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Pakistan is actively exploring sustainable transportation solutions, considering environmental impact, and economic development. By adopting more sustainable modes of transport and investing in infrastructure, Pakistan can pave the way toward a greener and more efficient future. Leveraging the AIM/Enduse framework, we analyze the energy and environmental impact using Baseline (BL) and Counter Measure (CM) scenarios. Our findings indicate, with penetration of 30%, 50%, and 100% green vehicles into the existing transport system, Pakistan may save 5 MTOE, 11 MTOE, and 24.6 MTOE of energy in 2030, 2040, and 2050, respectively. Similarly, it will also reduce CO2 emissions by 22 MtCO2eq, 41 MtCO2eq, and 104 MtCO2eq in respective years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background The Paris Agreement aims at minimizing threats of climate change by keeping global temperature rise well below 2 degrees Celsius above the pre-industrial level and to pursue efforts to limit the rise to 1.5 degrees Celsius. The Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) are developed to investigate GHG emission pathways. RCP2.6 focuses on limiting the global temperature rise to less than 2 degrees Celsius. This paper assesses the impacts of carbon price and CCS on energy and GHG emissions in Thailand. The no carbon price (T0) and the carbon price pathways are compared. In addition, the net-zero emissions and year are discussed. Results The decarbonized energy system with low-carbon power generation and increased electricity usage in the final energy consumption is the main pillar of GHG mitigation. Imposing carbon prices; increasing solar, wind, and biomass electricity generation; energy efficiency improvements in power generation; and energy savings in the industry and the building sectors, will be the key options for clean power generation in the carbon prices (CT) scenarios. Renewable electricity, coal and natural gas, coupled with CCS and bio-energy with CCS (BECCS) will be utilized significantly to curb GHG emissions. The increase of renewable energy and the electrification of end-use plays a key role in reducing GHG emissions. Fuel switching from diesel to biodiesel, energy efficiency improvement and electric pick-ups and trucks will help reducing GHG emissions in the transport sector. Conclusions There are three major policy implications to meet Thailand’s 2 degrees Celsius target. First, carbon prices will be the mechanism to accelerate the transformation in the energy sector. Wind and solar electricity will be key pillars of clean electricity in 2050. Policy-makers should update the renewable electricity plans to meet Thailand’s 2 degrees Celsius target in 2050. Second, coal- and gas-fired plants, and BECCS will become important options in reducing CO2 emissions. The policy-makers should investigate the application of CCS in the power sector and the storage location. Third, a major transformation in the transport sector is critically needed. Liquid biofuel and electrification in pick-ups, sedans, and trucks will help reduce GHG emissions.

Thailand has a commitment to achieve net zero emissions. The roles of energy service demand reduction and hydrogen in the energy transition have not been sufficiently evaluated. This study analyzed energy and technological implications in the energy sector to attain net zero emissions in Thailand by 2050. This study used the AIM/Enduse model, a bottom-up type energy system model, as an analytical tool. A business-as-usual scenario and a net zero emission scenario are analyzed. Unlike other studies, this paper explored the energy transition in the absence of carbon, capture and sequestration (CCS) technology with a focus on energy service demand reduction and green hydrogen-based technologies. Decarbonization of the energy sector and transition towards net zero emission by 2050 in Thailand would require rapid deployment of renewable energy sources like solar, wind and biomass. In the net zero scenario, installed capacity of solar PV and wind for power generation in 2050 would reach 64 GW and 40 GW, respectively. In addition, green hydrogen will have a crucial role in achieving net zero emission target. The high carbon removals from LULUCF sector in Thailand will aid in reaching net zero emission without CCS technology in the energy sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study analyzed energy and technological implications in the energy sector to attain net zero emissions in Thailand by 2050. The study used AIM/Enduse, a bottom-up type energy system model, as an analytical tool. A business-as-usual and a net zero emission scenario are analyzed. Net zero emission scenarios are assessed in terms of net zero greenhouse gas emissions (NZE-GHG). Results show that the GHG emissions from the energy sector in the BAU would reach 635 MtCO2e in 2050. Decarbonization of the energy sector and transition towards net zero emission by 2050 in Thailand would require rapid deployment of renewable energy sources like solar, wind and biomass. In net zero scenario, installed capacity of solar PV and wind for power generation in 2050 would reach 64 GW and 40 GW, respectively. In addition, this study assesses the role of green hydrogen in achieving net zero target. The 200 GW solar capacity would be required to produce green hydrogen for decarbonizing the transport, industrial as well as power sector. The high carbon sequestration from LULUCF sector in Thailand will make it possible to reach net zero emission with carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) technology in the energy sector. Additional bioenergy or CCS technologies will need to be deployed in the power sector if the renewables cannot be deployed to the desirable extent.

