de l’industrie comme facteurs principaux de cet écart aux règles en matière de nettoyage et désinfection, contestant ainsi l’hypothèse dominante d’un manque d’information.

Disease surveillance systems’ effectiveness relies on participants following prescribed practices. We developed a general method to improve a previous cost-effectiveness evaluation of three French screening program protocols for bovine tuberculosis (bTB) to account for the practices of participants by scenario tree modelling. This method relies on: 1) semi-directive interviews of participants to identify the variability of practices and potentially influential factors, and to understand the sociological context; 2) a quantitative survey, based on multiple-choice questions, to quantify various practices and identify significantly influential factors by multivariable regression analyses; 3) addition of the scenario-tree nodes corresponding to the practices and their influential factors and configuration of the new limbs according to the data of the quantitative survey. We used this approach to integrate data concerning veterinary practices and identify some failures to conform to regulatory guidelines regarding intradermal cervical comparative tuberculin test (SICCT) (testing and notification of non-negative results). Such nonconformities appeared to be mainly caused by cattle restraint issues and the perception of veterinarians of the bTB control program. Indeed, their perception of that program significantly influenced veterinarians’ practices. We modelled the influence of the SICCT practices on the SICCT results. The incorporation of these data led to a major decrease of the herd sensitivity estimations relative to the previous assessments that did not incorporate data of practices (15% to 42% decrease). This result shows the important impact of veterinarians’ practices and their influencing factors (such as perception of the bTB control program) on the effectiveness of the surveillance system.

International audience

Background Horses are one of the potential reservoirs of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) determinants that could be transferred to human subjects. Objective To describe the AMR patterns of major bacteria isolated from diseased horses in France. Study design Retrospective observational study. Methods Data collected between 2012 and 2016 by RESAPATH, the French national surveillance network for AMR, were analysed. Only antimicrobials relevant in veterinary and human medicine for the isolated bacteria were considered. Mono- and multidrug resistance were calculated. The resistance proportions of major equine diseases were assessed and compared. Where data permitted, resistance trends were investigated using nonlinear analysis (generalised additive models). Results A total of 12,695 antibiograms were analysed. The five most frequently isolated bacteria were Streptococcus spp., Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas spp., Staphylococcus aureus, Pantoea spp. and Klebsiella spp. The highest proportions of resistance to gentamicin were found for S. aureus (22.1%) and Pseudomonas spp. (26.9%). Klebsiella spp. and E. coli had the highest proportions of resistance to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (15.5 and 26.2%, respectively). Proportions of resistance to tetracycline were among the highest for all the bacteria considered. Resistance to third-generation cephalosporins was below 10% for all Enterobacteriaceae. The highest proportions of multidrug resistance (22.5%) were found among S. aureus isolates, which is worrying given their zoonotic potential. From 2012 to 2016, resistance proportions decreased in Pseudomonas spp. isolates, but remained the same for S. aureus. For Streptococcus spp. and E. coli, resistance proportions to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole increased. Main limitations Since antibiograms are not systematic analyses, any selection bias could impact the results. Conclusions Such studies are essential to estimate the magnitude of the potential threat of AMR to public health, to design efficient control strategies and to measure their effectiveness. These findings may also guide the initial empirical treatment of horse diseases.

Objectives To characterize and compare resistance trends in clinical Escherichia coli isolates from humans, food-producing animals (poultry, cattle and swine) and pets (dogs and cats). Methods Antibiogram results collected between January 2014 and December 2017 by MedQual [the French surveillance network for antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in bacteria isolated from the community] and RESAPATH (the French surveillance network for AMR in bacteria from diseased animals) were analysed, focusing on resistance to antibiotics of common interest to human and veterinary medicine. Resistance dynamics were investigated using generalized additive models. Results In total, 743 637 antibiograms from humans, 48 170 from food-producing animals and 7750 from pets were analysed. For each antibiotic investigated, the resistance proportions of isolates collected from humans were of the same order of magnitude as those from food-producing animals or pets. However, resistance trends in humans differed from those observed in pets and food-producing animals over the period studied. For example, resistance to third-generation cephalosporins and fluoroquinolones was almost always below 10% for both humans and animals. However, in contrast to the notable decreases in resistance observed in both food-producing animals and pets, resistance in humans decreased only slightly. Conclusions Despite several potential biases in the data, the resistance trends remain meaningful. The strength of the parallel is based on similar data collection in humans and animals and on a similar statistical methodology. Resistance dynamics seemed specific to each species, reflecting different antibiotic-use practices. These results advocate applying the efforts already being made to reduce antibiotic use to all sectors and all species, both in human and veterinary medicine.

