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Electromyographic peroneal reaction time measurements is a well established and reliable method of assessing the dynamic defence mechanism of the ankle joint against ankle sprains. Ankle bracing has been proved to be an effective prophylactic measure against injury since it restricts joint ROM. However, its role in improving the dynamic defence mechanism of the ankle according to the skin--brace interface application pressure, is unclear. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of different pressures of ankle brace application in the peroneus longus reaction time. Thirty-three young, male, uninjured, physical education students were measured under three conditions: (1) without brace, (2) with brace and 30 kPa application pressure and (3) with brace and 60 kPa application pressure, as measured by a pressure sensitive sensor. Peroneal reaction time was assessed with surface electromyography, during a sudden inversion stress test on a trapdoor. The results demonstrated significant differences between the control (no brace condition) and the two brace conditions, with a significant increase of the peroneal reaction time, with increasing ankle brace application pressures, more pronounced in the 60 kPa pressure. The findings of this study show that prophylactic ankle bracing when applied tightly, seems to have a detrimental effect in the dynamic defence mechanism of the ankle joint, since it delays the peroneous longus activation onset during a simulated ankle sprain. Whether different brace application pressures introduced in this study can affect the incidence of ankle sprains remains to be examined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Single molecule assays of splicing and spliceosome assembly can provide unique insights into pre-mRNA processing that complement other technologies. Key to these experiments is the fabrication of fluorescent molecules (pre-mRNAs and spliceosome components) and passivated glass slides for each experiment. Here we describe how to produce fluorescent RNAs by splinted RNA ligation and fluorescent spliceosome subunits by SNAP-tagging proteins in cell lysate. We then depict how to passivate glass slides with polyethylene glycol for use on an inverted microscope with objective-based total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) optics. Finally, we describe how to tether the pre-mRNA onto the passivated slide surface and introduce the SNAP-tagged cell lysate for analysis of spliceosome assembly by single molecule fluorescence.

The spliceosome is the complex macromolecular machine responsible for removing introns from precursors to messenger RNAs (pre-mRNAs). We combined yeast genetic engineering, chemical biology, and multiwavelength fluorescence microscopy to follow assembly of single spliceosomes in real time in whole-cell extracts. We find that individual spliceosomal subcomplexes associate with pre-mRNA sequentially via an ordered pathway to yield functional spliceosomes and that association of every subcomplex is reversible. Further, early subcomplex binding events do not fully commit a pre-mRNA to splicing; rather, commitment increases as assembly proceeds. These findings have important implications for the regulation of alternative splicing. This experimental strategy should prove widely useful for mechanistic analysis of other macromolecular machines in environments approaching the complexity of living cells.

The effects of changes in external K+, Ca2+, and Mg2+ concentrations on 5-HT2- and 5-HT3 receptor-mediated depolarizations of the resting membrane potential in rat dorsal root ganglion (DRG) cells was studied. In cells exhibiting a 5-HT2-mediated response, 5-HT and alpha-methyl 5-HT depolarized the resting membrane potential (RMP) and increased the slope of the current-voltage (I/V) relationship. The equilibrium potential (Er) for the depolarization was linearly related to the logarithm of the [K+]o, indicating the depolarization resulted from a decrease in resting K+ conductance. In a subpopulation of large-diameter acutely dissociated DRG neurons recorded from using the whole-cell patch-clamp configuration, 5-HT produced an inward shift in the current required to hold cells at -60 mV. This inward shift in holding current was associated with a reduction in membrane conductance and reversed near Ek. This data suggests that the 5-HT2 receptor-mediated depolarization and increase in R(in) seen in intact DRG preparation is produced by blockade of an outward K+ leak current. Increases in [K+]o reduced the increase in R(in) and depolarization induced by 5-HT with 50% inhibition of the depolarization occurring at 8.3 mM of [K+]o. Half-normal Ca2+ (1.2 mM) produced a downward shift of the 5-HT concentration-response curve, reducing the maximal response by 40%, with minimal effect on the half-maximal response. Mg2+ ions did not affect this 5-HT response. In cells exhibiting a 5-HT3 receptor response, 5-HT and 2-methyl-5-HT produced depolarization with decreased R(in). The Er for this depolarizing response (-30.2 +/- 1.8 mV) became less negative (-11.5 mV) in 10 mM [K+]o with minimal effect on the amplitude of the depolarization. In Na(+)-free superfusate, the 5-HT-induced depolarization was converted to hyperpolarization. This indicated the 5-HT3 response increased a mixed Na+/K+ conductance. Elevated Ca2+ or Mg2+ markedly reduced the 5-HT3 response. Incubation with 3.5 mM Ca2+ shifted the 5-HT concentration-response curve downward and to the right, decreasing the maximal response by 49% and increasing the EC50 by 10-fold. Elevated Mg2+ produced similar effects. In cells where both 5-HT2- and 5-HT3-mediated responses could be demonstrated, the elevation of K+ or the reduction of Ca2+ converted a 5-HT2 response to a 5-HT3 response. The above data suggest that elevation of [K+]o or reduction of [Ca2+]o produced by rapid firing rates of sensory neurons will favor the expression of 5-HT3 responses over 5-HT2 responses.