Background: The Paris Agreement aims at minimizing threats of climate change by keeping global temperature rise well below 2 degrees Celsius above the pre-industrial level and to pursue efforts to limit the rise to 1.5 degrees Celsius. The Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) are developed to investigate GHG emission pathways. RCP2.6 focuses on limiting the global temperature rise to less than 2 degrees Celsius. This paper assesses the impacts of carbon price and CCS on energy and GHG emissions in Thailand. The no carbon price (T0) and the carbon price pathways are compared. In addition, the net-zero emissions and year are discussed. Results: The decarbonized energy system with low-carbon power generation and increased electricity usage in the final energy consumption is the main pillar of GHG mitigation. Imposing carbon prices; increasing solar, wind, and biomass electricity generation; energy efficiency improvements in power generation; and energy savings in the industry and the building sectors, will be the key options for clean power generation in the carbon prices (CT) scenarios. Renewable electricity, coal and natural gas, coupled with CCS and bio-energy with CCS (BECCS) will be utilized significantly to curb GHG emissions. The increase of renewable energy and the electrification of end-use plays a key role in reducing GHG emissions. Fuel switching from diesel to biodiesel, energy efficiency improvement and electric pick-ups and trucks will help reducing GHG emissions in the transport sector. Conclusions: There are three major policy implications to meet Thailand's 2 degrees Celsius target. First, carbon prices will be the mechanism to accelerate the transformation in the energy sector. Wind and solar electricity will be key pillars of clean electricity in 2050. Policy-makers should update the renewable electricity plans to meet Thailand's 2 degrees Celsius target in 2050. Second, coal- and gas-fired plants, and BECCS will become important options in reducing CO2 emissions. The policy-makers should investigate the application of CCS in the power sector and the storage location. Third, a major transformation in the transport sector is critically needed. Liquid biofuel and electrification in pick-ups, sedans, and trucks will help reduce GHG emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thailand’s cement industry shows a significant share of energy consumption and GHG emissions in industries. Therefore, the industry will need to curb its emissions to meet the first national determined contribution (NDC). This study attempts to clarify two research questions: firstly, what is the cement demand under several scenarios of economic and demographic development pathways in Thailand’s cement industry? Secondly, how Thailand’s cement industry achieves the 1.5°. The scopes of this study focus on the per capita cement consumption in 2050, the energy consumption pathways, technology mix, and GHG emissions and other air pollutants. The scenarios include the cement industry target proposed in Thailand’s first NDC and the perspective in 2050. The socioeconomic indicators follow the SSPs narrative. The AIM/Enduse model used in this study is based on linear optimized bottom-up approach. Results show that the energy efficiency improvement and the increase of alternative energy in cement industry will reduce GHG emissions in 2050. To achieve the 1.5-degree pathway, the CCS technology will be deployed after 2022 with a carbon tax rate of US$ 500/t CO2. The use of biomass, municipal solid waste, and sewage sludge will offer a variety of environmental, social, and economic advantages. However, other air pollutants will be increased. Therefore, the policy makers should provide alternative fuel use limitations. Additionally, the CO2 transport and storage need to be assessed in the long-term climate policies.

Countries adopted the Paris Agreement to pursue efforts towards limiting the global average temperature increase to 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels. To achieve this target, the global emission level will have to be negative by the second half of the century. This study aims to analyse different GHG mitigation pathways to achieve net zero emissions by 2050 in Nepal. The study first assesses the energy use and emissions in the Business-as-usual (BAU) scenario during 2010-2050 using the Asia-Pacific Integrated Model/Enduse (AIM/Enduse). In addition to the BAU scenario, the study has assessed six scenarios: a No Climate Policy (NCP) scenario (without carbon tax) and five carbon tax scenarios. The carbon tax rate varies from $10 to $800 per tCO2e among the five carbon tax scenarios. According to the study, the GHG emissions in 2050 is estimated to be 32.9 MtCO2e in the BAU, 30.3 MtCO2e in the NCP and 5.1 MtCO2e at the highest carbon tax scenario (i.e. at $800/tCO2e). The study then analyses options to achieve net zero emissions by 2050. This can be achieved through carbon offset by hydropower export and carbon sequestration by forests. The analyses show that a carbon tax can be an effective instrument in reducing GHG emissions and that forests can act as a carbon sink to offset the remaining emissions to achieve carbon neutrality.

