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Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a major global health challenge, especially in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC). Programs that appropriate antibiotic use such as antimicrobial stewardship, is a global health strategy adopted by the World Health Organization to contain threats posed by AMR. Unfortunately, many LMICs are at best left behind in the process of developing antimicrobial stewardship programs (ASP). We highlighted the roles of the clinical microbiology laboratory in antimicrobial stewardship and challenges associated with the program in LMICs. We further suggested ways forward in the adoption and implementation of existing programs in resource-limited settings. There is generally nonexistent or at best, fewer ASP in the LMICs. More efforts need to be channeled toward fighting the AMR scourge, primarily by adopting ASP while utilizing the little resources available.

Introduction Pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) is the most common form of tuberculosis. In Nigeria, PTB is diagnosed by sputum smear microscopy. The problems associated with the diagnosis of PTB using sputum smear for acid-fast bacilli and culture has provided an urgent need to assess the utility of serological tools as an adjunctive diagnostic tool in presumptive PTB cases. This study is aimed at testing the diagnostic utility of a specific immunoglobulin G (IgG) serological assay in the diagnosis of PTB. Patients and methods A utility study was conducted on 184 participants of which 92 were smear-positive PTB cases and 92 were healthy controls at the TB and Leprosy Centre and Ahmadu Bello University Teaching Hospital, Zaria. Data were collected on age and sex, and both PTB patients and controls were screened for anti-TB IgG antibodies by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay technique. Results The mean age of the participants was 35, and the male-female ratio was 1 : 4. Twenty-one (5.7%) of the PTB patients tested positive for IgG antibodies, and 11 (1.3%) of the controls were positive. The sensitivity of the IgG antibody assay was 18.4%, with the specificity being 92.3%, while the predictive values were 70.8 and 53.1% for positive and negative results, respectively. Conclusion The IgG antibody assay is poorly sensitive; serology may not have a role in the diagnosis of PTB in resource-limited settings, but the much higher specificity suggests that it may be useful as an adjunctive diagnostic tool, or for monitoring of patients on treatment for PTB.

OBJECTIVE: T-helper cells (Th)-1& -2 cytokines homeostasis control or predict clinical outcome of infected persons, especially those with HIV /AIDS. This case-control study evaluated the leucocytes differentials, TNF-alpha, interleukin (IL)-2 and -10 levels among HIV infected persons with serological evidence of leishmaniasis attending University of Abuja Teaching Hospital, Nigeria MATERIALS AND METHODS: Blood samples from 28 HIV infected persons who had Leishmania donovani rK39 and Immunoglobulin-G (IgG) positive (group 1), 30 age- & -sex matched HIV infected persons without Leishmania antibodies (group 2) and 30 apparently healthy persons without HIV and Leishmania antibodies (group 3). Full blood counts, TNF alpha, IL-2 and -10 levels were analyzed using automated hematology analyzer and ELISA, respectively. Structured questionnaires were used to collate biodata and clinical presentations of participants. RESULTS: Ten (35.7%) participants in group 1 were on ART, 15 (50%) in group 2 were on ART, while group 3 were ART naïve. There were significantly higher values in basophil (4.4±2.5%) and eosinophil counts (12.9±3.8%) in HIV/leishmania coinfected persons (p

A number of biofortified crops have been generated through transgenic technologies including sorghum. A key step towards the release of genetically modified (GM) biofortified sorghum is its nutritional evaluation and risk assessment study. In this work, two genetically modified sorghum ABS188 and ABS203 were administered on mice to evaluate the effect of their consumption on liver and spleen. Following the molecular analysis of the two GM sorghum, the transgenes Zeamays Phytoene synthase gene (Zm-PSY1) and Pantoea ananatis Carotenoid Biosynthesis gene (PaCrT1) were confirmed in ABS 188 and ABS 203. There was a loss in weight of mice fed with ABS 188 and ABS 203 while weight gain was recorded in mice fed with local sorghum. In conclusion ABS 188 and ABS 203 are considered to be as safe and nutritious as local sorghum, with the advantage that the GM sorghum are biofortified with Vitamin A, Zinc and Iron.

