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The subgenus Laurentomantis in the genus Gephyromantis contains some of the least known amphibian species of Madagascar. The six currently valid nominal species are rainforest frogs known from few individuals, hampering a full understanding of the species diversity of the clade. We assembled data on specimens collected during field surveys over the past 30 years and integrated analysis of mitochondrial and nuclear-encoded genes of 88 individuals, a comprehensive bioacoustic analysis, and morphological comparisons to delimit a minimum of nine species-level lineages in the subgenus. To clarify the identity of the species Gephyromantis malagasius, we applied a target-enrichment approach to a sample of the 110 year-old holotype of Microphryne malagasia Methuen and Hewitt, 1913 to assign this specimen to a lineage based on a mitochondrial DNA barcode. The holotype clustered unambiguously with specimens previously named G. ventrimaculatus. Consequently we propose to consider Trachymantis malagasia ventrimaculatus Angel, 1935 as a junior synonym of Gephyromantis malagasius. Due to this redefinition of G. malagasius, no scientific name is available for any of the four deep lineages of frogs previously subsumed under this name, all characterized by red color ventrally on the hindlimbs. These are here formally named as Gephyromantis fiharimpe sp. nov., G. matsilo sp. nov., G. oelkrugi sp. nov., and G. portonae sp. nov. The new species are distinguishable from each other by genetic divergences of >4% uncorrected pairwise distance in a fragment of the 16S rRNA marker and a combination of morphological and bioacoustic characters. Gephyromantis fiharimpe and G. matsilo occur, respectively, at mid-elevations and lower elevations along a wide stretch of Madagascar’s eastern rainforest band, while G. oelkrugi and G. portonae appear to be more range-restricted in parts of Madagascar’s North East and Northern Central East regions. Open taxonomic questions surround G. horridus, to whic

Anuran filarial nematodes are restricted to two comparatively small subfamilies (Icosiellinae and Waltonellinae) of the filariae that currently comprise six genera and 41 recognised species. However, the life histories of only five anuran filarial nematodes, proposed as an ancestral group based on molecular phylogenetic studies, have been elucidated. Furthermore, data on the natural vectors (in situ) and parasite transmission is limited. In the current study we elucidate the life history of Neofoleyellides boerewors n. gen. n. sp. parasitising the guttural toad, Sclerophrys gutturalis and the mosquito vectors Uranotaenia (Pseudoficalbia) mashonaensis and Uranotaenia (Pseudoficalbia) montana. Additionally, we report on the unique host-seeking behaviour of the mosquito vectors which locate their toad hosts using their calls. The complex host-vector relationship and specialised host-seeking behaviour by these mosquitoes indicate biases towards host species and male toad infections

Haemogregarine (Apicomplexa: Adeleorina) blood parasites are commonly reported from anuran hosts. Dactylosomatidae (Jakowska and Nigrelli, 1955) is a group of haemogregarines comprising Dactylosoma Labbé, 1894 and Babesiosoma Jakowska and Nigrelli, 1956. Currently Dactylosoma and Babesiosoma contain five recognised species each. In the current study, a total of 643 anurans, comprising 38 species, 20 genera, and 13 families were collected from South Africa (n = 618) and Belgium (n = 25), and their blood screened for the presence of dactylosomatid parasites. Three anuran species were found infected namely, Ptychadena anchietae (Bocage, 1868) and Sclerophrys gutturalis (Power, 1927) from South Africa, and Pelophylax lessonae (Camerano, 1882) from Belgium. Based on morphological characteristics, morphometrics and molecular results a new dactylosomatid, Dactylosoma kermiti n. sp. is described form Pty. anchietae and Scl. gutturalis. The species of Dactylosoma isolated from Pel. lessonae could not, based on morphological or molecular analysis, be identified to species level. Phylogenetic analysis shows species of Dactylosoma infecting anurans as a monophyletic group separate from the other haemogregarine groups. Additionally, the mosquitoes Uranotaenia (Pseudoficalbia) mashonaensis Theobald, 1901 and U. (Pfc.) montana Ingram and De Meillon, 1927 were observed feeding on Scl. gutturalis in situ and possible dividing stages of this new parasite were observed in the mosquitoes. This study is the first to describe a dactylosomatid parasite based on morphological and molecular data from Africa as well as observe potential stages in possible dipteran vectors

The effect of invasive species on local parasite dynamics is often overlooked. The African Clawed Frog Xenopus laevis (Daudin, 1802) (Anura: Pipidae) is a global invader, with established populations on four continents and is a domestic exotic in southern Africa. Despite a century of parasitological surveys, the current study reports seven previously unrecorded nematode species parasitising X. laevis across South Africa. These are adult Capillaria sp. and Falcaustra sp. from the intestine, third stage larvae of Contracaecum sp. encysted in the body cavity, third stage larvae of Paraquimperia sp. and Tanqua sp. from the intestine and two different species of second stage nematode larvae from the lungs and kidneys, respectively. Morphological descriptions, photomicrographs and molecular data of the 18S and 28S rRNA and COI genes are provided to aid future investigations. We propose that these nematodes could well be using X. laevis as a definitive, paratenic and intermediate host, probably involving native fish, piscivorous birds, semi-aquatic reptiles and invertebrates in their life cycles. All recovered nematodes are recorded for the first time herein in association with X. laevis, except for the genus Contracaecum, members of which have previously been recorded from invasive X. laevis from California and Chile. The current study illustrates that X. laevis is an important parasite reservoir in its native range, with implications for its role in the invasive range. The fact that none of these nematodes could be identified to species level underscores the importance of provid ing morphological descriptions and molecular data when reporting on parasitological surveys, especially those of known invasive species