International audience; Objectives: To examine the relevance of co-resistance to amoxicillin and tetracycline as an indicator of multidrug resistance (MDR) in animal health. Methods: Escherichia coli isolates collected between 2012 and 2016 by the French surveillance network for antimicrobial resistance in diseased animals (RESAPATH) were analyzed. The proportions of MDR isolates and the proportions of isolates presenting co-resistance to amoxicillin and tetracycline were calculated for seven animal species (cattle, horse, dog, swine, poultry, duck, and turkey). The degree of agreement between these two proportions was estimated by calculating the kappa value. Results: In total, 55,904 isolates were analyzed. MDR proportions were variable among animal species, ranging from 21.9% [20.2; 23.7] in horses to 56.0% [55.4; 56.7] in cattle. A similar situation was observed for proportions of isolates with co-resistance to amoxicillin and tetracycline, with the highest value for cattle 65.0% [64.3; 65.6]. This co-resistance was also most often associated with resistance to other antibiotics, regardless of the animal species considered. Comparative analysis showed substantial agreement between MDR and this co-resistance, with a kappa value of 0.75, all animal species considered. Conclusion: Given the widespread use of penicillins and tetracyclines in animal health, co-resistance to amoxicillin and tetracycline could be an efficient indicator of MDR in E. coli isolates. Based on a specific resistance profile and not an arbitrary number of resistances compared with MDR, this potential indicator is also precise, convenient and suitable for routine use.

In most officially bovine tuberculosis (bTB)-free countries, bTB has not been fully eradicated. Costly and time-consuming surveillance and control measures are therefore still in place to control this infection. An officially bTB-free status, both at the national and at the herd level, influences whether and when animals can be sold. Thus, this infection is still an economic issue, justifying measures towards its eradication. An evaluation of the cost-effectiveness of such measures would be highly useful, especially to optimise the costs of control measures and their adaptation to a local epidemiological context. We evaluated the cost-effectiveness of three mandatory surveillance protocols currently used in France by herd type (type of production, size, and turnover of the herd) under French field conditions. The first protocol (“strict”) implies the direct slaughter and post-mortem analyses of any intradermal cervical tuberculin test (ICT) reactor, and negative results to a second intradermal cervical comparative tuberculin test (ICCT) to regain bTB-free status of the herd. In the second protocol (“compliant quick-path”) bTB-free status can be regain if post-mortem analyses of reactors to the first ICT are negative. In the third protocol (“compliant slow-path”), ICCT-reactive animals are tested using the interferon gamma assay; the results of this test influence the path of further investigation. We built scenario trees for each of these protocols at the animal level. They allowed us to estimate herd sensitivity and the total cost of each protocol by herd type. The protocols could be ordered by decreasing herd sensitivity and cost, regardless of the herd type, as follows: strict protocol, compliant quick-path protocol, and compliant slow-path protocol. We calculated a cost-effectiveness index to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of each protocol. The strict protocol was never the most cost-effective, regardless of herd type, due to higher costs relative to the other protocols, despite better herd sensitivity. We found the compliant quick-path to be the most cost-effective protocol for big beef, big dairy, and mixed herds. The compliant slow-path was the most cost-effective for small-scale beef and dairy herds. All differences were significant. This comparison of the cost-effectiveness of the protocols by herd type could help authorities to choose the most suitable protocol in the investigation of suspected cases, depending on the herd type, but could be improved by accounting for important sociological data, such as the acceptability of the protocols.