A Key Step towards the Release of Genetically Modified (GM) Biofortified Sorghum is its Nutritional Evaluation and Risk Assessment Study. In this work, two genetically modified sorghum (ABS 188 and ABS 203) and local sorghum were subjected to proximate analysis, Amino acid determination, and mineral analysis. Results of proximate analysis revealed the presence of the following expressed as percentage (%) ABS 188 contains Crude fibre (1.89), Ash (1.87), Crude protein (9.00), Oil (1.36), Lignin (8.83) dry Matter (91.17) and Nitrogen free extract (77.05); ABS 203 contains crude fibre (1.60), Ash (0.95), Crude protein (4.94), Oil (2.56), Lignin (8.37) Dry Matter (91.63) and Nitrogen free extract (81.58); Local sorghum contains crude fibre (2.08), Ash (0.85), Crude protein (4.56), Oil (1.12), Lignin (8.28) Dry Matter (91.72) and Nitrogen free extract (83.11); respectively. ABS 203 has the highest amount of β – Carotene (0.83ug/100mg), followed by 0.57ug/100mg for ABS 188 and 0.42ug/100mg for local sorghum. Results also revealed that the food samples contain almost all the essential amino acids in varying concentration, with glutamic acid occurring highest in the GM sorghum ABS 188 and ABS 203 having the highest for Leucine (14.01g/100g). Zinc was present in trace amount in all the samples (0.0003 – 0.033 mg/kg). In conclusion, ABS 188 and ABS 203 are considered to be as nutritious as local sorghum, with the advantage that the GM sorghum are biofortified with Vitamin A, Zinc and Iron.

Background and Objectives: Human parvovirus B19 (B19V) is a widespread virus with various manifestations depending on the immunologic and hematologic status of the host. Infection with the virus can cause a wide range of complications in fetus of infected pregnant women, especially those with hemoglobinopathies. This study aimed to determine association of hemoglobin electrophoretic patterns and risk of B19V infection in pregnant women. Methods: Blood samples were collected from 200 pregnant women attending University of Abuja Teaching Hospital, Abuja, Nigeria. The samples were screened for anti-B19V IgM and IgG. Hemoglobin patterns were determined using commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits and Minicap Flex Piercing Electrophoresis system. Structured questionnaires were used to collate sociodemographic variables and associated risk factors of B19V. Results: Of 200 participants, 12 (6.0%) were positive for B19V IgM, 45 (22.5%) were positive for IgG and two (1.0%) were positive for both antibody, while 145 (72.5%) had no detectable B19V antibody. Twenty-six subjects (28.3%) with HbAA hemoglobin pattern had B19V IgG of whom, nine (12.5%) had HbAS and 11 (30.6%) had HbSS electrophoretic patterns. There was a significant association between prevalence of anti-B19V IgG and hemoglobin electrophoretic pattern of participants (P=0.037). However, no association was found between prevalence of B19V IgM and hemoglobin electrophoretic pattern, age and parity of pregnant women (P>0.05). Conclusion: Our findings revealed a high prevalence of B19V infection among pregnant women in the studied area. In addition, acute B19V seems to be associated with hemoglobin electrophoretic patterns of pregnant women. It is recommended to follow up newborns of anti-B19V IgM positive pregnant women.

Dengue (DEN) is a semi-neglected and dangerously re-emerging, mosquito-borne viral disease of the Flaviviridae family. Dengue virus (DENV) has been rapidly spreading for the past 6 decades, and now affects more than 50% the world’s population, especially the tropical and subtropical countries. DENV transmission and geographic expansion is expected to rise due to increased international travels, deforestation, industrialization, urbanization and climatic changes. A major control strategy for dengue is achieved through targeting the mosquito vectors, which put a significant break in the transmission of DENV to humans. For long, most dengue endemic nations relied heavily on chemical control measures, however, there were growing concerns and controversies on cases of multiple insecticide resistance. Therefore, more research interest has shifted toward studies on the use of biological control, biotechnological approaches, as potential alternatives. Indeed, dengue prevention is a key, mainly through continuous search for novel vaccines and/or improves on the potency, effectiveness, efficacy, safety, and affordability of existing ones, in order to assure protection against all serotypes of dengue, regardless of age, sex or race of people. In this chapter, we outlined and elucidated available non-insecticide based dengue control strategies that have been implemented, and/or currently being tested. We also updated information on currently licensed dengue vaccines, those in clinical trials and their public health prospects in the prevention of dengue.