This communication details the maternal care of Hemisus marmoratus and Hemisus guttatus. A Hemisus mother stays with the eggs, protecting them during their time in the nest chamber, and ensures their ultimate arrival in a body of water, at varying stages of development, via a variety of different techniques, ranging from nest placement and slide construction to tadpole transportation. We confirm that a sticky glue-like substance is used during inguinal amplexus of H. guttatus, with only the hands of the male being glued to the female. Field observations indicate that H. marmoratus females carry their offspring to the water, gluing her hind legs together to increase the surface area for the tadpoles to adhere to during the journe

The mitochondrial (mt) genome of the bushveld rain frog (Breviceps adspersus, Brevicipitidae, Afrobatrachia) is the largest (28.8 kbp) among the vertebrates investigated to date. The major cause of genome size enlargement in this species is the duplication of multiple genomic regions. To investigate the evolutionary lineage, timing, and process of mt genome enlargement, we sequenced the complete mtDNAs of two congeneric rain frogs, B. mossambicus and B. poweri. The mt genomic organization, gene content, and gene arrangements of these two rain frogs are very similar to each other but differ from those of B. adspersus. The B. mossambicus mt genome (22.5 kbp) does not differ significantly from that of most other afrobatrachians. In contrast, the B. poweri mtDNA (28.1 kbp) is considerably larger: currently the second largest among vertebrates, after B. adspersus. The main causes of genome enlargement differ among Breviceps species. Unusual elongation (12.5 kbp) of the control region (CR), a single major noncoding region of the vertebrate mt genome, is responsible for the extremely large mt genome in B. poweri. Based on the current Breviceps phylogeny and estimated divergence age, it can be concluded that the genome enlargements occurred independently in each species lineage within relatively short periods. Furthermore, a high nucleotide substitution rate and relaxation of selective pressures, which are considered to be involved in changes in genome size, were also detected in afrobatrachian lineages. Our results suggest that these factors were not direct causes but may have indirectly affected mt genome enlargements in Breviceps

Rhabdias delangei n. sp. (Nematoda: Rhabdiasidae) is described from the lungs of the clicking stream frog Strongylopus grayii (Smith) in the Western Cape Province of South Africa. The new species is characterised by the nerve-ring being located just posterior to the mid-length of the oesophagus, a pre-equatorial vulva, as well as a thin-walled and apparently underdeveloped rectum. Pairwise analyses based on ITS-28S and partial cox1 gene fragments showed significant differences between R. delangei n. sp. and its congeners from the Afrotropical Realm. Rhabdias delangei n. sp. is the 12th species of Rhabdias Stiles & Hassall, 1905 recorded in Afrotropical amphibians and the second species of the genus found in pyxicephalid hosts. Our phylogenetic analysis based on the ITS-28S region showed that the new species is closely related to the European species R. rubrovenosa (Schneider, 1866). Furthermore, both species are similar with respect to the underdeveloped rectum and pre-equatorial position of vulva

Polystoma chaochiaoensis from the urinary bladder of the chaochiao frog Rana chaochiaoensis Liu was briefly described in a symposium abstract and presented at the Third Symposium on Parasitology of China in 1990. Types were not assigned and the original specimens collected are no longer available. The morphological description was incomplete and no illustrations were provided. We consider Polystoma chaochiaoensis a nomen nudum and provide a full description for the species and assign types. Based on morphological characteristics and molecular data of partial 18S rDNA sequences, we describe this species as Polystoma luohetong n. sp. Out of 578 frogs examined, 16 male and 38 female frogs were infected (prevalence 9.3%; mean intensity 1.02). Polystoma luohetong n. sp. is distinguished from all other Polystoma species by the presense of a prominent crest on the hamulus as well as by the shape and size of marginal hooklets and the intestinal arrangement. Furthermore, the phylogentic analysis based on the 18S rRNA gene shows Polystoma luohetong n. sp. well nested within the Ploystoma clade and as a sister taxon to Polystoma integerrimum

Polystomes (Monogenea: Polystomatidae) of freshwater turtles are currently represented by five genera, namely Neopolystoma, Polystomoides, Polystomoidella, Uropolystomoides and Uteropolystomoides. These parasites can infect the urinary, oral and/or the conjunctival sac systems of their hosts, showing strict site specificity. A recent phylogenetic study showed that the two most diverse genera within chelonian polystomes, i.e. Neopolystoma and Polystomoides, are not monophyletic. Furthermore, polystomes infecting the conjunctival sacs of their host, except for one species, formed a robust lineage. A fusiform egg shape has been reported for conjunctival sac polystomes and it was assumed that this characteristic could be a good character for the systematics of polystomes. Our objective in the present work was, therefore, to study more in depth the morphology of polystomes collected from the conjunctival sacs of chelonians to find characters defining a putative new genus. To achieve this objective, more specimens were collected in 2018 and 2019 from turtles sampled in North Carolina and Florida (USA) to extend taxon sampling for the phylogenetic analysis. Morphological characters of relevant polystome specimens were re-examined from several collections from Asia, Australia, Europe, South Africa, South America and North America. Based on a Bayesian tree inferred from the analysis of four concatenated genes, namely 12S, 18S, 28S and COI, polystomes found in the conjunctival sacs were grouped in three distinct lineages, the first one including a single species infecting an Australian pleurodire turtle; the second one including eleven species infecting cryptodire turtles of South America, North America and Asia; and the last one including a single species infecting a softshell cryptodire turtle of North America. Based on observations of live specimens by Dr. Sylvie Pichelin and our morphological analysis, the conjunctival sac polystomes from Australian turtles are small, can

The bone is a highly dynamic tissue with the remarkable ability to remodel and is in a continuous cycle of resorption and renewal as a result of internal mediators and external mechanical demands. Researchers have doubled their efforts to develop bone graft substitutes in order to overcome limitations that surround current bone loss treatment and the annual increase of cases dealing with bone loss and dysfunction. Chitosan has been identified by many researchers as a suitable biomaterial for bone tissue engineering applications. Chitosan holds various favourable properties, yet the mechanical strength of pure chitosan scaffolds hinders its application in bone tissue engineering. By combining chitosan with other materials, the advantageous properties can potentially be retained or even enhanced and limiting properties can be mediated. Chitosan has been blended in varying combinations with a variety of materials that include ceramics, synthetic polymers, natural polymers and other additives. This review will focus on chitosan-based biomaterials that have been developed for bone tissue engineering