To keep global warming below 1.5 °C has become a challenging task. The Paris Agreement aims at achieving net zero carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in the second half of this century. The objective of this study is to identify the changes needed in the technologies and energy consumption pattern in Thailand’s energy sector in order to achieve the 1.5 °C global climate goal. Multiple scenarios are drawn to consider different CO2 emission taxes, penetration of renewable energy, carbon capture and storage (CCS), and nuclear power. The AIM/Enduse model is used to quantify Thailand’s 1.5 °C climate goal. Results suggest that CO2 emission taxes of US$500 – US$1,000/tCO2 would be a significant policy instrument to foster the CO2 emission reduction. The CCS technology plays a key role to abate higher amounts of CO2 emissions in the power sector. Moreover, electric vehicle (EV) and biofuel usage in the transport sector show relevant opportunities to lower CO2 emissions. These technologies reveal challenging tasks in the case of Thailand in order to reduce CO2 emissions. The 1.5 degree climate target is feasible for Thailand; however, uncertainties remain. The uncertainties include the adoption of CCS technology, costs of EV and the reliability of renewable energy supply.

The 2015 Paris Agreement aims to limit global temperature rise in this century to well below 2°C above the pre-industrial level, and pursue efforts to limit further the temperature rise below 1.5°C. All parties ratifying the Paris Agreement have submitted Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), many stating emission reduction targets. The international climate research community has designed five different Shared Socioeconomic pathways (SSPs) to characterize various possibilities in demographic and economic changes over the next century. These SSPs were implemented by six integrated assessment model (IAM) teams, which also determined the carbon price trajectory required to limit the temperature rise below 2°C in respective SSPs. In SSP5, also termed the fossil-fueled development scenario, only three IAMs identified that the 2°C target would be feasible, with carbon prices ranging from 220 to 518 US$/tCO2e in 2050. This study aims to analyse the effects of these carbon prices on energy and emissions during 2015–2050 in Nepal. It does so using a long-term energy system model using the framework of the Asia-Pacific Integrated Model/Enduse (AIM/Enduse) modelling tool. The base case scenario and three carbon price scenarios are developed. Primary energy supply, energy security, energy technology-mix (especially renewable energy usage and hydropower development), emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and local pollutants, and local/regional environmental co-benefits are compared between the base case scenario and carbon price scenarios. The study finds that the implementation of a carbon tax would promote domestic hydropower, improve energy-efficiency and reduce imports of fossil fuels when compared to the base case. Hydropower-based electricity would have a major role in reducing emissions. Key policy insights The carbon prices in SSP5 determined by IAMs to achieve the 2°C target would be sufficient to achieve Nepal's targets under its NDC in the energy sector. The industry and transport sectors would offer the highest GHG emission reduction. Hydropower and biomass would have major roles in decarbonizing the energy system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to analyze the effects of biogas and electricity based cooking on energy use and greenhouse gas (GHG) as well as local air pollutant emissions during 2010–2050 in the case of Nepal, which is highly dependent on traditional biomass (mainly fuelwood) for cooking. The country is rich in hydropower resources. A long-term bottom-up energy system model has been developed using Asia-Pacific Integrated Model/Enduse (AIM/Enduse) model for the analysis. The study developed a business as usual (BAU) scenario and three alternative cooking scenarios. Three alternative scenarios, named as "CL", "CM" and "CH" scenarios; consider low, medium and high level of penetrations of electric- and biogas-based cooking options, respectively. The changes in energy use and electricity generation in the BAU and alternative scenarios have been compared. Fuelwood consumption in the residential sector in 2050 when compared to the BAU would decrease by 12.5% in CL, 19.0% in CM and 24.2% in CH scenarios; and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) consumption would decrease by 12.8% in CL, 16.3% in CM and 19.6% in CH scenarios. The electricity generation requirement in 2050 would increase by 9.4% in CL, 13.9% in CM and 17.0% in CH scenarios. Finally, the assessment of GHG and local pollutant emissions shows the decrease in all gases in CL, CM and CH scenarios when compared to the BAU. • The implications of biogas and electricity based cooking has been assessed in Nepal. • A bottom-up energy system model (AIM/Enduse) has been used for the analysis. • Fuelwood