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Despite changes to strip searching policy as spearheaded by the Corston Report (2007), there is limited academic research regarding women's experiences of body-searching within prisons in England. In order to address this gap in knowledge, this research was concerned with a radical feminist analysis of women's experiences of body-searching within prisons in England. To this end, the research was focussed upon an analysis of four key searching practices: strip-searching, intimate-searching, rub-down-searching, and searches using technology. In order to achieve the aims of the thesis, the research adopted a radical feminist theoretical lens concerned specifically upon the salience of gender to imprisoned women's experiences. Furthermore, a feminist theory of sexual violence and the state was implemented in order to understand the institution of the prison within the broader context of patriarchal society. A feminist epistemological and methodological perspective was also utilised within the research, which placed women's narratives as central to the thesis and the production of knowledge. The research utilised a qualitative methodological approach and conducted eighteen interviews with formerly imprisoned women with experience of being body searched and professionals with knowledge of women's imprisonment and body-searching. Additionally, an analysis of official policy documentation regarding the practices of body-searching within HM Prisons was undertaken. Through the course of the thesis, the state's legitimisation of body-searching practices have been exposed, and women's testimonies have countered official justifications of body-searching, which have demonstrated significant discrepancies between the so called "purpose" of body-searching and the reality of its effects. As such, this thesis has demonstrated that coercion, punishment, power and discipline are at the heart of official discourse regarding body-searching, as opposed to security, safety and good order. The thesis has argued, through the adoption of radical feminist theory, that body-searching can be understood within women's prisons in England as a mechanism of state-inflicted, patriarchal sexual violence, which seeks to control women in line with socially acceptable norms of gender and femininity. The arguments developed within this thesis have contributed to an understanding of not only women's experience of body-searching, but also the ways in which women use their own bodies to resist the powers of the prison. Furthermore, "alternative" methods of body-searching have been explored, and this thesis has determined that these methods in fact act as pervasive forms of control and punishment of women, and further entrench punitivity within society's response to female "deviance" and act against abolitionist goals. Overall, this research has acted as a platform for marginalised women to express their experience of patriarchal state sexual violence, and practical recommendations have been made regarding the future of body-searching.

This study is based on a six-month ethnography research project at Santa Monica prison, the largest women's prison in Lima, Peru. From a feminist and decolonial approach, the thesis investigates Santa Monica's governance system and its implications on A) how the prison operates and B) the lived experiences of women prisoners; it does so, from a Global South perspective. My research seeks to contribute to prison studies and feminist criminology by providing an analysis that intersects prison governance, imprisonment's social and subjective dynamics and gender in the Global South. Broadly, I argue that the governance system politics is connected to and has implications for the social and subjective spheres of prisoners. Therefore, the macro-political dimension of the prison re-configures and impacts in its meso and micro dimensions. I propose that Santa Monica's macro-political dimension operates through co-governance where the formal-legal and the informal-legitimised orders intertwine, transforming the top-down power imprisonment dynamics, making prison an ambivalent site of negotiation and interlegality. Those prisoners identified as delegates perform as intermediaries or "interface brokers" between the formal-legal and informal-legitimised orders. The meso-social dimension refers to the most important social institutions of a system: in the case of Santa Monica, this refers to Religion and Labour, which function as common and valued social institutions for the authorities, prison staff and prisoners. I suggest that they are used as disciplinary tools, and simultaneously as liberating forces inside prison. Religion and Labour activities introduce and reinforce patriarchal gendered norms and roles that seek to re-feminise prisoners. At the same time, both religion and work also enable prisoners to engage in semiautonomous actions and to construct intersubjective, caring relationships that end up resisting imprisonment and enable women to re-affirm themselves. The micro-intersubjective dimension of prison refers to social relationships and women's gendered subjectivities, and these, I argue, also connect with the prison's political structure. I propose that there is an ambivalent emotional climate inside prison, and prisoners flow between defensive mistrust and intimate trust. Despite the fact that prisoners are defensive, they engage in close interpersonal relationships of social reproduction and care, which I have identified centre around the notions of motherhood, sisterhood, homoerotic encounters and communities. Again, as in the meso-social dimension, the creation of intimate networks act as a disciplinary tool that seeks to transform women into "adequate feminine prisoners". But at the same time, these provide a platform to critically question preceding patriarchal social norms, which subvert and transform women's gendered subjectivities.

This thesis reports on an ethnography of The Clink restaurant in Cardiff, Wales. The Clink is no ordinary restaurant; it is a rehabilitative programme for serving prisoners. Based on a year’s observation of participants and interviews, the thesis contributes to the ethnographic body of writing found within criminology and, in particular, adds to the few qualitative studies investigating employment programmes for prisoners. With limited research conducted on The Clink site, the thesis provides a close observational account of what life is actually like for individuals undertaking an innovative work-based rehabilitative programme. Initially, the thesis moves the reader to the start of The Clink process by revealing the reasons why individuals chose to join the programme, including motivations that could be linked to any prison job and reasons that were unique to The Clink programme. In what follows, I explore the realities of restaurant life by touching on issues that any restaurant employee would encounter. In addition, the thesis shows that participants had to manage a further layer of difficulties. I continue by drawing on a consideration of the wider and official Clink agenda, showing that The Clink achieves most of its aims and moves beyond them, but also that the formal version of The Clink needs nuance. The thesis argues that whilst The Clink does break down some of the barriers to successful resettlement and does prepare participants for release, its process is not an easy one. The unique quasi-open conditions create intentional and unintentional obstacles for those passing through. Those on the programme had to deal with the challenge of working in one of the top restaurants in Cardiff, whilst still serving their time within the ‘invisible walls’. These challenges included the location of the restaurant, pains of imprisonment and ‘freedom’, penal power operating within The Clink and having to manage their identity during interactions with the public. As a result, those on the programme found it difficult (and perhaps were not supposed to) forget that they were still serving their time. They had to negotiate constantly between being outside, whilst still inside. Yet, these obstacles extend beyond The Clink. The study concludes by arguing that, as it stands, The Clink prepares individuals for life in the community as an ‘ex-offender’.

Background: Although studies report a high prevalence of HI within prisons, evidence has not extended to associated disability. Non-prison studies identify gender differences in disability outcomes and there is concern that women prisoners recover less well after HI. Aim: To explore gender differences in disability, associated with HI or from any cause, in prisoners in Scotland. Methods: Secondary data on 200 prisoners across six Scottish prisons was analysed for outcomes related to HI, gender, disability, and covariates (anxiety, depression, substance use) using ordinal logistic regressions. Results: Gender was associated with disability from any cause, with females experiencing poorer outcomes on the Glasgow Outcome at Discharge Scale. No gender differences were found with disability associated with HI. Overall, psychological distress was associated with more severe disability, and substance use with disability from any cause in males. Conclusions: Investigations of disability from any cause informs research on HI given the high numbers reporting HI as a causal factor. Female prisoners have poorer disability outcomes, from any cause, highlighting gender difference in recovery. Further research into HI, disability, mood, and mediators of female disability, is important.

Previous research has considered the role of education in the development of capabilities separately from the desistance process and there is a limited evidential base that has combined these theoretical areas. This thesis focuses on the biographical accounts of a group of Scottish prisoners in order to consider the factors that create a fluctuating state of capabilities throughout a life-time. The study utilised qualitative interpretivist research design in the form of semi-structured interviews to gain rich and detailed accounts of lives spent both within and outside of the modern criminal justice system. Participants were recruited from two adult prisons in central Scotland. They discussed their life experiences of disadvantage, marginalisation and socio-economic restrictions and so provided insights into the ways in which capability constraints can contribute to offending behaviours. The ebb and flow of education within their lives was also examined to ascertain the role this plays in upholding or improving these states of being. Experiences of imprisonment were discussed so the realities of what is lost and gained through incarceration could be determined. The position that learning can have within prison in supporting capability development and desistance was a particular focus. An interpretive paradigm was applied so that participants and I could extract significance from their life experiences, social worlds and beliefs that were discussed during interview. By using capabilities and desistance theory from the outset, this research paradigm allowed for other theoretical links to emerge from the data. This thesis found that disadvantage and restricted capabilities are complex, intergenerational and often compounded over a life-course. This makes engaging with support that could improve these conditions extremely challenging, thus potentially extending the ill-effects on wellbeing. The impoverished nature of choice and agency stunts flourishing, forcing individuals to select from ever-limiting options. For most participants, this became a direct catalyst to their offending behaviour and time in custody. While descriptions highlight the damage caused by imprisonment, this thesis also presents positive accounts of support and personal development within this environment. It demonstrates how learning and skills development can be utilised to affect capability improvement and take early steps towards desistance. This thesis establishes a link between the imagining of a crime-free future during custody with the formation of the hope and agency that is indicative of improved capabilities and central to robust and sustained desistance.