Surveillance of Pasteurella multocida resistance in food-producing animals is essential to guide the first-line treatment of respiratory diseases and to limit economic losses. Since Pasteurella are the most common bacteria isolated from dog and cat bites, this surveillance is also needed to guide treatment in humans in case of bites. The aim of this study was to characterize the phenotypic resistance of P. multocida strains isolated from respiratory infections in animals, including both food-producing animals and pets. Data collected between 2012 and 2017 by the French national surveillance network for antimicrobial resistance referred to as RESAPATH were analyzed. The proportions of resistance to antimicrobials of relevance in veterinary and human medicines were estimated for each animal species. For cattle, resistance trends over the period were investigated using non-linear analysis applied to time-series. In total, 5356 P. multocida isolates were analyzed. Proportions of resistance of P. multocida were almost all below 20% over the period, and, more precisely, all resistance proportions were below 10% for rabbits, sheep and dogs. The highest resistance proportions to enrofloxacin were identified for cattle (4.5%) and dogs (5.2%). Despite its frequent use in livestock, resistance to florfenicol was less than 1% in P. multocida strains, regardless of the animal species considered. Time series analyses revealed continuous increases in resistance to tetracycline, tilmicosin, flumequine and fluoroquinolones in P. multocida strains isolated from cattle. These trends contrast with the decrease in use of antibiotics in cattle in France and with the decrease in resistance observed in E. coli isolated from diseased cattle.

International audience; In dairy cattle, mastitis is the most frequent bacterial disease, and the routine use of antibiotics for treatment and prevention can drive antimicrobial resistance (AMR). The aim of our study was to estimate the levels of AMR of the 3 main bacteria isolated from dairy cattle with mastitis in France (Streptococcus uberis, Escherichia coil, and coagulase-positive staphylococci) and to investigate their changes over time. Data collected between 2006 and 2016 by the French surveillance network for AMR in pathogenic bacteria of animal origin (called RESAPATH) were analyzed. The proportions of mono- and multidrug resistance were calculated and the trends were investigated using nonlinear analyses applied to time series. Over the whole period, the lowest proportions of resistance in S. uberis isolates were observed for oxacillin (2.2%) and gentamicin (2.4%) and most resistance levels were below 20%. The trends in resistance showed some significant variation, mainly for S. uberis, but without a common pattern across the various antibiotics examined. For only 2 combinations of bacteria-antibiotic the trend in resistance showed a continuous increase from 2006 to 2016: tetracycline resistance in S. uberis isolates and third-generation cephalosporin resistance in E. coil isolates. In E. coli, the highest proportions of resistance were observed for amoxicillin (28.1%) and tetracycline (23.1%). Resistance to third-generation cephalosporins in E. coli from dairy cattle was almost nil in 2006, but reached 2.4% in December 2016. This increase is particularly concerning because these antibiotics constitute one of the latest therapeutic alternatives to fight severe infectious diseases in humans. Except for penicillin (33.9%), the proportions of resistance in coagulase-positive staphylococci were below 11% during the whole study period. Multidrug resistance (isolates with acquired resistance to at least one antibiotic in 3 or more antibiotic classes) ranged from 2.4% for coagulase-positive staphylococci to 9.9% for S. uberis. These findings can serve as guidelines for practitioners in the choice of the most appropriate antibiotic according to the prevailing epidemiological context. Ultimately, our results contribute to risk assessment of AMR and provide a baseline for setting up and evaluating control measures and designing strategies to limit AMR.

International audience; Categorized by WHO as critically important antibiotics, third-generation cephalosporins (3GCs) are one of the latest therapeutic alternatives to fight severe infectious diseases in humans. Some antibiotics belonging to this class are prescribed to treat food-producing animals in specific pathological contexts. Preserving the effectiveness of 3GCs requires characterization and careful monitoring of 3GCs resistance and the identification and implementation of measures that can limit this antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Here, we characterized the 3GCs resistance in Escherichia coli isolated from diseased animals. Using data collected from broilers, hens, calves, piglets, sows, turkeys and ducks between 2006 and 2016 by the French surveillance network of AMR in pathogenic bacteria of animal origin (called RESAPATH), we investigated the dynamics of resistance to 3GCs. Our non-linear analysis applied to time series showed that the evolution of E. coli resistance to 3GCs is specific to each animal category. From 2006 to 2010, resistance to 3GCs increased for most animal categories. We observed peaks of high-level of resistance for hens (21.5% in 2010) and broilers (26.7% in 2011), whereas trends stayed below 10% for the other animal categories throughout the study period. Resistance later decreased and, since 2014, 3GCs resistance has dropped below 10% for all animal categories. The parallel between trends and measures to limit AMR over the period shed lights on the impact of practices changes, public policies (EcoAntibio Plan) and sector-led initiatives (moratorium in swine sector). Finally, they highlight the usefulness and importance of AMR surveillance networks in animal health, such as RESAPATH.