and LPG consumption in residential sector would decrease significantly. • Hydropower generation will have more promising role in Nepal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To keep global warming below 1.5 °C has become a challenging task. The Paris Agreement aims at achieving net zero carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in the second half of this century. The objective of this study is to identify the changes needed in the technologies and energy consumption pattern in Thailand's energy sector in order to achieve the 1.5 °C global climate goal. Multiple scenarios are drawn to consider different CO2 emission taxes, penetration of renewable energy, carbon capture and storage (CCS), and nuclear power. The AIM/Enduse model is used to quantify Thailand's 1.5 °C climate goal. Results suggest that CO2 emission taxes of US$500 - US$1,000/tCO2 would be a significant policy instrument to foster the CO2 emission reduction. The CCS technology plays a key role to abate higher amounts of CO2 emissions in the power sector. Moreover, electric vehicle (EV) and biofuel usage in the transport sector show relevant opportunities to lower CO2 emissions. These technologies reveal challenging tasks in the case of Thailand in order to reduce CO2 emissions. The 1.5 degree climate target is feasible for Thailand; however, uncertainties remain. The uncertainties include the adoption of CCS technology, costs of EV and the reliability of renewable energy supply. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Countries adopted the Paris Agreement to pursue efforts towards limiting the global average temperature increase to 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels. To achieve this target, the global emission level will have to be negative by the second half of the century. This study aims to analyse different GHG mitigation pathways to achieve net zero emissions by 2050 in Nepal. The study first assesses the energy use and emissions in the Business-as-usual (BAU) scenario during 2010-2050 using the Asia-Pacific Integrated Model/Enduse (AIM/Enduse). In addition to the BAU scenario, the study has assessed six scenarios: a No Climate Policy (NCP) scenario (without carbon tax) and five carbon tax scenarios. The carbon tax rate varies from $10 to $800 per tCO2e among the five carbon tax scenarios. According to the study, the GHG emissions in 2050 is estimated to be 32.9 MtCO2e in the BAU, 30.3 MtCO2e in the NCP and 5.1 MtCO2e at the highest carbon tax scenario (i.e. at $800/tCO2e). The study then analyses options to achieve net zero emissions by 2050. This can be achieved through carbon offset by hydropower export and carbon sequestration by forests. The analyses show that a carbon tax can be an effective instrument in reducing GHG emissions and that forests can act as a carbon sink to offset the remaining emissions to achieve carbon neutrality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 21 st yearly session of the Conference of the Parties (COP21) agreed to limit global surface temperature below 2 °C when compared to pre-industrial revolution and will try to cap the temperature increase to 1.5 °C. Thailand’s Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) has been ratified to reduce GHG emissions by 20-25% when compared to the business-as-usual (BAU) scenario in 2030. In the BAU, Thailand GHG emission will be about 555.0 Mt-CO 2eq in 2030. Therefore, in 2030, Thailand has to reduce GHG emission about 111.0-139.0 Mt-CO 2eq . In 2016, Thai government has launched Thailand’s NDC roadmap for reducing GHG emissions in the energy sector, the industrial processes and product use (IPPU) sector and the waste sector. The energy sector consists of five sub-sector namely: the power sector, the industrial sector, the transport sector, the residential sector and the commercial sector. The Thailand’s NDC roadmap reveals that GHG emission in energy sector, IPPU sector and waste sector will be reduced about 113.0 Mt-CO 2eq , 0.6 Mt-CO 2eq and 2.0 Mt-CO 2eq , respectively. In the transport sector, Thailand’s NDC roadmap can mitigate GHG emission about 41.0 Mt-CO 2eq . Consequently, this study aims to assess GHG mitigation potential in the energy sector particularly in the road transport sector under Thailand’s NDC. The Asian-Pacific Integrated Model/Enduse (AIM/Enduse) is selected for the analysis. The findings indicated that the energy efficiency improvement measure for diesel engines substantially lessen GHG emissions about 14.4 Mt-CO 2eq , followed by the promotion of biofuel measure especially biodiesel (6.75 Mt-CO 2eq ). Consequently, both measures significantly decline the diesel consumption, which discloses the major fuel used in transport sector and accounted for 42% of energy consumption in the transport sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Solid biomass accounts for eighty percent cooking share in Nepal whereas in Thailand it accounts for nearly 40%. With the increase in income of the people in urban as well as rural areas, fuel switching from biomass to LPG for cooking has