Introduction: Self-harm is highly prevalent in prisons. One possible intervention for this is problem-solving therapy (PST). This thesis looks at a problem-support scheme based on PST which is currently being delivered in a prison in Northern England. A peer-delivery model is being utilised and the scheme is delivered by prisoners known as problem-support mentors (PSMs). This research aimed to understand the experiences of the PSMs and the staff working within the establishment, and to understand how such a scheme can be sustained. Method: PSMs and staff stakeholders were recruited to participate in individual interviews at three time points between February and December 2019. Three time points were used to understand how the participants’ experiences unfolded longitudinally. These interviews were conducted using a semi-structured interview schedule designed to access their experiences of the scheme. These interviews were then transcribed and analysed using Thematic Analysis. Results: Twenty-eight interviews were conducted, and from these interviews five subordinate themes were identified. The first theme ‘appetite for peer-led’ describes the staff participants’ enthusiasm for peer-led schemes. The second theme, ‘need the ‘right’ PSMs’, captured the participants’ beliefs that not all prisoners are suitable for the role. The PSM participants reflected on their own ‘motivation and commitment’ as well as that of their peers. Finally, the ‘impact on PSMs’ and ‘impact on others’ were discussed. Two over-arching themes, of ‘responsibility’ and ‘us and them’, were identified as contributing to many of the described experiences. Discussion: The participants’ experiences of the scheme being based on PST, being peer-led and taking place within a prison are discussed in relation to previous research. There was considerable consistency between the findings of the current research and other research looking at delivering PST-based interventions, with model infidelity being common. The experiences of the scheme being delivered in prison are considered through a psychoanalytical framework of organisational defences. The research is critiqued and practical implications are discussed, including the need for an adequate level of resource for peer-led schemes to be successful.

Background: The elimination of viral hepatitis C by 2025, hepatitis B by 2030, and the control of the human immunodeficiency virus is predicated on the diagnosis and treatment of these infections in high prevalence settings. In response to historic low testing rates, opt-out blood-borne virus testing has been implemented and linked with treatment pathways throughout the English prison estate. The aim of my PhD was to evaluate this initiative in London. Methods: Guided by realist methodology, a mixed-methods evaluation was performed. I began by conducting a pilot assessment of a hepatitis C care pathway implemented within one London prison. From this, I decided to focus on the testing stage of the implemented pathways. I analysed routine data to assess outcomes from opt-out testing across the London estate. I then conducted a rapid-realist review to begin developing an explanatory framework for the outcomes reported. Theories developed during the review were used to guide a qualitative comparative case-study, which explored the variation in performance between a higher and low performing local London prison. Results: The pilot evaluation highlighted significant attrition throughout every stage of the hepatitis C care pathway. Analysis of test outcomes revealed that healthcare teams operating within local prisons struggled to test people, whilst also reporting the highest test positivity for hepatitis C exposure. The review flagged a range of potential drivers of poor performance, including access issues and incentives for prisoners to refuse testing. Results from the qualitative comparative case study suggested that differences in the numbers of new prisoners tested, between two local London prisons, primarily stemmed from access issues, rather than test acceptability. Conclusion: The implementation of opt-out blood-borne virus testing has occurred at a difficult time for the prison service. The ability of healthcare staff to deliver testing and treatment pathways for blood-borne viruses is dependent on prison staff providing access to prisoners. Although small-scale pathway adaptation may help improve programme performance, better resourcing of prisons and systemic change that places healthcare at the centre of the rehabilitative mandate of the English prison service should be considered.

There is limited focus on men’s experiences of fatherhood whilst in prison. Consequently, there is inadequate theoretical understanding and guidance for clinical practice. This is concerning as research indicates the paternal relationship can improve outcomes for both father and child. For example, the father-child relationship can support men to lead a more pro-social life and reduce the risk that their children will develop future difficulties, such as mental health concerns or offending behaviour. Thus, this is an area of sociopolitical interest. This portfolio thesis presented is comprised of two discrete yet interrelated papers. The shared objective across both papers was to provide an increased understanding of men’s experiences of fatherhood during their detainment in forensic services. Paper One is a systematic review focused on men’s experiences of fatherhood whilst imprisoned in England and Wales. Paper Two is an empirical qualitative study recruiting fathers from forensic inpatient care.

Mental health (MH) difficulties are prevalent within the prison population, with literature highlighting the rates of anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress symptoms, amongst other MH presentations, being higher than the general population. Furthermore, self-harming behaviours, suicidal ideation and dying by suicide are also more commonly reported within the prison population. As such, the importance of gaining a greater understanding of these MH needs is highlighted, informing interventions within prison environments, as well as exploring the wellbeing and MH of individuals leaving prison and reintegrating back into society. This these includes three sections: literature review, research paper and a critical appraisal. The literature review qualitatively reviews nine studies exploring MH interventions within prison environments and the experiences of those accessing hem. Through thematic analysis, the results identified five major themes: loneliness and the value of peer support; barriers to accessing such interventions; the benefits of a space to reflect and develop coping strategies; interventions offering hope and ‘normality’ for the future; and a shift in attitudes towards MH as a result of effective interventions. The importance of promoting empowerment and feelings of value was evident. Limitations are highlighted around resources, capacity and staff wellbeing. Recommendations for clinical practice and ongoing research are made. The research paper explores the experiences of eight prison leavers accessing the benefits system, gaining an understanding of the impact upon their MH. Through phenomenologically-informed thematic analysis, three major themes were identified: outsiders; systemic barriers; support to cope. The importance of these findings and the role of clinical psychologists within this field is highlighted. The critical appraisal presents the overall findings of the thesis, with the rationale and motivations for the research. Areas of reflection made throughout the process are presented, detailing the issues that arose and how any difficulties were considered and overcome.

This thesis forms the first detailed, scholarly account of the so-called ‘aktirovka’, or medical release practices in the GULAG in 1930-1955. It explores two interlinked lines of inquiry. The first concentrates on medical release as mendacity: an informal tool of the GULAG administration to reduce mortality rates. Terminally ill invalids, discharged early on medical grounds, died soon after release, but camp doctors deliberately excluded these fatalities from medical registries. The second line of inquiry constitutes a more general history of medical release, with a specific focus on decision-making, institutional confrontations around aktirovka, the evolution of its regulations and, particularly, overall quantification. Up until now, the total number of official invalids discharged from the GULAG in 1930-1955 remained unascertained. Without this figure, any meaningful conversation regarding a more precise estimate of additional GULAG-related deaths was all but impossible. As the first principal quantitative contribution to the scholarship, this thesis establishes this figure, determining it to be around one million. Furthermore, having estimated the general magnitude of medical releases, the present project considers the range of possible survival rates among medically released invalids. The thesis ‘follows’ medical released invalids on their almost unstudied return journeys from the camps, traces their mortality and identifies four subgroups in the general mass of the medically released in relation to their probable life outcomes (‘terminally ill’, ‘chronically ill’, ‘survivors’ and ‘bogus invalids’). As the second principal quantitative contribution, the thesis generates a novel educated estimate of additional 800,000-850,000 deaths of released ‘certified invalids’ (‘aktirovannye’). This raises the death toll directly caused by the results of GULAG incarceration to 2.5 million (prisoners only). This original estimate is substantially different from the only two available figures found in the academic literature to date (1.7 and 6 million respectively). In addition, the thesis develops three original arguments. First, central administrative intervention in mortality distortion was not meticulously coordinated, but was ad hoc, reactive and short-term. Second, medical release demonstrated not an exponential, but a ‘wave-like’ pattern. The rise of the ‘wave’ correlated with crisis periods in GULAG operations (war, national famines). Its fall coincided with more ‘normal’ periods and improved supply. Third, the scale of medical releases did not increase exponentially over time with an apex in the late 1940s – early 1950s. Their numbers dramatically plummeted in the post-war period, being in the order of thousands and tens of thousands, not hundreds of thousands or millions, as some scholars contend. Methodologically, the present thesis explores for the first time the history of medical release through the prism of three responsible agencies: the GULAG, the camp Procuracy and the Ministry of Justice. It depicts an unknown turf-war among and within them. The dissertation argues that medical release policy was not scrupulously coordinated, but represented a complex knot of contradictions between irreconcilable agendas (‘mendacious’, ‘productionist’ and ‘legalist’). Importantly, this thesis discovered that the camp Procuracy, formally an oversight agency tasked with inspecting the GULAG, often colluded with the NKVD in the distortion of mortality rates – both in Moscow and on the ground. As the basis of its explanatory mechanism, the project introduces a new three-tier model of mortality recalculation. The tiers were based on incidents of mortality among medically discharged ex-cons in three stages, as found in the documents. The first tier included deaths of the released in the camp or colony. The second encompassed mortality en route, after departure from the place of confinement. The third factored in mortality after arrival at a destination. This project ‘follows’ an average invalid, released on medical grounds from the GULAG, exploring each tier of the model. It develops a novel methodological algorithm to reappraise official mortality, which allows one to trace the data of ex-inmates’ deaths after release and revise official - and deficient - mortality records. For the first time in the historiography, this thesis recalculates death rates for several localities and periods. Henceforth, scholars can productively apply this model as a universal template for future recalculations of GULAG death statistics, as soon as more evidence from various camps and colonies becomes available.