Nematodes of the genus Amphibiophilus Skrjabin, 1916 are a small group of parasites restricted to pyxicephalid frogs in southern Africa. In the present study, the new species A. bialatus parasitising the clicking stream frog Strongylopus grayii (Smith) as well as two forms parasitising the common river frog Amietia delalandii (Duméril & Bibron) from two distant localities are described. Amphibiophilus bialatus n. sp. clearly differs from the remaining species of the genus by having wide cervical alae, the dorsal oesophageal tooth not reaching the oral opening, and the presence of extra processes on the spicules. Specimens parasitising Am. delalandii in Mpumalanga Province and Limpopo Province, South Africa, differed from other species and from each other in the shape of the gubernaculum, though were almost identical in other characters. Based on morphological and molecular data, specimens from two localities were assigned to Amphibiophilus sp. 1 and Amphibiophilus sp. 2. Pairwise analyses of ITS-28S and cox1 gene fragments are presented for four Amphibiophilus spp.

Background: Conservation relies on the strategic use of resources because monies for conservation action are limited, especially in developing countries. South Africa’s Frog Atlas project established a baseline for the country’s amphibian data and threat levels in 2004, and in 2009 a prioritisation exercise developed a strategy for conservation research. Objectives: In this article, we assess this strategy for conservation research. Method: We conducted a quantitative and qualitative assessment of research undertaken since the strategy was developed. Results: The strategy has produced a lasting impact on taxonomy, ecological studies, monitoring and capacity building. Publications in all areas have increased, but particularly in conservation ecology. Other indicators are increases in the numbers of locality records for target taxa, species descriptions and postgraduate degrees with amphibians as the principal topic. We document important milestones for South African amphibian conservation, including the first Biodiversity Management Plan for Species (BMP-S) for Hyperolius pickersgilli, a smart device app that uploads locality data to an open access database, 15 years of monitoring data and new amphibian identification books for adults and children. The Red List Index calculated for South African amphibians shows that the country’s species are becoming more threatened (a 1% reduction in 10 years), but a hindcasting exercise suggests that most of the damage was already done by 1990. We provide a checklist for 131 amphibian species in South Africa, of which 82 species are endemic. Conclusion: A strategy for conservation research was found to greatly augment the focus of research on South African frogs. A new strategy should focus on fewer taxa over meaningful time spans

Four species of previously known nematodes from the family Camallanidae were found from different hosts in South Africa: Batrachocamallanus xenopodis from the frog Xenopus muelleri, Paracamallanus cyathopharynx and Procamallanus pseudolaeviconchus from the catfish Clarias gariepinus and Spirocamallanus daleneae from the catfish Synodontis zambezensis. In the material collected from various marine fishes, several specimens of nematodes from the genus Camallanus clearly differed from all previously known species. Based on morphological differences these specimens are assigned to a new species, C. sodwanaensis. Molecular data of 18S and 28S rDNA and COI sequences are provided for the collected species and a phylogenetic analyses based on 28S gene fragmets are presented

In 1978, Kohn and co-workers deposited several polystome (Monogenea) specimens infecting several Brazilian anurans [Trachycephalus mesophaeus (Hensel), T. nigromaculatus Tschudi and Leptodactylus pentadactylus (Laurenti)] within the Helminthological Collection of the Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Brazil. No specimen was formally described but we herein identified three morphotypes and formally describe two of them (Polystoma knoffi n. sp. and P. tavassosi n. sp.). These are respectively the 12th and 13th species of Polystoma described from South America. For both species, the intestine forms a reticulated network, a characteristic unique to most Neotropical species of Polystoma