been the most prevalent. Domestic hydropower resources in Nepal have remained unutilized. Electricity based cooking is one of the option to reduce fossil fuel consumption in Nepal. Likewise, the use of biogas in rural areas can be another option to reduce LPG consumption as well as fuelwood consumption. In the case of Thailand, nearly 60 percent cooking is attributed to LPG based cooking. Shift from LPG to electric and biogas based cooking can reduce its dependency on LPG as well as dependence on biomass resources. This study aims to develop a business as usual (BAU) scenario and various levels of electric and biogas based cooking scenarios to analyze its implication on primary energy use, energy mix, electricity generation requirement and GHG emissions during 2010-2050 in the case of Nepal and Thailand. The study uses Asia-Pacific Integrated Model (AIM)/Enduse model, a long-term bottom-up energy system model as an analytical tool. In Nepal, fuelwood would remain the dominant source of energy during 2010-2050 in the residential sector in BAU. The consumption of imported fossil fuels would decrease with the use of electricity and biogas for cooking while that of domestic hydropower would increase. In the case of Thailand, the consumption of LPG would decrease while that of coal and natural gas would increase due to additional power generation. The national GHG emission level would decrease in the case of Nepal whereas it would increase in the case of Thailand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a world has interconnected to the human activities globally, the energy demand is increasing rapidly. Such activities have also released tremendous amount of GHG emissions, especially CO 2 emissions. Nonetheless, Thailand is classified as a Non-Annex-I country without commitments on limitation of CO 2 emissions. However, Thailand has started to respond to such commitments. The objective of this study is to analyze a policy option to a policy maker in climate change issue by using the AIM/Enduse model. The AIM/Enduse model is an optimization linear programing approach. There are two scenarios created in this study. The current policy options have been applied in the BAU scenario via four energy demand sectors and energy supply sector. Efficient and advanced technologies have been introduced into the energy system in the PEAK CO 2 scenario. Such a scenario is expected to meet PEAK CO 2 emissions by 2035. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

“When to implement actions” and “how much to abate emissions” are two major concerns of policy makers when it comes to policy formulation and planning for CO 2 mitigation. This study investigates CO 2 mitigation potential in the Thailand transport sector under four possible mitigation pathways. Those pathways comprise four mitigation actions and three different time frames as implementation periods (2015, 2025 and 2035 as commencement years). To represent that, along with business as usual (BAU) case (as reference), four countermeasure scenarios were modeled namely L2035, L2025, L2015 and fuel switching (FS). Results show that the L2015 scenario can achieve the highest CO 2 mitigation with 23% cumulative reduction against the BAU from 2010-2050. However, due to countermeasure implementation delays (by 10 years in L2025 and by 20 years in L2035), the mitigation potentials have dropped significantly. In addition, early in implementations of actions have resulted considerable reduction in energy consumption and it has allowed more penetrations of bio-fuel blends and electricity as replacements to fossil oils. Moreover, in terms of abatement costs, technologies such as efficient vehicles and modal shifts provide cost savings along with high mitigation potentials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The energy sector of a country is the backbone in which a country's industrial competitiveness is built. It is imperative that a well-functioning energy sector is present to facilitate the growth of a country. That being said, the environmental wellbeing of the country and the entire world is important. The energetic analyses of the power, transport and industrial sectors of Sri Lanka are presented in this paper, along with possible Low Carbon scenarios (LCS). The Low Carbon scenarios are assessed for the CO 2 mitigation, energy consumption reduction and also for co-benefits such as energy security and productivity. The Sri Lankan energy sector is modeled using Asia-Pacific Integrated Model AIM/Enduse. Results show that Low Carbon activities in Sri Lanka increase energy security of the country. Mitigations of 41.3%, 25% and 37% are achieved in the most ambitious LCS, when compared to the business as usual (BAU) case in 2050, in the power, industry and transport sectors, respectively. Along with this, in all LCS, the diversity of the fuel share increases, while increasing the renewable fuel share. This also reduced the oil dependency of these sectors, thus reducing the cost burden of the Sri Lankan economy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy is a commodity which impacts heavily upon the competitiveness of a country in the global scale. Thus, nations have begun to understand that utilization of energy affects its economic performance. In recent times, there has been a drive for global awareness on Low Carbon Society (LCS) measures, where carbon mitigation is at the forefront. Thus, this paper analyses the LCS measures for the Thai industrial sector. Thai industrial sector is the second highest CO 2 emitting end-use sector and contributes approximately 30% to the national income of Thailand. The total CO 2 emission from end use sectors in 2010 was 119 Mton-CO 2 and approximately 38% constituted industrial sector emissions. The primary objective of this research study is to quantitatively analyse the carbon mitigation possible in the Thai industrial sector and the co-benefits which accrue along with mitigation in various policy pathway scenarios. Thai industrial sector was modeled using Asia-Pacific Integrated Model (AIM)/Enduse. Three groups of scenarios under LCS, emission tax and reduction target principles were modeled along with the BAU case. Results show that LCS scenarios are capable of cumulative mitigation of approximately 35% by 2050 in comparison to the BAU case and the predominant technologies are the 2nd generation biomass and the CCS technology. The emission tax scenarios, where tax rates of 50, 100, 200 and 500 USD/t-CO 2 were enforced show a maximum of 55% cumulative mitigation by 2050. Even though this reduction is higher than the LCS scenarios, there is no shift to long term renewable or sustainable technologies in the emission tax scenarios. The same applies to reduction target scenarios as well. The co-benefits, which were measured along the themes of energy security and local air pollutant mitigation show maximum benefits accruing to the LCS scenarios, where renewable fuel share increases, whilst primary energy intensity and carbon intensity decreases. The LCS scenarios also show a mitigation of local air pollutants such as SO 2 and Particulate Matter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thai industry sector is the second highest CO2 emitting end-use sector and contributes approximately 30% to the national income of Thailand. The total CO2 emission from end use sectors in 2010 was 119 Mton-CO2 and approximately 38% constituted industrial sector emissions. With the CO2 emissions ballooning in the developing world, the pertinence of Low Carbon Scenario (LCS) and their co-benefits has increased. This research quantitatively analyses the CO2 mitigation in the Thai industrial sector through counter-measures in LCS scenarios. Results show that with an ambitious LCS pathway predicted in LCS1 scenario, a cumulative mitigation of 34% from 2010 to 2050 is possible, whilst approximately 24% is possible from a circumspect approach, as in LCS2 scenario. Both the designed scenarios have positive impacts on energy security, where they increase the diversity of the system and increase the renewable fuel share and reduce the oil share. These scenarios also contribute to the mitigation of local air pollutants as well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During 2000-2010, Thailand's energy intensity has rapidly increased because of fast economic growth which may correlate to an increment of electricity consumption and CO2 emission during 2010-2030. Emission reduction in the power sector is a significant issue to develop a sustainable power system. The objectives of this study are to analyze impacts of CO2 reduction targets on Thailand's power sector and to determine equivalent carbon taxation. Regarding optimization manner, the Asia Pacific Integrated Model (AIM/Enduse) was applied to several scenarios including Business-As-Usual scenario (BAU), 20% 40% and 60% of emission reduction targets, as well as, carbon taxation. In 2030, the cost optimization shows that when the reduction target is at 60% and a carbon tax of $200/tCO2, CCS technology is selected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This letter assesses low carbon scenarios for India at the subnational level in the passenger road transport sector. We estimate the future passenger mobility demand and assess the impact of carbon mitigation policies using the Asia–Pacific Integrated Assessment/Enduse models. This letter focuses on the transitions of energy and emissions of passenger transport in India in alternate scenarios i.e. the business-as-usual scenario and a low carbon scenario that aligns to the 2 °C temperature stabilization target agreed under the global climate change negotiations. The modelling results show that passenger mobility demand will rise in all sub-national regions of India in the coming few decades. However, the volume and modal structure will vary across regions. Modelling assessment results show that aligning global low carbon policies with local policies has potential to deliver significant air quality co-benefits. This analysis provides insights into the comparative dynamics of environmental policymaking at sub-national levels.