The research in this thesis presents insights into elements of healthcare provided in micro-communities that are hidden from public view; prisons in England. Prisons are a key demographic in NHS England’s drive to eliminate hepatitis C virus infection (HCV) as a major public health threat by 2025. A policy to offer blood borne virus testing, with HCV as the priority, to those entering prisons via an opt-out approach was launched in 2014. This policy was implemented in the East Midlands prison estate, comprising 14 establishments, using dried blood spot tests as the default method of obtaining samples for analysis. The research aimed firstly to measure the impact of the opt-out testing policy on HCV test uptake in the East Midlands prisons and secondly to generate explanatory theories, based on the perspectives of men serving prison sentences, which would underpin future interventions to maximise test uptake in prisons. Realistic Evaluation methodology and mixed methods informed the conduct of three study phases: 1. Measurements of HCV test uptake pre-and post-policy introduction and prison operational features; 2. Survey of men in a category C prison to establish sentence duration, HCV test uptake, reasons for refusal and risk factors for HCV infection; 3. Semi-structured interviews with men in prison and nurses to elicit data on their perspectives about testing for HCV infection in prisons. In keeping with the Realistic Evaluation methodology programme theories were constructed to explain the test uptake rates observed in phase 1. These were subsequently refined using the novel data generated in phases 2 and 3. The HCV test uptake fell far short of the targets set by Public Health England and there was evidence of people with risk factors for HCV infection not being tested during their current sentence. The key themes of Fear, Insufficient Knowledge, Stigma, Privacy, Choice and Prison Life emerged as the principal barriers to test uptake. Test Uptake Facilitators were however identified by participants and a positive notion presented of prison healthcare being a Health Farm. In prisons men rarely spoke to each other about HCV and were fearful of catching this infection. Further, if identified as infected social rejection by others in prison was experienced so fears of being found out were high. Moreover, the prison regime which necessarily prioritises security, hampered opportunities for healthcare. Overall most men were accepting of the concept of routine BBV testing on arrival. The dominant qualitative leitmotif and causative mechanism to emerge from the interviews was Fear. This thesis presents a novel model of prison BBV engagement and interventions to increase test uptake, expressed as a Middle Range Theory comprising context-mechanism-outcome configurations embedded within the wider sociological theory about adaptation to prison life; prisonization.

Prison environments do not constitute social vacuums but opportunities for positive social interaction with others are rare. Mistrust and hypervigilance are ingrained to custodial environments and prisoners often find themselves fighting a one man war against the prison system. They may desire to connect but may adopt a defensive or protective stance in order to shield themselves from the unknown and potentially harmful intentions of others. Our current understanding is that previous experiences of maladaptive relating can be counterproductive in an individual’s attempt to connect with others. The challenges of the prison reality are not limited to prisoners but extend to prison staff. Previous research has failed to qualitatively explore the ways that prison staff navigates through the opposing dynamics inherent to their role; the balance of care and custody can have severe implication for the wellbeing of staff but can also contribute to personal growth and contentedness with their job, as suggested by the present qualitative systematic review. Every social interaction in custody, every contact, matters and can have a transformative potential. Some custodial environments operate as therapeutic communities and provide relational opportunities as an intervention to aid rehabilitation. Research has repeatedly and successfully attempted to establish whether the therapeutic community interventions work but it has yet to explore how they work. The present empirical project responds to the need for understanding of the processes that allow reconciliation and encourage meaningful interaction, shared understanding and co-constructed meaning. Six interviews were conducted with residents from therapeutic communities at HMP Grendon and analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. The results of this project branch off to a more intersubjective approach, fundamentally interactionist that encourages a shift in perspective from making sense of to making sense with.

This thesis attempts to capture, at the macro, meso and micro levels, the ideological rupture, which has emerged after the breakdown of the Soviet project in Latvia, and in particular its effect on penality and women’s imprisonment. This rupture has been conceptualized as a ‘clash of the titans’, which is the ongoing struggle between a Soviet legacy that refuses to die and an increasingly dominant neoliberal regime. While the breakdown of Soviet hegemonic power signaled a victory for democracy and market economics, the spread of western liberal democracies has been a challenge for post-Soviet societies. While democratic traditions took centuries to evolve in western societies, the democratisation and establishment of neoliberalism in post-Soviet Latvia has been an abrupt process over a few short years. This forced time frame has brought societal problems, which have yet to be worked through. This thesis will argue that for Latvians the collapse of the Soviet project meant not only transforming the socio-political economy, but has also led to the re-emergence of non-Soviet cultural traditions. The new political narratives tend to embrace a nationalistic and masculinized approach. Some sections of society have become increasingly excluded from influence, for example Russian-speakers. There is also a tendency for women to be excluded from equal influence. These cultural narratives, together with the growth of neoliberalism, has pushed Soviet influence and ideology away from mainstream Latvian society, and out to the most secluded and isolated places. Hence prisons are a last battle-ground for the two ideologically opposed ‘titans’ and a site of resistance to the new dominant culture.

The Norwegian prison system has been debated to be one of the most exceptional in the world with a distinct welfare model and reoffending rates amongst the lowest, but practical concerns still present due to mental illness impacting on 92% of inmates. Addressing mental health in the prison population is listed as important for the purposes of their well-being, public safety and to reduce reoffending. Indications are that interprofessional collaborative practice (ICP) is essential to bring together service personnel from other disciplines to prevent, treat or reduce inmates’ mental health needs. ICP broadly encompasses integration which is the structural arrangements that prescribe the placement of services and their personnel, whereas collaboration is concerned with the relations and interactions among staff. Previous research called for further exploration of these practices in the Norwegian prison system specifically from the front-line perspective. As the primary aim, this study undertook an in-depth exploration of ICP at the final phase of the Norwegian prison system through explicit focus on the organisational work of front-line professionals with inmates’ mental health needs. The theoretical framework of Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) and its theoretical components underpinned the research (i.e. object, outcome, tools, subject, community, rules and division of labour). CHAT represented an analytical lens to describe the anatomy of a specific collective activity system and to theorise ICP. A qualitative case study approach was used to undertake an exploration of front-line staff at two transitional residences in eastern Norway. These residences are considered prisons as inmates served the remainder of a prison sentence at these units before being released. The sample included Contact Officers, Social Workers and a Nurse at case study one, and Contact Officers and Social Workers at case study two. The data collection incorporated shadowing, observations and semi-structured interviews through 2-months immersion at each case study site to capture the professionals’ insights and experiences. As a flexible analytical approach, Template Analysis was utilised with the use of a priori themes and the iterative development of a template resembling the key themes at each case study. Both case studies were characterised by a collective activity system that explores the organisational work at each prison to answer the research questions regarding the implementation of ICP. As three key findings, the study identified the structural arrangements of integration concerning the front-line staff at the two transitional residences and broadly across the Norwegian prison system. (1) The specialised services and personnel were segregated from these residences, and the front-line prison staff ensured inmates had progressive opportunities to rehearse behaviour in the community. (2) The closely integrated interprofessional teams at these residences established organisational coherence, shared tasks and a collective accountability. (3) Due to insufficiently integrated systems such as the digital tool KOMPIS and confidentiality procedures, a higher degree of integration was required for these systems to improve the sharing of information across different services and front-line staff. Furthermore, the study identified four key findings pertaining to the collaborative processes that noted the purposeful relations at the residences and across the prison system. (1) The front-line staff had low levels of collaboration with other services as inmates were encouraged to maintain this collaborative responsibility themselves, yet new collaborative initiatives or models were requested with NAV (the labour and welfare service) and other prisons to overcome communication challenges. (2) Having qualified and competent staff to work in these residences was demonstrated to be essential for the professionals to develop collaborative relations between different disciplines. (3) The staff valued the autonomous relationships with inmates to cultivate collaborative and participatory involvement. (4) The application of the professionals’ shared humane ideals stimulated collaborative outlooks amongst them. In combination, this study found that the integrative structures, collaborative processes and organisational culture informed the implementation of ICP at the transitional residences to reintegrate inmates back into society. The study has indicated that the front-line professionals held an organisational commitment toward the inclusive treatment and positive development of inmates’ wide range of needs, including mental health, to prepare them for release and a life outside of prison. Contributions from this research suggest that ICP is required to complement the demands of both front- line staff and inmates at the final phase of a prison system to endorse reintegration.

There has been a recent increase in attention focussing on acquired brain injury (ABI) within a forensic population. This thesis specifically concerns traumatic brain injury (TBI) in prisoners in England and Wales. A systematic review of the literature on screening and assessment of TBI and offence-related treatment of prisoners in England and Wales was completed. This yielded 16 papers for inclusion, leading to discussion in three areas: 1. Routine screening for TBI, 2. Research on links between TBI and behaviour or progress in prison and post-release success and 3. Adaptations needed to standard offending behaviour programmes and other rehabilitation programmes for offenders with specific neurodisabilities including TBI. There was found to be a reasonable amount of research on prevalence of TBI, however more widespread use of a standardised screening tool would be beneficial, as would consideration of TBI in intervention programmes. The research component of the portfolio looked at progression in relation to the Parole process of prisoners serving indeterminate sentences for public protection (IPP sentences). A multiple case study design was used which included interviews, assessments and review of file data for six participants. Investigation of the information identified seven relevant conceptual categories; impaired functioning, treatment problems, lack of support, IPP sentence issues, emotional problems, substance misuse problems and behavioural problems. An individualised approach to the varying needs of indeterminate sentenced prisoners with suspected acquired brain injury was recommended, as was early identification of TBI in individuals in contact with the criminal justice system. Further consideration is likely to be needed regarding the suitability of current offending behaviour programmes for prisoners with TBI, and how additional support and offence-related treatment may need to be tailored to better support brain injured prisoners. The final section of the portfolio consists of a critical appraisal of the doctorate degree.

Prisons are, in many countries, the most powerful expression of the countries power and England and Wales alone oversees the incarceration of over 80,000 prisoners. The management and oversite of prisons requires high quality leadership. This thesis is comprised of two papers that together provide unique insights into prison leadership. The first paper presents a systematic review of research in which prison leadership has been studied in order to understand how prison leadership is defined. More specifically, to examine what is known about the role of a prison leader, the competencies, duties, knowledge and quality requirements of a prison leader and what impact good prison leadership can have. Of the 4,305 papers identified, only eight papers met the inclusion criteria. No clear definition of prison leadership emerged from the review highlighting an urgent need for further research if there is to be a better understanding for the selection, training and development of prison leaders to manage the complex challenges of leading prisons in the 21st century. The second paper presents a qualitative study, exploring the expectations of prison leadership and the formation of a framework of good prison leadership applicable to all senior prison leaders. 15 semi-structured interviews were conducted with a sample of unique subject matter experts, all former prison governors comprised of current and previous line managers of governors and senior prison leaders in command of the organisation. Thereby ensuring the framework was informed by the lived experiences of the men and women who have accomplished the role of leading a prison and successfully progressed beyond it. Following an inductive thematic analysis five overarching themes were established using an iterative process. The study proposes an empirical and interwoven psychological framework that consists of individual values, individual behaviours, prison organisational and management tasks, prison as a total institution and political astuteness. This framework moves beyond previous research by proposing a more complex and dynamic approach with interacting components. All five dimensions are proposed to be required for good leadership. The framework describes the expectations of prison leaders for the current realities of today, understanding that the leadership will be both influenced and impacted by external factors. As well as this the findings provide a framework to guide the recruitment, assessment, development and training of prison leaders while also offering important insights for long-term leadership strategy and policy decisions.