The polystomes (Monogenea, Polystomatidae) radiated across semi-aquatic tetrapods including all three amphibian orders, freshwater turtles and the hippopotamus. Prior to this study, phylogenetic analyses revealed that the most diverse and widespread genus, Polystoma, was not monophyletic; a lineage comprising four undescribed species from the bladder of Zhangixalus spp. (Rhacophoridae) in Asia occupied a deep phylogenetic position. Regarding vicariance biogeography and molecular dating, the origin of this lineage is correlated with the breakup of Gondwanaland in the Mesozoic period. Based on a Bayesian analysis of four concatenated genes (18S, 28S, COI and 12S) and morphological evidence, one new genus, Indopolystoma n. gen., and three new species, sampled in Japan and China, are described here: Indopolystoma viridi n. sp. from Z. viridis of Japan, Indopolystoma elongatum n. sp. from Z. arboreus of Japan, and Indopolystoma parvum n. sp. from Z. omeimontis of China. Indopolystoma is unique amongst polystome genera infecting anurans by possessing a small haptor relative to the body size, posteriormost marginal hooklet C1 much bigger than hooklets C2–C8 with conspicuous broad blade and guard and a pair of hamuli lacking a deep notch. Eight species of Asian Polystoma, all from rhacophorids, are transferred as Indopolystoma carvirostris (Fan, Li & He, 2008) n. comb., I. hakgalense (Crusz & Ching, 1975) n. comb., I. indicum (Diengdoh & Tandon, 1991) n. comb., I. leucomystax (Zhang & Long, 1987) n. comb., I. mutus (Meng, Song & Ding, 2010) n. comb., I. pingbianensis (Fan, Wang & Li, 2004) n. comb., I. rhacophori (Yamaguti, 1936) n. comb., and I. zuoi (Shen, Wang & Fan, 2013) n. comb, Les polystomes (Monogenea, Polystomatidae) se sont diversifiés sur des tétrapodes semi-aquatiques, notamment les trois ordres d’amphibiens, les tortues d’eau douce et l’hippopotame. Avant cette étude, des analyses phylogénétiques avaient révélé que le genre le plus diversifié et le plus répandu, Polystoma, n’était pas monophylétique ; une lignée comprenant quatre espèces non décrites de la vessie de Zhangixalus spp. (Rhacophoridae) en Asie occupait une position phylogénétique profonde. En ce qui concerne la biogéographie de vicariance et la datation moléculaire, l’origine de cette lignée est corrélée à l’éclatement du Gondwana au Mésozoïque. D’après une analyse bayésienne de quatre gènes concaténés (18S, 28S, COI et 12S) et des preuves morphologiques, un nouveau genre, Indopolystoma n. gen. et trois nouvelles espèces échantillonnées au Japon et en Chine sont décrites ici : Indopolystoma viridi n. sp. de Z. viridis du Japon, Indopolystoma elongatum n. sp. de Z. arboreus du Japon et Indopolystoma parvum n. sp. de Z. omeimontis de Chine. Indopolystoma est unique parmi les genres de polystomes infectant les anoures. Il possède un hapteur petit par rapport à la taille du corps, un crocheton le plus postérieur C1 beaucoup plus gros que les crochetons C2 à C8, avec lame et garde bien visibles, ainsi qu’une paire d’hamuli dépourvus d’encoche profonde. Huit espèces de polystomes asiatiques, toutes issues de Rhacophoridae, sont transférées comme Indopolystoma carvirostris (Fan, Li & He, 2008) n. comb., I. hakgalense (Crusz et Ching, 1975) n. comb., I. indicum (Diengdoh & Tandon, 1991) n. comb., I. leucomystax (Zhang & Long, 1987) n. comb., I. mutus (Meng, Song & Ding, 2010) n. comb., I. pingbianensis (Fan, Wang et Li, 2004) n. comb., I. rhacophori (Yamaguti, 1936) n. comb. et I. zuoi (Shen, Wang et Fan, 2013) n. comb

Three species of nematodes from the Camallanidae that are known to infect Xenopus laevis Daudin (Anura: Pipidae) were collected from several localities across South Africa. New data on morphology, partial 28S and cox1 genes, infection levels and distribution are presented herein. The most common species, Batrachocamallanus slomei Southwell et Kirshner, 1937, from the stomach and less often oesophagus, was found in eight localities. Camallanus kaapstaadi Southwell et Kirshner, 1937, also from the oesophagus, was found in two localities and C. xenopodis Jackson et Tinsley, 1995, from the intestine, at a single locality. New localities for both C. kaapstaadi and C. xenopodis provide a geographical range extension. Males of C. xenopodis are described for the first time herein. The existence of a left spicule in the males of both the species of Camallanus Railliet and Henry, 1915 is confirmed and measurements are provided. Although C. xenopodis is distinguished from C. mazabukae Kung, 1948 in the present study, we suggest greater sampling effort in other African amphibians to confirm the species status of the latter taxon. Finally, the new molecular data showed distant relationships between collected species of Camallanus and species parasitising fish and freshwater turtles

Background Polystomatid flatworms in chelonians are divided into three genera, i.e. Polystomoides Ward, 1917, Polystomoidella Price, 1939 and Neopolystoma Price, 1939, according to the number of haptoral hooks. Among the about 55 polystome species that are known to date from the 327 modern living chelonians, only four species of Polystomoides are currently recognised within the 45 South American freshwater turtles. Methods During 2012, several sites in the vicinity of the cities Cayenne and Kaw in French Guiana were investigated for freshwater turtles. Turtles were collected at six sites and the presence of polystomatid flatworms was assessed from the presence of polystome eggs released by infected specimens. Results Among the three turtle species that were collected, no polystomes were found in the gibba turtle Mesoclemmys gibba (Schweigger, 1812). The spot-legged turtle Rhinoclemmys punctularia (Daudin, 1801) was infected with two species of Neopolystoma Price, 1939, one in the conjunctival sacs and the other in the urinary bladder, while the scorpion mud turtle Kinosternon scorpioides (Linnaeus, 1766) was found to be infected with a single Neopolystoma species in the conjunctival sacs. These parasites could be distinguished from known species of Neopolystoma by a combination of morphological characteristics including body size, number and length of genital spines, shape and size of the testis. They were also differentiated at the molecular level using the cox1 gene marker. Based on morphological and genetic evidences, three new species are described herein, namely Neopolystoma cayensis n. sp. and Neopolystoma guianensis n. sp. from the bladder and the conjunctival sacs of R. punctularia, respectively, and Neopolystoma scorpioides n. sp. from the conjunctival sacs of K. scorpioides. However the monophyly of Polystomoides and Neopolystoma is still questioned regarding their phylogeny based on a dataset comprising four concatenated genes, namely, 18S, 28S and 12S rR

Polystomatid flatworms (Platyhelminthes) are monogenean parasites that infect exclusively aquatic or semi-aquatic sarcopterygians such as the Australian lungfish, amphibians, freshwater turtles and the African common hippopotamus. Previous studies on the phylogenetic relationships of these parasites, excluding Oculotrema hippopotami infecting common hippos, showed a global coevolution between hosts and their parasites at a macroevolutionary scale. These studies also demonstrated a strong correlation between the diversification of early neobatrachian polystomes and Gondwana breakup in the Mesozoic period. However the origin of chelonian polystomes is still in question as a switch from presumably primitive aquatic amniotes to turtles at the time of their first appearance, or soon after during their radiation, was assumed. In order to resolve this sticking point, we extended the phylogeny of polystomes with broader parasite sampling, i.e. 55 polystome species including Nanopolystoma tinsleyi a polystome infecting caecilians and O. hippopotami, and larger set of sequence data covering two nuclear and two mitochondrial genes coding for the ribosomal RNA 18S and 28S, the Cytochrome c Oxidase I and the ribosomal RNA 12S, respectively. The secondary structure of nuclear rRNAs genes (stems and loops) was taken into account for sequence alignments and Bayesian analyses were performed based on the appropriate models of evolution selected independently for the four designed partitions. Molecular calibrations were also conducted for dating the main speciation events in the polystome tree. The phylogenetic position of chelonian parasites that are phylogenetically closer to N. tinsleyi than all other amphibian polystomes and molecular time estimates suggest that these parasites originated following a switch from caecilians, at a geological period when primitive turtles may already have adapted to an aquatic life style, i.e. at about 178 Million years ago, or a little later when th