Lower standards. Waiting lists. Physician indifference. These are just some of the consequences of national healthcare in Britain, according to the author of this article, a family physician who trained in Scotland. Through a series of extraordinary anecdotes, Dr Anderson comments on Britain's underfunded medical system and the coping mechanisms that doctors rely on to function within it.

The mixed inhibitory and excitatory effects of 5-HT on hippocampal pyramidal cells were studied on hippocampal slices perfused with a low-Ca2+/high Mg2+ solution that blocked synaptic activity and induced spontaneous pyramidal cell discharge. Extracellular recordings of the spontaneous discharge revealed that, in 65% of the cells, 5-HT (0.5-10 microM) initially inhibited and then, upon washout, facilitated spontaneous discharge. Sometimes the off-stimulation persisted for the duration of the experiment. In 17% of the cells the response to 5-HT was only stimulatory, and in 15% the response was exclusively inhibitory. The 5-HT1 agonists, 8-hydroxy-dipropylamino-tetraline, and 5-carboxamidotryptamine produced inhibition with no excitatory responses upon washout. The inhibition was blocked by spiroxatrine indicating it was mediated by 5-HT1A receptors. The 5-HT3 agonist, 2-methyl 5-HT, had no effect, and the 5-HT2 antagonist, ketanserin, did not alter the excitatory responses to 5-HT. This indicates the excitatory response is not mediated by 5-HT2 or 3 receptors. Cisapride, a 5-HT4 agonist increased pyramidal cell discharge. The 5-HT3 & 4 antagonist, ICS 205-930 antagonized the excitatory responses to 5-HT, alpha-methyl 5-HT, and cisapride, indicating the excitatory response is mediated, in part, by 5-HT4 receptors. The phosphodiesterase inhibitor, isobutyl-methyl-xanthine, stimulated pyramidal cell discharge and potentiated the response to cisapride. This further suggests 5-HT4 receptor involvement since these receptors are positively coupled to adenylyl cyclase.

In the present study, a new polyclonal antibody (TxAb) was raised against native thromboxane A2 (TXA2)/prostaglandin H2 (PGH2) receptor protein. Previously developed anti-peptide antibodies (P1Ab, P2Ab) and TxAb were then used to prepare immunoaffinity columns to purify TXA2/PGH2 receptors from platelets, brain, and aorta. In platelets, SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis revealed the purification of a 55-kDa protein by each affinity column. Identification of this protein as the TXA2/PGH2 receptor was based on: 1) an identical electrophoretic mobility to authentic receptor; 2) immunoblotting of TxAb against P1Ab and P2Ab-purified protein; 3) immunoblotting of P1Ab/P2Ab against TxAb-purified protein; and 4) specific [3H]SQ29,548 binding to TxAb-purified protein. P1Ab/TxAb purification of receptors from brain revealed a major protein band at 55 kDa. Furthermore, the eluates from ligand affinity chromatography confirmed the presence of this 55-kDa protein in brain (which was immunoblotted with TxAb), and contained specific [3H]SQ29,548 binding. In addition to the 55-kDa protein, P1Ab/TxAb also purified a minor protein in brain at 52 kDa, which when concentrated, cross-blotted with TxAb and P1Ab. This finding indicates sequence homology between the 55- and 52-kDa proteins. Independent identification of brain TXA2/PGH2 receptors was provided by P2Ab/TxAb immunohistochemistry, which demonstrated specific labeling of discrete myelin-containing fiber tracts. P2Ab/TxAb purification of TXA2/PGH2 receptors from aorta also revealed a major protein band at 55 kDa and a minor band at 52 kDa. These results represent the first purification of TXA2/PGH2 receptors from either brain or aorta.