Introduced in 1879, following over a decade of mounting anxiety about ‘contamination’ in English convict prisons, the ‘star class’ was an administrative division for first offenders intended to ensure their segregation from other prisoners. Conceived primarily in terms of criminal pedagogy - the notion, that is, that prisons functioned inadvertently as ‘schools of crime’ - ‘contamination’ was an elastic term whose meaning extended to a spirit of insubordination among convicts, and with it the potential for ‘mutiny’; to convicts’ everyday employment of ‘filthy’ language; and to the vexed issue of sex between male prisoners, complicated by the presence in convict prisons of men sentenced under the sodomy laws. It also encompassed the forced association of hitherto ‘respectable’ offenders - not least, so-called ‘gentleman convicts’ - with members of the reviled ‘criminal class’. Secondary background checks on prospective ‘star men’ were often extensive and narrowed still further the division’s constituency, leading eventually to a population in which men convicted of offences against a female person predominated, but in which ‘white collar’ property offenders were also concentrated. At the same time, the principle that ‘star men’ and ordinary convicts should receive uniform treatment was gradually eroded with regard to prison work, with more congenial forms of labour routinely assigned to the former. Among these was printing, the principal trade at Maidstone convict prison, which opened in 1909 and was designated a star-class establishment, fulfilling a long-standing operational objective (it would remain so until 1939, and the star class itself would survive until 1967). Thus, a form of social privilege, albeit highly circumscribed, endured within the convict system, its formal egalitarianism notwithstanding: ‘gentlemen’ were spared both the full rigours of penal labour and the company of common thieves, but at the cost of their being classified with violent and sexual offenders.

This qualitative study explored experiences of the Inside-Out Prison Exchange ProgramTM (hereafter Inside-Out). The research sampled twenty-two prison-based former Inside-Out students across three English prisons in the United Kingdom (U.K.) and an international sample of twenty-nine Inside-Out practitioners. The objectives of the research were: to interrogate the core claim of Inside-Out, that it will provide a transformative learning experience; to gain a deeper understanding of how course practitioners create a learning space for transformative learning to occur; and, to determine the extent of the transformation on U.K. Inside-Out prison-based students to establish whether there is a possible nexus between Inside-Out and desistance theory. The research found that while only fourteen of twenty-two former ‘inside’ students declared that Inside-Out had been transformative for them, there were considerable personal and developmental benefits voiced by the entire sample, following their participation on the programme. The research concluded that sustained involvement in the programme through think tanks could prolong such benefits and contribute to desistance processes.

Background: Prisoners have substantial mental health needs. Prisoners should have access to healthcare of the same standard as non-prisoners and CBT-based self-help is recommended for anxiety and depression in non-prisoners. Living Life To The Full (LLTTF) is a CBT-based approach that has been demonstrated to reduce anxiety and depression in non-prisoners. Aims: To evaluate the feasibility of Prison Officers providing guided self-help support to adult male offenders experiencing stress. Method: Prison Officers and prisoners in HMP Shotts were invited to participate. Prison Officers completed LLTTF training and met prisoners individually for four sessions of LLTTF. Prisoners completed measures of anxiety, depression, and perceived functioning. This was supplemented by questionnaires completed by Personal Officers, work attendance, and breaches of prison rules. Feedback about LLTTF was collected from prisoners and Prison Officers. Results: Six Prison Officers (6%) attended staff training and two (33%) withdrew prior to prisoner recruitment. 6% (n=15) of prisoners invited to take part volunteered and were eligible. Seven completed LLTTF. A large effect size was associated with depression self-ratings pre- to post-treatment. Pre-treatment anxiety reduced at Week 4 and increased at post-treatment, which reflects deterioration in a minority. Feedback from Prison Officers and prisoners indicated LLTTF materials require adaptation for prison. Prison Officers highlighted practical barriers to delivery, including limited resources. Conclusions: Guided self-help in prison is worth pursuing. Revision of materials with Prison Officers and prisoners is recommended, and piloted prior to future research. Designated guided self-help workers may be better placed to deliver LLTTF due to practical barriers reported by Prison Officers.

This thesis explores cooperation among self-interested agents that use simulated emotions and mood as part of their decision making. The thesis begins by analysing the psychology literature on emotions and mood, and the models developed. A discussion follows that shows the inherent difficulties in developing these models so that they can be used by computational agents. The first set of experiments shows how a society of emotional agents are affected by the introduction of mobility, in terms of cooperation in the Prisoner's Dilemma and the effects on which emotional characteristics are successful when compared to previous implementations. The thesis also introduces a new computational model of mood which is demonstrated in two separate implementations. Both implementations are tested in the Prisoner's Dilemma and show improvements in cooperation when compared to the equivalent implementation that does not use the model of mood, where the agents implementing these models are placed in mobile environments. The experiments augment the previous findings that mobility and the environment structure has an an effect agents. The next set of experiments in the thesis highlighted that mobility reduces the level of cooperation and increases convergence times towards cooperation for the agents. The more open the arena, the more impact the effect of mobility has on the agents. The average scores were noted to only be impacted when the payoff matrix supports this effect. An Evolutionarily Stable Strategy analysis was conducted on the emotional and moody agents that have been implemented. Emotional agents can be considered stable when allowed time to interact with their neighbours. Moody agents were shown not to be stable. The stability of the emotional agents came at the cost of cooperation, as the ability of moody agents to create cooperation creates the risk that cooperation will not be reciprocal. In conclusion, the thesis has showed that self-interested emotional and moody agents are able to be both competitive and cooperative in environments where mobility exists.

Background: Little is known about the treatment pathways, transition and discharge of prisoner-patients detained in secure psychiatric services and how best to support and manage remittal back to prison. Remittals to prison now constitute just over 20% of discharges from medium secure services annually. Currently, there is no formal mental health care-pathway or national targeted post-discharge service for prison remittals in the United Kingdom, and there is need for formal guidance on follow-up and after care provision which may be appropriate for this group. This collection of studies aimed to produce essential data which would characterise prison remittals, their pathways through medium secure services and aftercare received post-remittal. Method: A mixed methodological design was adopted which utilised both quantitative and qualitative data collection methods. A national prospective cohort study with a one year follow-up was conducted to identify factors associated with remittal to prison. All prisoner-patients discharged over a 6 month baseline period were included subject to Section 251 of the NHS Act (2006). Collection of demographic, clinical and criminological characteristics alongside ratings on 4 standardised clinical measures was informed by data extracted from medical case notes and telephone interviews with collateral informants. These data were compared across discharge destination for individuals discharged into the community and those remitted to prison. A concurrent qualitative investigation was conducted to further explore the identified key areas of interest. This involved a focus group interview and series of semi-structured interviews. Prison remittals were followed-up in the prison estate at 12 months post-discharge. Data were extracted from individual patient medical case notes to complete a proforma covering access to prison mental health services, treatment / care received post-remittal and incidents of self-harm / attempted suicide, readmission, and release into the community. Results: There were 153 eligible prisoner-patients identified across 33 medium secure services. Comparative analysis revealed that prison remittals were 4 times more likely to have a primary diagnosis of personality disorder than community discharges and had a significantly shorter length of stay; patients with a length of stay of 6 months or less were 2 times more likely to be remitted to prison. Prison remittal scored lower for the presence of protective factors with the largest difference observed for presence of motivation for and attitudes towards treatment. Prison remittals were also rated as significantly higher risk of future violence and offending, with the largest difference observed for risk of future serious offending. Interview and focus group data allowed for exploration of how clinicians account for these observed differences and exposed the internal and external processes that guide prisoner-patient pathways through medium secure services. Overall, it appeared that different factors are taken into account depending on a prisoner-patients discharge destination, and many clinicians expressed their concern for the outlook of some patients post remittal. Eighty-nine prison remittals across 56 prisons were followed-up. It was identified that post-remittal aftercare is limited and that many patients present as vulnerable upon discharge, particularly those with a primary diagnosis of personality disorder. Discussion: Evidence on the needs of prisoners requiring inpatient psychiatric care is improving and, through the data presented in this thesis, arguments for how best to respond to these needs can be further developed. It is hoped that this research will act as a platform for further development and consideration as to how best to manage prisoners who require secondary mental health care and the extent to which the medium secure estate can provide a proactive role in the care and rehabilitation of these individuals.