Urbanization is worldwide among the biggest threats to amphibian populations. However, hardly any studies have been conducted on the effects thereof in developing countries. Amphibian distribution and community assemblages are not well understood in aquatic and terrestrial habitats that are rapidly changing due to human modification. We conducted four surveys using three detection methods for both anuran larvae and predatory fish in 61 ponds in and around the city of Potchefstroom, South Africa. Tadpoles of eight anuran species and seven fish species were detected during the field surveys. The common river frog (Amietia quecketti) was the most abundant species, occurring in 39 % of the sites, whereas the bubbling kassina (Kassina senegalensis) was detected in only one pond. The remaining six species were detected in 6.6–26.2 % of the sites. Predatory fish were detected in 64 % of the wetlands with mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis) and the banded tilapia (Tilapia sparrmanii) detected respectively in 44 and 43 % of the sites. High species richness was associated with well-vegetated wetlands, low urban CBD surface area and conductivity, large pond areas and steeper bank slopes. Conductivity and pH showed only weak negative effects on species richness. This is the first study to quantify the effects of urbanization on frog communities in a developing city on the African continent. Our results demonstrate that both local and landscape variables affect amphibians in a small but rapidly developing city. Accordingly, management practices need to adopt a multi-scale approach if we are to conserve amphibians in African cities

Based on material collected from Rhinella cf. margaritifera (Laurenti) and Rhi. marina (Linnaeus) (Anura: Bufonidae) during a parasite survey of the herpetofauna of French Guiana, updated descriptions of Rhabdias androgyna Kloss, 1971 and R. fuelleborni Travassos, 1926 are presented. In addition to metrical data, which may overlap in closely related species, emphasis is placed on qualitative characters. Rhabdias androgyna is distinguished by the unique presence of an outer and inner cephalic cuticular inflation, a shoulder-like broadening of the body at the anterior end, a wide and shallow buccal capsule (average buccal ratio 0.36) with serrated lumen in apical view, a prominent anterior dilatation of the oesophagus, and the presence of an additional posterior dilatation anterior to the oesophageal bulb. Characters that may help to differentiate R. fuelleborni from closely related species parasitising the Rhi. marina species group are the presence of six relatively uniform lips, and the division of the buccal capsule into an anterior and posterior segment, with differently structured walls. Both the presence of R. androgyna and R. fuelleborni in French Guiana constitute new geographic records. A single specimen of Rhabdias sp. is described from Pristimantis chiastonotus (Lynch et Hoegmood) (Anura: Craugastoridae). This species differs from all its Neotropical congeners by the distinct globular swelling of its head, similar to that seen in only one Palaearctic and one Afrotropical Rhabdias species. A list of species of Rhabdias parasitising amphibians in the Netropical Realm is also provided

Based on material collected from Pseudemys nelsoni (Reptilia: Chelonia: Emydidae) during a parasite survey of the herpetofauna around Gainesville, Florida, USA, Polystomoides nelsoni sp. n. is described as a new polystome species. This parasite was found in the oral and pharyngeal region of the host. In a sample of nine Pseudemys nelsoni, three specimens were found to release polystome eggs. One turtle was euthanized and dissected and found to be infected in the oral region with 19 specimens belonging to an as-yet-unknown Polystomoides. This is only the fifth Polystomoides recorded from the Nearctic realm. This species is distinguished from known species by a combination of characteristics including marginal hooklet morphology, body length and haptor dimensions

Freshwater turtle species are still poorly understood, and many species are in decline due to unsustainable trade as well as human alteration and degradation of freshwater ecosystems. Mauremys leprosa is a freshwater chelonian endemic to the Mediterranean Basin. Whereas the fossil record demonstrates that this species used to be distributed to well beyond the Spanish border in France, it is today restricted to the border region with Spain, at the Baillaury River in the Pyrenees, with some isolated observations from slightly farther into France. The species consequently holds an “Endangered” status according to the French IUCN Red list. Here we report for the first time the presence and demographic structure in its northern range and demonstrate that its distribution expands beyond the Pyrenees Mountains, throughout French Catalonia. Sequence analyses of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) cytochrome b (cyt b) gene from 216 specimens mainly from France and Spanish Catalonia resulted in a patchwork pattern of haplotypes that supports a mixed origin of the species in France. We encountered two extreme haplotypes, with specimens with the endemic Spanish Catalonian haplotype A18 belonging to M. leprosa leprosa and others being clearly referable to M. leprosa saharica (cyt b haplotypes from clade B) that is otherwise typical from below the Atlas Mountain Range in Morocco. Short- and long-term directions for research as well as conservation management actions are suggested for this insufficiently studied species