International audience; Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) among bacteria isolated from food-producing animals is a growing concern with implications for public health. AMR surveillance is essential to identify resistance trends and help in the design of effective and efficient control strategies. The aim of the study was to describe the antimicrobial susceptibility of pathogenic Escherichia coli isolated from three livestock productions in France (cattle, swine and poultry). The trend in resistance to the most commonly prescribed antibiotics in animal health was analysed as follows: amoxicillin (penicillin), spectinomycin or streptomycin (aminoglycoside), tetracycline and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole/Enrofloxacin and ceftiofur were also taken into account as members of critically important antimicrobial families in human and veterinary medicine, that is fluoroquinolones and third-generation cephalosporins, respectively. Data collected between 2002 and 2015 by the French national surveillance network of AMR referred to as RESAPATH were analysed. Resistance trends were investigated using non-linear analysis (generalized additive models) applied to time-series stratified by livestock production and antibiotic. Irrespective of the species and the antibiotic considered, resistance signals over time showed no significant annual cycle. Resistance to third-generation cephalosporins emerged during the period of the study, with a peak at 22% [20.5; 24.0] in poultry in 2010, decreasing afterwards, while it remained consistently below 10% for the other species. The proportion of resistance to fluoroquinolones was broadly similar between species and remained under 30%, with a slight decreasing trend after 2009. Resistances to tetracycline and amoxicillin remained high, between 90% and 40% over time in cattle and swine. After 2010, there was a decrease in resistance to these antibiotics for all species, especially to tetracycline for poultry with a drop from 84% in 2009 to 43% in 2015. These results contribute to risk assessment and constitute objective evidence on which to evaluate the efficacy of control measures implemented to limit AMR occurrence.

International audience

National audience

International audience; In Europe, the food safety policy combines the regulatory interventions of member states with private standards. The Hygiene Package, which came into force on the 1 January 2006, is characteristic of this model. The aim of our article is to show that whilst we can learn about co-regulation by examining the standards and principles on which it is based, we will gain an even better understanding by examining its actual implementation. From a sociological standpoint, we look at how the Hygiene Package was received and implemented in French slaughterhouses. (1) After setting out the structure of slaughterhouses in France and the ways in which veterinary services are organised, (2) the article looks at how inspection services have been affected by the introduction of the Hygiene Package, particularly with regard to the changes in relationships within the inspection service, between veterinarians and official auxiliaries and (3) it then examines the evolution in roles and responsibilities between veterinary services and food business operators.

International audience; In Europe, the food safety policy combines the regulatory interventions of member states with private standards. The Hygiene Package, which came into force on the 1 January 2006, is characteristic of this model. The aim of our article is to show that whilst we can learn about co-regulation by examining the standards and principles on which it is based, we will gain an even better understanding by examining its actual implementation. From a sociological standpoint, we look at how the Hygiene Package was received and implemented in French slaughterhouses. (1) After setting out the structure of slaughterhouses in France and the ways in which veterinary services are organised, (2) the article looks at how inspection services have been affected by the introduction of the Hygiene Package, particularly with regard to the changes in relationships within the inspection service, between veterinarians and official auxiliaries and (3) it then examines the evolution in roles and responsibilities between veterinary services and food business operators.

Collection "La France de demain" - Demande de numérotation ISSN pas en cours; National audience; Lorsque nous mangeons, nous faisons confiance à un système de contrôles dont nous n'avons le plus souvent qu'une très vague idée. Vache folle ou plus récemment Escherichia coli ont montré clairement que les crises sanitaires ne sont pas derrière nous et que les enjeux économiques sont énormes. À l'heure de la libéralisation croissante des échanges agricoles, les risques se mondialisent. S'appuyant sur plusieurs années d'enquête sur le terrain, les auteurs offrent une plongée dans un univers méconnu mais qui nous concerne tous.