This thesis considers what happens when a prisoner in England dies from natural causes. It explores the impact of deaths from natural causes on prison regimes, culture and relationships and demonstrates what determines the responses of prison regimes and personnel to dying prisoners. It is significant because to date there have been no studies of these deaths which considers their impact on the prison as an institution. Data collected using ethnographic methods in two prisons in the north of England in 2017 and 2018 shows how staff and prisoners understand the carceral geography of death and dying, construct the identity of the dying prisoner and define quality end of life care. The thesis concludes that, within limits, deaths from natural causes in prison custody soften the usual distinctions between what is expected or not expected, permitted or not permitted, between ‘inside’ and ‘outside’ prison. This is both tangible and intangible in prison regimes, culture and relationships and informs the responses of prison regimes and personnel to dying prisoners. The thesis challenges existing literature by demonstrating care quietly permeating through prison culture. It considers palliative care in prisons more holistically than existing studies, which are often limited to the medical care of terminally ill prisoners. It argues that in the perception of prisoners and staff, prison changes death, and death changes prison.

Aims: To investigate internal and external entrapment as risk factors for suicide ideation in a sample of male prisoners. Further, the study aims to investigate the role of goals (i.e. being able to adjust goals, and individual perceptions about goals) in relation to perceptions of entrapment and suicide ideation. Method: A total of 106 male prisoners took part in this cross-sectional questionnaire-based study over a four month period at a category C prison. Over-sampling was used to recruit higher-risk prisoners. Results: Univariate analyses showed that several variables significantly predicted current suicide ideation and these were included in a hierarchical logistic regression. Internal entrapment, external entrapment, goal re-engagement and goal ambivalence (i.e. a factor of goal perceptions), as a set, were able to independently predict current suicide ideation over and above established risk factors e.g. hopelessness, χ2 (6) = 64.42, p < 0.01. Internal entrapment, perceived quality of social support and external entrapment made unique statistically significant (p values < 0.05) contributions to the model, with odds ratios of 1.42, 1.03 and, interestingly, -0.78, respectively. Interaction terms between goal variables and entrapment variables were not significant in predicting suicide ideation, indicating no moderation. Conclusions: The results suggest a differential impact of internal and external entrapment on suicide ideation. There are preliminary findings that difficulty in engaging with, and feeling ambivalent about goals may contribute to suicide ideation, however these are not as important as other factors. These findings are discussed in relation to the current literature, along with the clinical implications for identification and management of at-risk prisoners and recommendations for future research.

Based on a nine-month ethnographic study of a young offenders' institution in Belfast this thesis explores the needs and experiences of young men imprisoned in Northern Ireland through the lens of critical masculinities studies. The Prison Review Team has described Hydebank, and young adult (aged 18-24) male offenders within, as the "forgotten group in the Northern Ireland prison system" and stated that the level of resources made available to this group are significantly less than for other prisons and prisoners (PRTa, 2011: 70). Moreover, studies exploring the unique nature of masculinities within the Northern Ireland context have identified that young men's masculinities are being constructed in "hostile and dangerous environments" (Ashe and Harland, 2014: 755) and young men are experiencing a "sense of alienation, perceived normality of violence, unwelcomed interactions with paramilitary members and restrictive notions of masculinity" (Harland and McCready, 2014: 1). The ethnographic research on which this thesis is based pairs methods of participant observation and semi-structured interviews. The unprecedented access gained to the institution provided the researcher with the opportunity to visit Hydebank four times a week over a nine-month period, spending time with the young men in educational classes, vocational training, recreational activities and association times. This facilitated observation into how traditional elements of masculinity such as bravado and machismo play out in a group dynamic, but also provided valuable insight into young men's subjective perspectives of imprisonment uncovering vulnerabilities such as bullying, mental health issues and struggles with substance misuse and addiction, issues young men often do not feel comfortable expressing in a group situation. The unique access gained to Hydebank, coupled with the strong rapport built between the researcher and the young men, has provided this thesis with rich findings. The findings consider: how elements of post-conflict Northern Ireland society shape masculinities prior to prison; how young men experience institutional power; young men's temporal experiences of prison; and how sources of vulnerability affect young men in prison.

This thesis explores experiences of education for young men incarcerated in a Scottish prison. This study utilised the research of Erving Goffman (1961) as a starting point for understanding the social world of people in custody. The core objectives of this study are aimed at understanding the personal biography of prisoners, exploring how prisoners interpret and give meaning to learning and education in prison, the role of the institution in providing an environment of learning, and the potential outcomes of prisoners participating in learning and education in custody. This study also examines how and why learning may be impactful to prisoner identity, self-perception, and assesses the importance of formal and informal learning for people in custody. The findings of this study suggest that the prisoner experience is influenced by individual motivation, self-awareness, support systems, and relationships. This research further reflects a strong connection between student identity and positive traits (i.e. resilience, hope, and optimism) as directly correlated with learning in prison and also suggests that the choice to engage in learning while in prison is representative of ongoing change and individual growth. Research related to the prisoner experience is further enhanced by understanding that identity for people in custody may be perceived differently depending on the age and/or gender of the incarcerated person. Identity development may prove to be critical to combating stigma and labelling as a result of incarceration as this research identified that prisoners tend to associate themselves with socially constructed stereotypes as a method of coping.

The prison soundscape is characterised by bangs, clangs, jangles and shouts reverberating around the stark environment (Hassine 1996). Wener (2012) argues the impact of these noises is enhanced by their inescapability, but what significance this has for the relationships and wellbeing of those who live and work in these spaces, has been historically ignored. This thesis, the first to focus specifically on sound in prison, answers these questions, and that of how tackling the neglect of aural experience in prisons literature might form a better understanding of prison social life. To answer this a novel method of research, Aural Ethnography (ethnography privileging aural experience), was developed and utilised to study a local men's prison in England. Thorough immersion into the prison's soundscape, over an extended period, allowed for an understanding of how these inescapable sounds shaped the everyday life of the prison. Using sound as a theoretical framework to explore prison life resulted in original insights and novel contributions to the prison literature on power, emotion, space, time, and order. The potency of prison spaces reverberated in the soundscape beyond the bounds of immediate interaction, amplifying the impact of jangling keys and clanging gates. This partially disentangles power from the rhythms and routines that comprise the order of a predictably structured day. At HMP Midtown, the soundscape functioned as a site for both gauging and affecting the emotional climate of prison spaces. A steady day - maintained through a delicate and ongoing community effort (Sparks et al 1996) - was a source of reassurance and security. It was the ontological security offered by a predictably ordered regime which provided much of the impetus for cooperating and contributing to the steady rhythms of the everyday. Sound amplified the strategies employed to navigate the prison environment, and the desire to emerge unscathed.

Despite the increased focus on families of prisoners within research, policy and practice, there has been a lack of recognition of the distinct experiences of young people affected by familial imprisonment. More specifically, there has also been a failure to consider experiences of sibling imprisonment. This thesis addresses both of these gaps in knowledge. It draws on qualitative data from two groups of participants: the first were young people from KIN, a project which creatively explores experiences of familial imprisonment; the second were a group resident within a Young Offenders Institution (YOI). Both were interviewed about their experiences of a family member's imprisonment, though their contrasting current situations created differences within the research process which are reflected upon in a specific 'methodology as finding' chapter. In respect of the substantive topic of familial imprisonment, I challenge the dominant narrative within academic literature and policy of a family member's imprisonment only being a disruptive force (one that creates distance) in relationships. Instead, narratives of closeness also emerged. These were mainly from the experiences of those within the YOI. The inclusion of this group of participants, along with an exploration of their inter / intra-prison relationships, represents a novel contribution to familial imprisonment literature. While the existing literature tends to assume an over-simplified binary between 'prisoners' family member' and 'prisoner', this thesis recognises that these terms are not exclusive; it is possible to hold both of these identities simultaneously. As well as questioning the assumption of the disruptiveness of imprisonment, where it does occur this thesis also challenges the idea that imprisonment is the only, or even the main, disruptive force within the lives of the young people it affects. While partly reinforcing and contributing to literature which says this disruption occurs and needs to be dealt with, this thesis also argues for the need to re-situate this experience within the wider set of disruptions experienced by some young people in their lives. I explore the range of issues a young person may be dealing with in their day-to-day lives and the various disadvantages they can experience. Therefore, this challenges the idea that prison is the only place in which this group's problems can be both located and resolved.

A key topic in criminological research relates to desistance, understanding why and how offenders transition away from criminal thinking and behaviour. Several theories of desistance and models of rehabilitation highlight the importance of education and work in this process. This research acknowledges the interconnected nature of these two domains by exploring the foundational attributes of education, literacy and numeracy, and the role of these skills in the context of prison work experiences. The data used come from two sources: the Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) Survey of Adults Skills which was given to nationally-representative samples of incarcerated and household adults and a sample of North Carolina Correction Enterprises (NCCE) inmate employees. The aim is to evaluate prison work experiences, both generally and in the specific context of prison industry work, with regard to the opportunities they offer for cognitive skill use and development. Two facets of literacy and numeracy are addressed in this research: the skills one uses, in this case specifically as part of their job, and the skills one possesses as measured by an assessment. First, instruments of reading, writing and numeracy skill use among incarcerated and household adults are constructed and validated using the Rasch model. Differential item functioning tests across groups of inmates and household adults are employed to critically evaluate the utility of instruments developed for the free labour market context for accurately describing the realities of prison work. Then, individual estimates of skill use are compared across sample groups and occupational industries using one-way and two-way analysis of variance tests (ANOVA). Examining these differences provides evidence for how the prison environment constrains skill use for workers employed in some of the most common types of jobs. However, inmates in some occupations, such as the NCCE workers and inmates employed in education, social service or health and personal care jobs, report similar levels of skill use to household adults in the free labour market. Finally, the research examines how assessed literacy and numeracy proficiency relate to estimates of skill use in the work environment and to a range of other socio-demographic and dispositional variables. Correlation analysis reveals a skill use and proficiency mismatch for incarcerated adults compared to household adults; there is no relationship between these practices in their prison jobs and their assessed proficiency. Additionally, factors associated with educational attainment, attitudes toward learning, race and age are all significant in models of incarcerated adults' assessed literacy and numeracy. The interpretation of findings includes a theoretical discussion of key topics from the thesis as they relate to Pierre Bourdieu's concepts of practice, capital, field and habitus. In addition, there is consideration of how results contribute to the applied study of literacy and numeracy in samples of both incarcerated and household adults and the evaluation of prison work experiences. I present a critical appraisal of the frameworks that guide skill-related surveys and assessments for incarcerated adults and present suggestions for future versions of such surveys. This research provides a look inside the "black box" of prison work experiences by describing the extent to which inmates used cognitive skills in these positions and illuminates the connections between such behaviours and assessed literacy and numeracy of incarcerated adults.