The red-eared slider turtle, Trachemys scripta elegans, is among the most over-exploited animals and is still exported annually from the USA all over the world. Once introduced into its new environment, feral populations may arise and pose threats to local biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. In France, it is in fact considered as a risk for the Mediterranean pond turtle, Mauremys leprosa, and the European pond turtle, Emys orbicularis, as they may compete for resources and habitat. Freshwater turtles are also host to a variety of parasites including protozoans and helminths. When introduced turtles escape, parasites may spread to native species. The objective of this study was to document the extent of platyhelminth invasions from T. s. elegans to natural M. leprosa populations in northern Spain and southern France and to evaluate the risks that parasite host-switching may pose on indigenous freshwater turtle species. From DNA barcoding analysis based on the sequencing of the Cytochrome c Oxidase I gene, the Bayesian tree and p-distance comparisons of closely related haplotypes revealed a greater polystome richness within M. leprosa than expected, suggesting that host switching may take place in natural environments. Because these parasites most typically infest American turtles like Chrysemys picta marginata and Graptemys pseudogeographica in their natural home range and because parasites were also found within T. s. elegans feral populations, it is suggested that the red-eared slider would serve as a carrier for a variety of not strictly host-specific polystomes that are transmitted to M. leprosa throughout the south of France. The global trade in freshwater turtles thus provides opportunity for parasites to be transported to new destinations which could impact the physiology, behavior and survival of native turtle species

Trade in live, freshwater crayfish for ornamental markets, as well as for aquaculture, has grown rapidly and has become the major pathway for the introduction of non-indigenous crayfish species to several countries worldwide. Here we report on the first record of the Australian ‘redclaw’ Cherax quadracarinatus in the natural waters of a game reserve in South Africa. To compound the situation, these redclaw crayfish were infected with a non-indigenous temnocephalan flatworm parasite. Both crayfish and temnocephalan were in full breeding condition, with young. Further spreading of this crayfish to the subtropical, water-rich, northern KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa and southern Mozambique is predicted. Not only might the crayfish compete with indigenous aquatic invertebrates but the non-host-specific temnocephalan might transfer to local decapods, such as freshwater crabs

Considering the addition of intermediate transmission steps during life cycle evolution, developmental plasticity, canalization forces and inherited parental effect must be invoked to explain new host colonization. Unfortunately, there is a lack of experimental procedures and relevant models to explore the adaptive value of alternative developmental phenotypes during life cycle evolution. However, within the monogeneans that are characterized by a direct life cycle, an extension of the transmission strategy of amphibian parasites has been reported within species of Polystoma and Metapolystoma (Polyopisthocotylea; Polystomatidae). In this study, we tested whether the infection success of Polystoma gallieni within tadpoles of its specific host, the Stripeless Tree Frog Hyla meridionalis, differs depending on the parental origin of the oncomiracidium. An increase in the infection success of the parasitic larvae when exposed to the same experimental conditions as their parents was expected as an adaptive pattern of non-genetic inherited information. Twice as many parasites were actually recorded from tadpoles infected with oncomiracidia hatching from eggs of the bladder parental phenotype (1.63 ± 0.82 parasites per host) than from tadpoles infected with oncomiracidia hatching from eggs of the branchial parental phenotype (0.83 ± 0.64 parasites per host). Because in natural environments the alternation of the two phenotypes is likely to occur due to the ecology of its host, the differential infection success within young tadpoles could have an adaptive value that favors the parasite transmission over time.

Polystoma channingi is described as a new species of the polystomatid flatworm (Monogenea) parasitic in the urinary bladder of Cacosternum nanum in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. In localities where C. nanum and C. boettgeri occur sympatrically the parasite may be found in both species. This finding of a Polystoma in two closely related host species questions the strict host-specificity generally ascribed to the genus but supports the hypothesis that host-specificity is determined by the oncomiracidium’s ability to recognise the tadpole as a suitable host. This is the first polystome to be described from Cacosternum and the ninth species of Polystoma from South Africa. The species is distinguished by its huge haptor and suckers relative to the body size. The haptor length / body length ratio of 0.38 is by far the largest for the known Southern African polystomes. For C. boettgeri the prevalence was 28.6% and for C. nanum 25% while the mean intensity for infections of adult frogs were 1.5 for C. boettgeri and 1.0 for C. nanum

The elygium is a darkly pigmented projection over the pupil of the tadpoles of certain species that live mostly at high altitudes. It has been suggested that this structure shades the retina, protecting it from high UV levels. In post-metamorphic individuals, the elygium is replaced by a structure known as an umbraculum. Confusion arose in the past from the inconsistent use of terminology when referring to these two structures. While they may serve the same function, these structures differ fundamentally in structure and origin. Our investigation of the ultrastructure of the eye in Amietia vertebralis tadpoles, using electron and light microscopy, revealed that the elygium consists of an accumulation of melanophores situated within the inner cornea, whereas the umbraculum is a dorsal extension of the iris pigment epithelium, analogous to the ventral pupillary nodule, which is present in most frog species. In A. vertebralis, the umbraculum starts to develop on the iris of older tadpoles (Gosner [1960] stage 37 Herpetologica 16:183– 190), medial to the overlying elygium. A smaller, ventral elygium is also present in this species and is similar in structure to the dorsal elygium. The development of the elygium over a six-month period is also described.

Chytridiomycosis has been identified as a major cause of global amphibian declines. Despite widespread evidence of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis infection in South African frogs, sampling for this disease has not focused on threatened species, or whether this pathogen poses a disease risk to these species. This study assessed the occurrence of Bd-infection in South African Red List species. In addition, all known records of infection from South Africa were used to model the ecological niche of Bd to provide a better understanding of spatial patterns and associated disease risk. Presence and prevalence of Bd was determined through quantitative real-time PCR of 360 skin swab samples from 17 threatened species from 38 sites across the country. Average prevalence was 14.8% for threatened species, with pathogen load varying considerably between species. MaxEnt was used to model the predicted distribution of Bd based on 683 positive records for South Africa. The resultant probability threshold map indicated that Bd is largely restricted to the wet eastern and coastal regions of South Africa. A lack of observed adverse impacts on wild threatened populations supports the endemic pathogen hypothesis for southern Africa. However, all threatened species occur within the limits of the predicted distribution for Bd, exposing them to potential Bd-associated risk factors. Predicting pathogen distribution patterns and potential impact is increasingly important for prioritising research and guiding management decisions