Background Imported cases threaten rabies reemergence in rabies-free areas. During 2000–2005, five dog and one human rabies cases were imported into France, a rabies-free country since 2001. The Summer 2004 event led to unprecedented media warnings by the French Public Health Director. We investigated medical practice evolution following the official elimination of rabies in 2001; impact of subsequent episodic rabies importations and national newspaper coverage on demand for and delivery of antirabies prophylaxis; regular transmission of epidemiological developments within the French Antirabies Medical Center (ARMC) network; and ARMC discussions on indications of rabies post-exposure prophylaxis (RPEP). Methodology/Principal Findings Annual data collected by the National Reference Center for Rabies NRCR (1989–2006) and the exhaustive database (2000–2005) of 56 ARMC were analyzed. Weekly numbers of patients consulting at ARMC and their RPEP- and antirabies-immunoglobulin (ARIG) prescription rates were determined. Autoregressive integrated moving-average modeling and regression with autocorrelated errors were applied to examine how 2000–2005 episodic rabies events and their related national newspaper coverage affected demand for and delivery of RPEP. A slight, continuous decline of rabies-dedicated public health facility attendance was observed from 2000 to 2004. Then, during the Summer 2004 event, patient consultations and RPEP and ARIG prescriptions increased by 84%, 19.7% and 43.4%, respectively. Moreover, elevated medical resource use persisted in 2005, despite communication efforts, without any secondary human or animal case. Conclusions Our findings demonstrated appropriate responsiveness to reemerging rabies cases and effective newspaper reporting, as no secondary case occurred. However, the ensuing demand on medical resources had immediate and long-lasting effects on rabies-related public health resources and expenses. Henceforth, when facing such an event, decision-makers must anticipate the broad impact of their media communications to counter the emerging risk on maintaining an optimal public health organization and implement a post-crisis communication strategy., Author Summary Rabies has been eliminated from a large part of the European Union and, thus, any newly imported cases threaten its reemergence. The 2000–2005 data derived from the exhaustive surveillance system implemented in France was analyzed to evaluate the impact on demand for and delivery of antirabies prophylaxis following introduction of five rabies-infected dogs and one infected human into this rabies-free area. Using these events, we were able to illustrate the difficulties encountered in reducing the demand for and prescription of post-exposure rabies prophylaxis in this context of episodic importation. Moreover, we highlighted the need for public health decision-makers to anticipate the broad spectrum of consequences of their media communications and to prepare appropriate responses (in terms of health resources) to maintain an optimally effective public health organization after importation of an exotic infectious agent or its emergence. These responses are particularly relevant in the context of limited availability of rabies post-exposure prophylaxis, especially antirabies immunoglobulin.

International audience; For a better understanding of host / pathogen dynamical interactions and of the capacity of host development to modify disease progress, we devised epidemiological simulation models coupling plant growth with the dispersal and disease dynamics of an airborne plant pathogen. Our first model is a complex discrete deterministic model that explicitly incorporates the dynamics of host growth (e.g., distance between organs and their susceptibility) and the development and dispersion of the pathogen. The second one is a much simpler compartmental SEIR-like model. It takes into account the host growth with the foliar surface as unit of host growth and the ontogenetic resistance of the leaves. We compare the output of both models when applied to the specific system formed by the powdery mildew, Erysiphe necator, of grapevine.

National audience; Slaughterhouses are a decisive link in a healthy food chain. Officials from veterinary services, stationed there full-time, work next to personnel on the line so that the food produced is safe for human consumption. Each inspector has to lay the grounds for his/her individual position of authority to exercise controls. This control also depends on ongoing exchanges among inspection team members and on their knowing the distance to keep from workers on the line. Recent food and health scares, along with reforms for modernizing interventions by public authorities, have made controls more formalistic. References to standards and procedures for carrying out interventions and filing reports have been thoroughly modified. This study in France of the switch from an educational approach to food inspection to a procedural one, wherein written texts have an unprecedented scope, focuses on the concrete implications for inspectors, especially in terms of human relations. Light is shed on how the possibility of legal action has shaped these changes.; L’abattoir constitue un lieu décisif pour la sécurité sanitaire des aliments. Des agents des services vétérinaires y sont postés en permanence et travaillent aux côtés du personnel de l’abattoir pour assurer le contrôle sanitaire des denrées produites. Ce contrôle repose sur la construction d’une position individuelle d’autorité par chaque agent, l’échange constant entre membres des équipes d’inspection et l’établissement d’une « bonne distance » avec les ouvriers sur la chaîne. Récemment, des crises et alertes sanitaires, ainsi que les réformes de modernisation de l’action publique ont conduit à l’introduction d’un plus grand formalisme dans le contrôle : la référence aux normes, les modalités d’intervention et les façons d’en rendre compte ont ainsi progressivement été transformées. Cet article étudie le passage d’une approche pédagogique de l’inspection à une approche procédurale, dans laquelle l’écrit acquiert une portée inédite. Il s’attache aux implications concrètes et relationnelles que cela entraîne pour les inspecteurs et met en évidence comment la perspective d’une intervention judiciaire guide ces transformations.

National audience

National audience