My DPhil thesis explores responses to deaths in custody. Specifically, it is concerned with how a range of different actors respond to suicidal behaviour – including self-harm, attempted suicide and completed suicide – in prisons and immigration removal centres (IRCs). It is a theoretical and empirical work, with two overarching aims. The first is to engage with theoretical accounts of imprisonment and immigration detention, as exemplified by literature on the sociology of punishment, and the politics of criminal justice and migration control. Throughout the thesis, I treat prisons and IRCs as social and political institutions, and analyse responses to the problems within them, including suicidal behaviour, as partly political in nature. The theoretical sections of the thesis are found mainly in Chapters 2 and 3, which review a wide range of relevant literature and develop an original argument about responses to deaths in custody. The theoretical claims made in these chapters are substantiated in later empirical sections. The second aim is to make an original empirical contribution to the study of responses to suicidal behaviour in custody. There are three different types of ‘response’ that I discuss in the thesis, each of which corresponds to an empirical chapter. These are: prevention work inside immigration detention that is carried out by detainee custody officers and managers (Chapter 5); investigations into deaths in prisons and IRCs that are carried out by independent professionals (Chapter 6); policy efforts by political elites and expert bodies to reduce the number and rate of deaths in custody (Chapter 7). In each case, I set out the distinctive dynamics of the field, whether it is the internal life of an immigration detention centre, the bureaucratic process of a death investigation, or the bewildering world of government policymaking. The final chapter connects the theoretical and empirical sections of the thesis.

Since English prison reform in the 18th century, with USA reform following in the 19th century, prison designers have used design to modify antisocial behaviour and encourage desistance. Three out of the four prison models subsequently identified by Moldan (2012) embody this approach while avoiding damaging inmates' physical and mental health — the Rehabilitation, Safety and Hybrid models. The fourth model —the Repressive— does not, and is not considered here. Evidence shows that to help ensure rehabilitation and desistance, the promotion of inmates' health and well-being within prisons is vital (Liebling, 2011). Many prison services are now trying to address this connection while dealing with challenging social and cultural realities, but only a handful of them have shown significant changes in their prison designs and subsequently built projects. This thesis has aimed to explore and understand the differences in the approach to health and well-being related to prison design, in countries within the Rehabilitation, the Safety and the Hybrid prison models. This was done by identifying the underlying mechanisms that produce these outcomes, and what needs to be modified, as underpinned by Critical Realism ontology and drawing on PERMA theory of well-being. Prison staff and designers from four countries and the three Prison models, as well as key international advisors, were interviewed using semi-structured interviews which were coded and triangulated using other qualitative methods. Organised Hypocrisy theory was then used as an additional lens to understand and further explain the underlying reasons for their differences and similarities. Finally, this thesis has identified what is necessary within prison authorities and services, as well as broader society, for a rehabilitative prison approach to promoting staff and inmates' health and well-being in all three models. The synthesis of all the findings has led to the development of an outline framework for promoting health and well-being in prison design with recommendations based on six key dimensions: Design priorities, Design principles, Financial optimisation, Decision-making, Operational transparency, and Education.

The central theme of this thesis is the analysis of women’s efforts to desist from crime after prison. The research was carried out with a cohort of women in HMP Holloway between 2013-2015, the period immediately preceding the prison’s closure in June 2016. Based on three waves of in-depth interviews with the women, the research explores the factors women experience as supportive of, or obstacles to, desistance. Gendered justice frameworks and trauma-informed approaches are increasingly informing correctional practice with women. These perspectives are employed in the analysis to give particular consideration to the relevance of women’s experiences of victimisation and trauma to their efforts to terminate offending and related behaviours. Literature on desistance generally is juxtaposed with that focused specifically on women’s desistance. This highlights the neglect of gender in theorising on the processes associated with leaving crime behind. A feminist constructivist grounded theory approach to the research design, the fieldwork, and the data analysis aims to address this by providing a gendered perspective on desistance processes related to building relationships, restoring a sense of self, and the exercise of agency and appropriate responsibility. The main arguments of this thesis, based on the rich testimonies of the participants, centre on the impact of gendered experiences of adversity on these processes. The women’s insights into how best help them recover from experiences that contribute to their offending are analysed, culminating in a proposed framework for practice to support women’s desistance that integrates desistance, trauma-informed and gender-responsive approaches to practice.

This thesis advances understandings of how young people comprehend, negotiate, and experience, the pathways and transitions between young offender institutions [YOIs] within the juvenile secure estate and penal institutions within the young adult/adult estate. Young people within the juvenile secure estate are widely considered to be 'vulnerable' (Goldson, 2002; Gooch, 2016; Charlie Taylor, 2016) and the institutions in which they are held are intended to provide tailored support for the additional safeguards they require (Youth Justice Board [YJB], 2018a) despite evidence which suggests that this does not always obtain in practice (Her Majesty's Chief Inspector of Prisons [HMCIP], 1997, 2017a). Upon turning age 18 years and therefore becoming 'adult' (Goldson, 2013) young people transfer into the young adult/adult estate (National Offender Management Service [NOMS], 2012). By virtue of their status, the services they are involved with and/or entitled to also change. This has been described as feeling like a 'cliff-edge' (Social Exclusion Unit [SEU], 2005; Transition to Adulthood Alliance, 2009; National Audit Office [NAO], 2015). NOMS (2012, p. 1) have acknowledged that this transfer represents a "challenging part of [young people's] time in custody" due to the significant changes in regime and environment. The difficulties associated with transitions were first acknowledged within a joint inspection report in 2012 (Criminal Justice Joint Inspectorates [CJJI], 2012). Subsequent independent reviews (Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Probation, 2016a) and inquiries (House of Commons Justice Committee, 2016a, 2016b, 2016c) have reported how the move is one of the most 'stressful' transfers (Harris, 2015, p. 95) and is "frequently abrupt and inadequately planned" (Royal College of Psychiatrists, cited in the House of Commons Justice Committee, 2013, p. 61). This thesis is unique in its exploration of this period of transition. A mixed methods approach was taken; this included tracked interviews which followed a cohort of young people pre- and post-transition, supplemented with interview data from a range of key stakeholders and data drawn from Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Prisons [HMIP] surveys conducted during inspections. Four perspectives of transitions have been identified: (i) the official guidance (ii) 'insider' key stakeholder perspectives: those working within penal institutions, (iii) 'outsider' key stakeholder perspectives: those working outside of penal institutions and (iv) the experiences of the young people. There is a clear gap between the rhetoric of the official guidance and the 'grim reality' (Sim, 2008, p. 139) for young people. Although the young people interviewed reported that they felt ready to move and progress through the system, they stated they had little information and involvement throughout the process, and they felt unprepared. It was evident that the support the young people required post-transition was not available. It is argued, therefore, that the transition experience is 'imagined' (Carlen, 2008) and is a period which serves to exacerbate the vulnerability of those held (Beal, 2014).

For over two decades, there has been a progressive emergence of Shakespeare-focussed programmes for use with prisoners in the USA. Prison-based criminal retribution, though controversial, remains prevalent. Despite this, evidence demonstrates that educational sentences have greater impact on reducing recidivism. This research considers a multi-sited Shakespeare-focussed rehabilitation programme deemed successful enough to practise for over two decades. Current UK statistics show that 45% of adults reoffend within five years of release and over 30% reoffend within six months (Ministry of Justice, 2015). In the USA, probability of reoffending is higher, at 70% (US National Institute of Justice, 2017). Yet there are Shakespeare-focussed education programmes that are a supplement to incarceration, that maintain a falling reoffending rate. Though this is an important measure of the success of these programmes, my research draws on the experiences of those engaging in a long-serving multi-sited Shakespeare programme, exploring the specifics of this programme, including practices, intentions and functions. This multi-sited ethnographically informed research asks: 1) What were the specific programme practices and how were they delivered? 2) What were practitioner and participant perceptions of the specific use of Shakespeare? 3) What were the perceived and intended programme outcomes reported by and for practitioners and participants? This research considers practices undertaken, identifying intended and experienced outcomes from the perspectives of participants, practitioners and the researcher’s experiences. Key findings identify individualised impacts that have been drawn from participation surrounding personal and community development and, crucially, the rehumanisation of prisoners through engagement in this programme. This includes outcomes relating to the impact of specifically using, reading, performing and interpreting Shakespeare, individual learning, skills-acquisition, development and expression. Further it considers the wider impact that participation has had on individuals and communities, behind and beyond prison bars, particularly surrounding rehumanisation of prisoners to their communities, wider society and themselves.