Specimens from across the range of the Hyperolius nasutus species group were sequenced for two mitochondrial genes and one nuclear gene. Advertisement calls were recorded from the same specimens where possible, and morphological characters were compared. Bayesian inference and maximum likelihood produced a tree indicating 16 clades. The clades show little or no overlap in combinations of 16S sequence difference, shared tyr haplotypes, advertisement call parameters, snout profiles and webbing. On the basis of these data we recognise H. acuticeps, H. adspersus, H. benguellensis, H. dartevellei, H. igbettensis, H. nasutus, H. nasicus, H. poweri, H. viridis and describe six new species: Hyperolius friedemanni sp. nov. Mercurio & Rödel, Hyperolius howelli sp. nov. Du Preez & Channing, Hyperolius inyangae sp. nov. Channing, Hyperolious jacobseni sp. nov. Channing, Hyperolius rwandae sp. nov. Dehling, Sinsch, Rödel & Channing, and Hyperolius lupiroensis sp. nov. Channing. Hyperolius lamottei is confirmed to be outside the H. nasutus group clade. Hyperolius granulatus, H. oxyrhynchus, H. punctulatus and H. sagitta are assigned as junior synonyms. As our results are based on a small number of specimens, these hypotheses await testing with larger sample sizes and more characters. A species distribution model suggests where outlier populations might be found

The study of endoparasites (helminths and coccidians) in the Algerian (Atelerix algirus) and desert (Paraechinus aethiopicus) hedgehogs was performed between July 2008 and October 2009. The helminth species found included two cestodes, Mathevotaenia erinacei (Anoplocephalidae) and an unidentified cestode larva in the mesentery, eight species of nematode: Aonchotheca erinacei (Capillaridae) in the intestine, spirurids (Spiruridae) in the intestine, Crenosoma striatum (Crenosomatidae) in the lungs, Gongylonema mucronatum (Gongylonematidae) in the oesophagus, Physaloptera clausa (Physalopteridae) in the stomach, Physaloptera sp. larvae (Physalopteridae) in the mesentery, Pterygodermatites plagiostoma (Rictularidae) in the stomach, Spirura rytipleurites seurati (Spiruridae) in the intestine; and 2 acanthocephalans, Moniliformis moniliformis (Monoliformidae) in the intestine and larvae of an unknown acanthocephalan species in the mesentery. The general prevalence was high in both hosts, 92% in Atelerix algirus and 94.12% in Paraechinus aethiopicus. Physaloptera clausa was the most prevalent species (64.0% in Atelerix algirus and 64.7% in Paraechinus aethiopicus). Polyparasitism of helminths was 68% in Atelerix algirus and 52.9% in Paraechinus aethiopicus. Two coccidian species were detected in both hedgehogs, Isospora sp. and Eimeria sp. We provide the first complete parasitological data from Africa of these two hedgehogs.

Polystoma nacialtuneli n. sp. is described from the urinary bladder of the eastern spadefoot, Pelobates syriacus from Turkey. This is the fifth polystome species known from Turkey and the third species in Pelobates. We show that this new parasite species can be distinguished from other polystome species in the area by a combination of characteristics, including parasite size and the shape and size of the hamuli. Polystoma pelobatis from Pelobates cultripes has a pair of well-developed hamuli, while P. fuscus from Pe. fuscus characteristically has a pair of underdeveloped hamuli barely larger than the marginal hooklets. Polystoma nacialtuneli n. sp. has well-developed hamuli that vary significantly in shape. Phylogenetic relationships of P. nacialtuneli n. sp. within Polystoma, supplemented with molecular divergences estimated from internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1) sequences, indicate that they are well separated from their closest relatives, i.e. P. fuscus and P. pelobatis from Pe. fuscus and Pe. cultripes, respectively.

One of the major threats to biodiversity involves biological invasions with direct consequences on the stability of ecosystems. In this context, the role of parasites is not negligible as it may enhance the success of invaders. The red-eared slider, Trachemys scripta elegans, has been globally considered among the worst invasive species. Since its introduction through the pet trade, T. s. elegans is now widespread and represents a threat for indigenous species. Because T. s. elegans coexists with Emys orbicularis and Mauremys leprosa in Europe, it has been suggested it may compete with the native turtle species and transmit pathogens. We examined parasite transfer from American captive to the two native species that co-exist in artificial pools of a Turtle Farm in France. As model parasite species we used platyhelminth worms of the family Polystomatidae (Monogenea) because polystomes have been described from American turtles in their native range. Phylogenetic relationships among polystomes parasitizing chelonian host species that are geographically widespread show patterns of diversification more complex than expected. Using DNA barcoding to identify species from adult and/or polystome eggs, several cases of host switching from exotic to indigenous individuals were illustrated, corroborating that parasite transmission is important when considering the pet trade and in reintroduction programmes to reinforce wild populations of indigenous species.

Investigating patterns and processes of parasite diversification over ancient geological periods should involve comparisons of host and parasite phylogenies in a biogeographic context. It has been shown previously that the geographical distribution of host-specific parasites of sarcopterygians was guided, from Palaeozoic to Cainozoic times, mostly by evolution and diversification of their freshwater hosts. Here, we propose phylogenies of neobatrachian frogs and their specific parasites (Platyhelminthes, Monogenea) to investigate coevolutionary processes and historical biogeography of polystomes and further discuss all the possible assumptions that may account for the early evolution of these parasites. Phylogenetic analyses of concatenated rRNA nuclear genes (18S and partial 28S) supplemented by cophylogenetic and biogeographic vicariance analyses reveal four main parasite lineages that can be ascribed to centers of diversity, namely Australia, India, Africa, and South America. In addition, the relationships among these biogeographical monophyletic groups, substantiated by molecular dating, reflect sequential origins during the breakup of Gondwana. The Australian polystome lineage may have been isolated during the first stages of the breakup, whereas the Indian lineage would have arisen after the complete separation of western and eastern Gondwanan components. Next, polystomes would have codiverged with hyloid sensu stricto and ranoid frog lineages before the completion of South American and African plate separation. Ultimately, they would have undergone an extensive diversification in South America when their ancestral host families diversified. Therefore, the presence of polystome parasites in specific anuran host clades and in discrete geographic areas reveals the importance of biogeographic vicariance in diversification processes and supports the occurrence and radiation of amphibians over ancient and recent geological periods.