Background: Diabetic foot ulcers (DFUs) present with high morbidity and reduce patient's quality of life. There is a gross paucity of data on biofilm-producing bacteria in DFU Infection in North-Western Nigeria. The study sought to determine the biofilm-forming ability of bacteria isolates from DFUs and determine their antimicrobial susceptibility pattern in Zaria, North-Western Nigeria. Materials and Methods: This hospital-based cross-sectional study of patients with DFUs was conducted from June 2018 to February 2020. Consecutive biopsies were aseptically collected. Bacteria were isolated and identified using a Microgen kit. Biofilm forming ability and antibiogram of isolates were determined using microtitre plate and disk diffusion methods, respectively. Results: Of the 225 participants enrolled, males constituted the majority, 144 (64.0%) with 88 (36.0%) females, the median age of participants was 54 (48–60) years, and the age range was 36–77 years. A total of 172 bacteria were isolated, and 123 (71.5%) were biofilm producers. Staphylococcus aureus (26.7%) was the highest biofilm producer, while Citrobacter freundii and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia were the least biofilm producers, 1 (0.6%) each. A disproportionate resistance pattern was demonstrated among the biofilm and non-biofilm producers against the cephalosporins tested, ceftazidime (68% vs. 18%), ceftriaxone (50% vs. 8.0%) and cefotaxime (21% vs. 0.0%). About 46% and 68% of the biofilm producers were resistant to gentamycin and ciprofloxacin, respectively. While only 2% of the non-biofilm producers were resistant to imipenem, 11% of the biofilm producers were resistant to it. Conclusion: These findings revealed a high proportion of biofilm-producing bacteria and were more resistant than non-biofilm producers.

Introduction: The COVID-19 is a pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2 which has infected over 74 million people, killing more than 1,600,000 million people around the world as of 17th December 2020. Accumulation of free radicals coupled by weakened antioxidant system leads to oxidative stress, which will further worsen respiratory diseases, COVID-19 inclusive. This study aimed to examine the levels of some antioxidants and oxidative stress markers in COVID-19 patients. Methods: This was a cross-sectional comparative study in which 50 COVID-19 symptomatic patients who were on admission at the COVID-19 isolation center in Jigawa, Northwestern Nigeria, were recruited. Twenty one (21) apparently healthy individuals were included as controls. Levels of antioxidant trace elements (Se, Zn, Mg, Cu and Cr), 8-isoprostaglandin F2 alpha and malondialdehyde in the plasma and erythrocytes activity of glutathione, glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase and catalase were determined. Results: The plasma concentrations of vitamins A, C and E were significantly lower ( p < 0.001) in COVID-19 patients than controls. Activities of glutathione, glutathione peroxidase, catalase and superoxide dismutase were lower in COVID-19 subjects than controls ( p < 0.001). The concentrations of Se, Zn, Mg and Cu were significantly lower ( p < 0.001; p = 0.039; p < 0.001; and p < 0.001), respectively, in COVID-19 patients than controls, while chromium showed no significant difference ( p = 0.605). Oxidative stress marker, 8-isoprostaglandin F2 alpha, was significantly higher ( p = 0.049), while malondialdehyde was lower ( p < 0.001) in COVID-19 patients than controls. Conclusion: In conclusion, COVID-19 patients are prone to depleted levels of antioxidant substances due to their increase utilization in counterbalancing the negative effect of free radicals. Furthermore, COVID-19 infection with other comorbidities, such as malaria, hypertension and diabetes, are at higher risk of developing oxidative stress.

To the Editor, The world is currently battling with and trying to survive yet another pandemic that threatens human health security. Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), the etiological agent of coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) is one of the three most virulent coronaviruses (CoVs). Based on available clinical details, geriatric group of over 65 years of age and persons with chronic comorbidities such as type-2 diabetes mellitus, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cardiovascular diseases and immunodeficiencies tend to rapidly develop multi-organ failure, severe COVID-19 and ultimately, death...

Objective: An estimated 75% of Nigerians are at risk of hepatitis B virus (HBV) exposure. In an attempt to reduce the menace, the assessment of risk factors associated with HBV infection and general perception of infected individuals is a step in that direction. This study, therefore, identified exposure to risk factors and general perceptions associated with HBV infection in infected individuals in Zaria, Nigeria. Materials and Methods: Four milliliters of blood were collected in ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid container from each of 165 HBV surface antigen (HBsAg)-positive participants recruited purposively from the gastroenterology clinic of ABUTH Zaria from May to August 2017. Plasma was separated and used to screen for HBsAg with Fastep® rapid strip. Epi Info® questionnaire database was used to collate data on sociodemographics, risk factors, and perception indices. GraphPad Prism 6 was used for statistical analysis. Results: The median interquartile range age of the participants was 31.0 (25.5–39.0) years with 107 (64.8%) male participants. Sharing hair clippers, commercial pedicure, and body piercing among others were some of the risks that the study participants reported to be exposed to. One-quarter of health workers involved in the study had needlestick injury. Less than half of the study participants (47.7%) knew of hepatitis B before testing HBsAg seropositive. Knowledge of the HBV vaccine before testing and adherence was generally poor (38.6% and 44.6%, respectively). There was a significant linear relationship between the level of education and knowledge of hepatitis B. Conclusion: Considering the myriads of already established risks of HBV seen in Zaria, massive enlightenment campaigns need to be embarked on continuously through all available media, including social media.