This research is an empirical ethics study of parenting support delivered within a UK prison mother and baby unit (MBU). In recent years, the idea of state provided 'parenting support' has gained prominence within the early intervention (EI) policy agenda. A central claim of EI policy is that poor parenting during the early years of life can lead to a range of bad outcomes for children, such as ill health, academic failure, poverty, and crime. These outcomes create substantial costs for both individuals and society. Therefore, EI often involves identifying babies and children who are at risk of being 'poorly parented,' and intervening upon these parents in order to help them provide better care to their children. In the context of EI, parenting support gives rise to a number of complex ethical questions, both in policy and in practice. These concern what it means to be a good mother, the nature of a good childhood, the rights and responsibilities of parents, and the appropriate role of the state to intervene in family life. Prison MBUs provide an informative and challenging case study through which to consider how these ethical questions arise in practice for those involved in the delivery and receipt of parenting support. In the UK, female prisoners who are pregnant or who have a small child are able to apply to serve their sentence within a prison MBU. The baby can remain within the unit up until the age of 18 months, and whilst the mother serves her sentence she is provided with various kinds of parenting support. Some of these forms of parenting support look very similar to that which is provided to women enrolled in EI programs in the community. However, prison policy is unclear as to the goals of parenting support in this environment and it is possible to anticipate a number of ethical challenges that may arise in practice: how can prison provide a good start in life for children? What is the relationship - if any - between crime and being a good mother? To what extent can and should women exercise parental autonomy in a prison environment? Over a period of 7 months I conducted interviews, focus groups, and participant observation within the MBU of a women's prison in the North of England. In this thesis I provide a rich ethical analysis of the practice of parenting support as it take place within the 'moral world' of the MBU. I elucidate the relevant ethical questions arising in this context, map out the values and normative commitments in play, identify where lack of clarity impedes the pursuit of goals, and analyse these concerns within a framework informed by relevant ethical theories. I situate these findings in the context of the EI policy literature in order to consider what this case study reveals about the ethical dimensions of parenting support both in prison and in EI policy more broadly. With this in mind, I offer some recommendations that may shape the provision of parenting support both inside and outside of prison.

This research contributes to the contemporary debate about Statebuilding and penal reform by looking at one of probably the most contested processes in recent European history, namely Statebuilding in Kosovo. This study comprises two parts; the first looks at the Statebuilding process in Kosovo according to European best practices, whereas the second part looks at prison reform and its adherence to internationally recognised standards. This is the first in depth academic research, employing a primarily qualitative approach, to be carried out in Kosovo since its existence, initially as a United Nations protectorate (1999-2008), and later as an independent state (2008-2018). On one side, it adds to the growing literature on Statebuilding, and on the other side it represents a milestone in academic research about prisons and prison reform in Kosovo. The research triangulates reports from the international community (United Nations, European Union, Council of Europe etc.), Civil Society, as well as literature on Statebuilding, and legislation (national and international) with data obtained through personal interviews with relevant stake holders, related to both Statebuilding and prison reform. This thesis has three main findings: Firstly, Statebuilding in Kosovo remains an unfinished business reflecting failings on the part of both the international community and the Kosovo political elite. Key issues identified contributing to this unfinished business include lack of patience by the international community, poor international cadre/expertise, exclusion of local population in the Statebuilding process, compromised Kosovar political elite, and problems with the European best practices themselves. Secondly, the research revealed that the biggest threats towards human rights of prisoners in Kosovo are non-existent rehabilitation programmes, disregard for prison staff training, and absence of the Dynamic Security concept throughout the Kosovo prison system. Further, the research revealed that prisoners in Kosovo suffer from indirect human rights violations reflecting the influence of certain high profile prisoners whose primary tool is (abuse of) hospitalization, even though, more generally, provision of healthcare in Kosovo prisons is considered better than in several European countries. Finally, the study found that the main challenges in prison reform in Kosovo are twofold: on one (Kosovar) hand corruption, nepotism and cronyism, undue political interference, and high profile prisoners; and on the other (European) side alleged corruption, EU officials, lack of internal (EU) coordination, and lack of realistic objectives. Overall, the research confirms the findings of previous authors that Statebuilding is a complicated and delicate process requiring extreme attention, as well as the findings of those who argue that prison reform, like Statebuilding, entails comprehensive planning, dedication of all stakeholders, and above all respect for human rights. The general conclusions of this study include recommendations which could be taken into consideration by the Kosovo Ministry of Justice as immediate actions to facilitate prison reform in Kosovo.

Many individuals in prison experience sharing a cell with another prisoner (Prison Reform Trust, 2018a). Yet little is known about how cell-sharing can affect wellbeing during imprisonment or influence the use of coping styles. Using a mixed-methods approach consisting of a survey of 569 adult men imprisoned in Northern Ireland, and semi-structured interviews with staff (n= 15) and prisoners (n=37), this study aimed to address this gap in the research literature. The findings reveal that, whilst there were no significant differences observed between the wellbeing scores of those in single and shared cells, the nature of cellmate relationships was significantly associated with wellbeing. Good cellmate relationships promoted better wellbeing by reducing the pressure to conform to prison social norms and making individuals feel able to show their emotions in front of their cellmate. As a result, this facilitated the use of coping styles associated with higher wellbeing, such as seeking emotional support from others. This study also points to the helpfulness of Goffman (1959) in terms of furthering an understanding of how good cellmate relationships can enable individuals to engage in backstage activity that is important for individuals' self-narratives and sense of wellbeing, such as the reflexive project of the self (Giddens, 1991). It is argued that in order to understand how people respond to cell-sharing and, consequently, its impact on wellbeing, it is necessary to examine how imported characteristics (such as predispositions to use certain coping styles, mental health issues and histories of addiction) can interact with the deprivations associated with a shared cell (such as the lack of privacy and reduced feelings of safety). This thesis offers some new insights into our theoretical understanding of cell-sharing and its impact on wellbeing. It puts forward an augmentation of Goffman's (1959) conceptualisation of frontstage and backstage by arguing that in the context of a shared prison cell, frontstage and backstage exist on a continuum. The extent to which the cell can be regarded as frontstage or backstage is dependent on the relationships between cellmates. These findings also point to a gap in prison policy relating to how cell-sharing is managed. In particular, the findings are used to address this gap in prison policy by offering suggestions for improvements to the training and guidance staff receive on managing cell-sharing and making cell allocation decisions. In this way, staff should be better informed to use the knowledge gained from this research to balance the different factors that influence how individuals respond to cell-sharing in order to promote good cellmate relationships that enhance wellbeing and facilitate the use of more effective coping styles.

This thesis explores the interconnections between horticulture, hypermasculinity and mental wellbeing. It focusses on male prisoners and staff experiences of engaging with a North West horticulture programme called Greener on the Outside: For Prisons (GOOP) in a category B prison in North West England. The study forms part of a wider, regional programme aiming to tackle health inequalities amongst various population groups funded by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR). Masculinities and horticulture are both well-researched areas within prison settings in particular; therefore this thesis provides an original contribution to knowledge by combining the two themes and exploring the interconnections. The study was underpinned by a social constructionist epistemology and informed by symbolic interactionism and critical inquiry. In terms of methodology the research utilised a critical ethnographic approach using a range of qualitative data collection methods: active participant observation, guided conversations and individual in-depth interviews. Using a critical lens for the study allowed the research not only to explore 'what is' but also 'what could be' within the criminal justice system. The main period of data collection was conducted over a 17 week time frame, with a sample of 34 prisoners and seven members of staff. The critical ethnographic approach and combination of methods used generated rich data capturing the lived experiences, personal journeys and stories of those involved in GOOP - revealing findings based on complex meanings and interpretations. The findings contribute to knowledge and understanding of the importance of engaging in horticulture with particular reference to community, trust, green environments, biophilic design, experiencing hope and reducing hypermasculine behaviours through responsibilities, nurturing and the presence of females. With GOOP offering a small, community-like atmosphere within prison, this invoked trust, friendships and positive interactions between prisoners and staff. The hypermasculine norms so often prevalent in prisons were notably absent on GOOP, with connections made between caring for plants, healthily re-establishing the male role and interacting with females. The range of tasks available for GOOP prisoners offered opportunities for prisoners to develop personally and socially, a chance to improve their mental wellbeing with specific mental illnesses addressed. This research offers an original contribution to knowledge as it combines three highly researched concepts; hypermasculinity, horticulture and mental wellbeing with pertinent connections established through reductions in hypermasculine behaviour when interacting with nature. It highlights the potential for positive masculinities in prison, the creation of community through horticulture and, as a result, the enhancement in mental wellbeing. The recognition and reach of GOOP horticulture programmes is growing, with increasing interest in applying the programme in regions outside of the North West. This highlights the relevance and significance of the research findings and their potential to impact future policy and practice. Recommendations arising from the findings - for example, working outside in the fresh air, creating a small community and encouraging creativity - will be shared with relevant stakeholders within the GOOP network and wider prison system to ensure reach and enable the impact of the research is maximised.