Morphological similarities between the tadpoles of Amietia umbraculata and A. vertebralis have led to confusion and incorrect descriptions and identifications in the literature. Based on 33 body measurements and ratios we revised the morphological descriptions of the tadpoles of the two species. Tadpole identification was verified through DNA sequencing using mitochondrial (16S) gene fragments. A combination of four morphological characters proved to be informative and consistent in distinguishing between tadpoles of the two species. Tadpoles of A. umbraculata are characterised by having four labial tooth rows in the lower jaw, extensive tail mottling, a dorsal fin that originates well behind the body reaching a maximum depth at 50% of the tail length, and an average tail length of 1.9 times body length. Amietia vertebralis tadpoles on the other hand are characterised by having five or more labial tooth rows in the lower jaw, tail mottling that is confined to the upper half of the tail musculature, a dorsal fin that originates at the body-tail junction but retains a low profile, rising abruptly to reach a maximum depth at about 40% of the tail length, and an average tail length of 1.5 times body length. These four characters identify the two species without ambiguity.

Environmental parameters such as temperature and rainfall influence the biology of amphibians and are likely to similarly influence the growth and prevalence of associated pathogens. Amphibian chytrid fungus, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), causes an infectious disease, chytridiomycosis, in amphibians worldwide. Field studies on post-metamorphic anurans from tropical Australia have correlated increased prevalence with cool winter temperatures, but similar studies are lacking from Africa. We monitored the seasonality of amphibian chytrid in the Highveld of South Africa through microscopic examination of common river frog (Amietia angolensis) tadpoles over 12 months.Within the study area Bd was found to be widespread, but largely limited to riverine systems. The seasonal infection pattern was inconsistent with the findings of past studies, which showed that prevalence usually peaks during the cooler months of the year. This study indicates that infection levels increased during spring in the Grassland Biome, when temperatures favoured optimum thermal growth of the fungus and when streams reached minimum flow levels.

Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) is a globally ubiquitous fungal infection that has emerged to become a primary driver of amphibian biodiversity loss. Despite widespread effort to understand the emergence of this panzootic, the origins of the infection, its patterns of global spread, and principle mode of evolution remain largely unknown. Using comparative population genomics, we discovered three deeply diverged lineages of Bd associated with amphibians. Two of these lineages were found in multiple continents and are associated with known introductions by the amphibian trade. We found that isolates belonging to one clade, the global panzootic lineage (BdGPL) have emerged across at least five continents during the 20th century and are associated with the onset of epizootics in North America, Central America, the Caribbean, Australia, and Europe. The two newly identified divergent lineages, Cape lineage (BdCAPE) and Swiss lineage (BdCH), were found to differ in morphological traits when compared against one another and BdGPL, and we show that BdGPL is hypervirulent. BdGPL uniquely bears the hallmarks of genomic recombination, manifested as extensive intergenomic phylogenetic conflict and patchily distributed heterozygosity. We postulate that contact between previously genetically isolated allopatric populations of Bd may have allowed recombination to occur, resulting in the generation, spread, and invasion of the hypervirulent BdGPL leading to contemporary disease-driven losses in amphibian biodiversity.

Polystoma okomuensis is described as a new species of the Polystomatidae parasitic in the urinary bladder of Boulenger's striped frog Phlyctimantis boulengeri in the Okomu National Park, Edo State, Nigeria. Although other African polystomes have been reported from Nigeria, this is the first to be described from the country and the first from Phlyctimantis. It is distinguished from other African Polystoma species by a combination of characters, including the body size, size and shape of the hamuli, size and shape of marginal hooklets and intestinal location. Phlyctimantis boulengeri was found to be infected in two of four seasonal lakes where specimens were caught with prevalences and mean intensities ranging from 14.3 to 22% and 1.0 to 1.5, respectively. Of the total number of 45 frogs examined, the prevalence was 15.6% and mean intensity 1.4.

Polystoma africanum was originally described from a single specimen recovered from the common African toad, Amietophrynus regularis. The parasite has also been reported from the Angola river frog, Amietia angolensis, in Ethiopia; the Mascarene ridged frog, Ptychadena mascareniensis, in Uganda; and Ptychadena sp. in Zaire. One of the characters ascribed to this species was the lack of caecal anastomoses. Based on this and other characteristics, other polystomes from frog species like Pty. mascareniensis have been identified as P. africanum. A large collection of parasite specimens retrieved from A. regularis collected in Nigeria allowed a thorough re-examination of the species. A good proportion of the specimens (37%) correspond closely with the type in lacking intercaecal anastomoses. Other specimens showed considerable variation in this regard by possessing one to four intercaecal anastomoses. An unusual feature observed in several specimens is where two adjacent medial diverticula on one side join to form a loop. The type specimen also has a loop. The handle and guard of the hamuli are well separated, as in the type specimen from Liberia, and in other specimens from A. regularis (syn. Bufo regularis) in Uganda. The mean hamuli length of 388μm is close to the 370μm recorded for the type species, but this value is considerably smaller than the 459μm recorded for the specimens from Pty. mascareniensis in Uganda. On the basis of the aforementioned and invoking strict host specificity, we conclude that P. africanum is exclusively parasitic in A. regularis, and that the polystomes retrieved from Pty. mascareniensis from Uganda and a Ptychadena sp. from Zaire are most likely Polystoma pricei. The materials from A. angolensis most likely represent another species.