Background: Little is known about the mental health of pregnant women in prison in England or the factors which impact admissions to prison mother and baby units (MBUs). Research suggests women with more 'stable' backgrounds and lower prevalence of mental disorder are more likely to be admitted to prison MBUs, and that women in MBUs have a lower prevalence of mental disorder, but the reasons for this are unclear. Aims: To describe the socio-demographic background of pregnant women in prison; to establish the prevalence of mental disorder in pregnant women in prison; to identify the factors which influence MBU applications and admissions for pregnant women in prison; to measure the impact of MBU residence and separation on initial outcomes for mother and child and to explore the experiences of pregnancy, childbirth and motherhood and separation whilst imprisoned. Methods: A mixed methods design was used. Eighty-five pregnant women completed quantitative interviews at baseline, and 55 at follow-up in nine different prisons. Data was collected on mental health, drug misuse, hazardous drinking, personality disorder, quality of life and mother-child bonding. Qualitative data were collected via 31 interviews with pregnant women, and 24 postnatal interviews. Framework Analysis was used to explore, summarise and report the data. Results: Fifty-one percent of participants had depression and 57% had anxiety. Sixty-three per cent were admitted to MBUs. Those who were working prior to imprisonment were more likely to be admitted, and those with prior Children's Services involvement, diagnosis of personality disorder or history of suicidality were less likely to be admitted. Perinatal depression was greater at baseline than follow-up, and lower for women admitted to MBUs. Quality of life was higher at follow-up than at baseline, except for the social quality of life for participants not admitted to MBUs, suggesting poorer perceived social support. Conclusions: The high levels of depression and anxiety may have negative impacts on both the mother and child. Pregnant women with more complex backgrounds are less likely to be given a place in a prison MBU, and MBU placement may contribute to a reduction in perinatal depression. Women not admitted to MBUs may experience reduced social support. Participants were depressed, stressed and worried, mostly about what would happen to their unborn child, basic needs were unmet, and emotional support varied. Lack of information compounded feelings of stress.

Delivered through the medium of a Community of Philosophical Inquiry, this thesis outlines the experience of engaging prisoners in philosophical conversation, thereby articulat-ing the relevance of this type of education for those in long-term confinement. The research, which took place in two prisons, explores the role of prison education, community dialogue and active philosophising in encouraging personal development. With similar populations but contrasting characters, HMPs Grendon and Full Sutton provided the backdrop to grounded, ethnographically-led research. The research design reflects the exploratory nature of the approach. Derek Layder’s adaptive theory has provided a methodological framework, whilst the theoretical framework draws on desistance literature, prison sociology, and philosophical pedagogy to enhance and develop understanding of the emergent themes. However, as a criminological piece of research, it sits within the criminological, and more specifically, prison sociological paradigm. The thesis culminates in a discussion of personal development that articulates the role of education in developing growth identities among prisoner-participants. The research de-scribes the role of philosophical dialogue in developing trust and relationships between and among the participants; the relevance of this type of education to prisoners’ psychological wellbeing; and the significance of the subject-matter to participants’ perspectives. The thesis argues that prison promotes the formation of a hyper-masculine ‘survival’ identity. It goes on to argue that education, and more specifically philosophy education, can play a role in culti-vating growth identities that encourage personal exploration, self-reflection, and development of new interests and skills among prisoners.

Emotions remain notably underexplored in both criminology and prisons research. This thesis sets out to address this problem by centralizing the importance of emotions in prison: especially the way prisoners express and regulate their affective states. To collect the data, 25 male and 25 female prisoners were 'shadowed', observed and interviewed across two prisons (HMP Send and HMP Ranby). Based on these findings, this thesis describes the emotional world of prisoners and their various 'affective' strategies. The three substantive chapters reveal the textured layers and various emotional states experienced by prisoners: first, at the level of the self (psychological); second, as existing between groups (social emotions); and, third, in relation to the physical environment (spatial). An individual substantive chapter is dedicated to each of these three levels of analysis. A primary finding was the prevalence of a wide range of 'emotion management' strategies among prisoners. One such strategy was emotion suppression, which was extremely salient among both men and women. While this emotion suppression was, in part, a product of pre-prison experiences it was also strongly influenced by institutional practices. Importantly, there was a strong correlation between prisoners who suppressed emotions and who were subsequently involved in violence (towards others, or inflicted upon themselves). A second key finding was the wide range of emotions that exist within, and are shaped by, different prison spaces-previous accounts have described prison as emotionally sterile, or characterised by anxiety and fear but this study develops the idea that prisons have an 'emotional geography' or affective 'map'. The study findings have implications for the 'emotional survivability' of our prisons; the need to open legitimate channels for emotional expression; and designing prisoners that are supportive, safe and secure establishments for prisoners to live in.

This thesis explores the experiences of imprisonment of men held in HMP Stafford, an English medium-security prison for men convicted of sexual offences. Sex offenders constitute a significant proportion of the prison population – almost one in five sentenced adult men have been convicted of a sex offence – but they have been consistently overlooked by prison researchers. In this thesis, I redress this imbalance by exploring the experiences of a hitherto overlooked group, and generate some theoretical insights which will be of relevance to wider studies of imprisonment. The thesis is based on an in-depth ethnographic study conducted over a five-month period. It included 42 long semi-structured interviews with prisoners, 12 shorter semi-structured interviews with prison officers, and extended periods of participant observation of day-to-day life in the prison. It focuses on three areas which were of particular salience to these men, all of which have been explored in detail in existing studies of mainstream imprisonment: first, the ways in which they adapted to their sentence; second, the sorts of social and moral communities they formed amongst themselves; and third, the relationships they formed with staff and the way the prison’s power operated on them. All three of these areas – adaptation, moral community and power – were inflected by two issues of even greater significance: the fact that they were serving sentences for sexual offences, and their resulting social identities as ‘sex offenders’. By drawing attention to this issue, I hope to move on from the conventional mode of understanding the prison, as a disciplinary institution structured solely by power, to one which takes more seriously the moral functions and effects of the prison as a condemnatory institution.

Background: The mental health of prisoners is of growing global health importance as prison populations increase exponentially. Though additional risks of mental disorder and poor mental wellbeing of prisoners are now better understood, women, especially those in low and middle income countries, and in regions outside North America and Europe are underrepresented in prison mental health studies. There is strong evidence of associations between religion and spirituality (RS) and mental health in the general population in North America and Europe. This thesis aims to measure and explain any associations between RS and depression and mental wellbeing among female prisoners in Chile. Methods: An explanatory sequential mixed methods approach comprised an initial quantitative study linked to a subsequent qualitative study. In the quantitative phase, 94 randomly sampled female prisoners in Chile participated in a pooled two-stage cross-sectional survey which collected data on background, mental health and RS variables. Mental wellbeing was measured using the Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale (WEMWBS). Self-report depression data were collected and 40 prisoners were also administered the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI). RS variables included: affiliation, personal importance, involvement (frequency of attending services), benefits and beliefs. The design of the qualitative phase was informed by quantitative study findings. Six prisoners who had participated in the cross-sectional survey attended one of two focus groups. Individual in-depth interviews were conducted with 3 prison chaplains and 2 health professionals from the prison health centre. Topic guides for focus groups and interviews were used to facilitate discussions on the mental health and RS of female prisoners and to elicit views on selected findings from the quantitative study. Logistical regression techniques were used to statistically test the hypothesis of no association between RS and depression and mental wellbeing. Audio-recorded qualitative data were transcribed in Spanish and analysed thematically in English. Results: Of the 94 women, 11 (11.7%) reported a current professional diagnosis of depression, while major depression was confirmed in 13 (32.5%) of the 40 women assessed using the MINI. The women had a median WEMWBS score of 55 (IQR 43-61) out of 70. Religiosity was high among the sample with 86 (91.5%) women affiliated to mainstream Christianity and 69 (73.4%) who considered RS to be personally very important. In a sample of 40 women, frequency of attendance at RS services was significantly higher in prison than during the year prior to incarceration (Wilcoxon Sign Ranks Test Z=3.1; p < 0.002). No significant associations were found between depression and mental wellbeing, and the key RS variables. However, 61 (89.7%) women believed there was a connection between their mental health and spirituality. The qualitative data revealed differences within and between participant groups in understandings of mental health and RS terminology and concepts. Themes emerged around the prison determinants of mental health and the mental health effects of the female gender. Prisoners identified RS variables that influenced mental health which had not been measured in the survey. Explanations were found for the divergent survey results of the association between RS and mental health. The data showed how RS shapes prisoners' help-seeking behaviour and attitudes to mental health care. Conclusion: The association between RS and mental health among prisoners in Chile remains unclear but may differ from established patterns reported in non-prisoner populations. This a challenging area of study with an additional layer of complexity present in prison populations where there are high levels of religiosity and spirituality. Larger studies are needed to confirm the quantitative findings, while qualitative findings should lead to raised awareness of RS in the development of prison mental health strategies in accordance with the needs of a given population.

Penal politics and imprisonment in the English-speaking west are often presented as having become increasingly harsh and exclusionary since about 1970. Yet, curiously little attention has been given to Ireland and Scotland, two nations considered as exceptions to these pervasive punitive trends, and this presents some considerable gaps in our understanding of penal politics in this era. This thesis uses sociological and historical research to provide an in-depth comparative analysis of political culture and imprisonment regimes in Ireland and Scotland from 1970 until the 1990s. In so doing, the thesis also explores issues central to the history of punishment and comparative penology, in particular the 'punitive turn' in the late twentieth century. Using oral history interviews, archival research and documentary analysis this thesis recovers the history of penal culture in these two jurisdictions and examines how that changed and evolved over the latter part of the twentieth century. It draws upon resources from cultural sociology, governmentality studies and the sociology of punishment to develop the necessary conceptual resources to illuminate and compare penal politics and the varied practices which constitute imprisonment. Imprisonment regimes here are studied as comprising kinds of places, sets of routines and practices. Political culture, meanwhile, is understood as the working cultural symbols, passions, logic of government, political categories, and perceived social origins of crime. While providing grounded and detailed historical accounts of Ireland and Scotland these cases show how generic and global concepts, such as managerialism, rehabilitation, zero tolerance and incarceration intersect with their local social conditions and political relations. This thesis demonstrates that the heterogeneity of imprisonment regimes is a reflection of their political and social context. Therefore, the differences we see in the uses of imprisonment cross-nationally will both reflect and reconstitute their contrasting political cultures.