Nigeria was ranked second highest country with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) burden worldwide. HIV-1 subtypes and circulating recombinant forms genetic variability affect the protease and reverse transcriptase genes which code for viral enzymes and are the main targets for antiretroviral drugs. Therefore, this study was aimed at reviewing and pooling such HIV-1 subtypes in Nigeria to represent the collective prevalence of each subtype. Studies of HIV-1 subtypes in Nigeria published from 2002 to 2017 were retrieved and synthesised from different sources electronically. Sixteen studies were included for random effect meta-analysis for various subtypes in each study. The pooled prevalence was charted in forest plot and effect estimates from individual studies against some measure of study size or precision were presented in funnel plots. The pooled prevalence of Subtype G, CRF02_AG, CRF06_cpx, Subtype A and Subtype C were 38.27% (95% Confidence Interval [CI]: 21.27%- 55.98%), 37.81% (95% CI: 20.37%- 55.25%), 6.6% (95% CI: 7.10%-7.10%), 14.05% (95% CI: 9.06% - 19.04%) and 2.80% (95% CI: 2.70%- 8.30%) respectively. This study suggests HIV-1 subtypes G, CRF02_AG and A are the most prevalent in Nigeria.

Arthropods are considered vectors, which are responsible for the transmission and expansion of tropical viral diseases. Because of their umbiquitous nature, migration potential, in addition to international travel, arthropod-borne viral infections now assume global distribution. In the present globalized world with overflowing travels and trades, human health has been increasingly threatened due to incidences of emerging or/and reemerging arboviral diseases. The most important sources of novel human pathogens are farm mammals and poultry and, to some extent, wild animals and arthropods. It is estimated that zoonosis constitutes about 60% of the “known” and up to 75% of the “emerging” new human infections. A disproportionate number of such pathogens are viruses, suggesting their potential to evolve and adapt in humans more rapidly than other infectious microbes. The best examples are the yellow fever, dengue, chikungunya, and Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic disease, which continue to cause outbreaks, epidemics, and occasional pandemics across the globe. The most recent addition to the list includes the identification of Zika virus in some countries in the Americas. The key to understand the emergence/reemergence of viruses is to know the intricate “host–pathogen–environment” relationship in microbe evolution. The underappreciated aspect of growing human populations, global climate and land-use changes, and the introduction of anthropophilic vectors is the selective pressure on hosts and pathogen reservoirs. Limited knowledge of such zoonosis and the diversity of these pathogens in their known nonhuman reservoirs exist. There is very little information on some of the domestic animals hosting a few dozen virus species in circulation and is further compounded by insufficient data on wild mammals that harbor over 5000 virus species. Despite extraordinary scientific and technological advancement during the last decade, reemerging viral diseases continue to kill about 2 million people yearly. The unpredictable nature of reemergent viral infections and the rare occasions of outbreaks with a small number of confirmed cases severely hamper the control and preventive measures. In spite of substantial efforts on global public health and economy, and growing understanding of pathogens biology and etiology, the emergence of novel pandemic viruses remains inherently inconclusive.

Introduction:the most recently discovered severe acute respiratory syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-COV-2) that causes COVID-19, subjected the entire world in turmoil health-wise and economically. With higher burden of malaria in Nigeria and other sub-Saharan African countries coupled with fragile healthcare system and delivery, these may pose a threat in the diagnosis and management of COVID-19 patients co-infected with malaria. Free radicals have been implicated in the progression and pathogenesis of malaria and COVID-19 through Fenton’s reaction and cytokine storm respectively. Methods:the current research comprises of seventy-four (74) participants; 20 apparently healthy controls and 54 COVID-19 patients (34 among which were co-infected with malaria). Serum levels of 8-iso PGF2α and Alphatocopherol were determined among the study participants using ELISA technique and colorimetric assay, respectively. Results:results revealed statistically significant elevation of 8-iso PGF2α in COVID-19 patients co-infected with malaria compared to COVID-19 patients only, and this may be due to increase production of free radicals. Furthermore, a significant decrease of Alphatocopherol was observed in COVID-19 co-infected with malaria compared to COVID-19 patients due to increase utilization of antioxidants in counterbalancing the negative effect of free radicals generated. Conclusion:conclusively, SARS-COV-2 patients co-infected with malaria might be predisposed to oxidative stress and low Alphatocopherol. The increase in oxidative stress is proportional to malaria parasite density and inversely related to Alphatocopherol levels. This implies that oxidative stress is notably higher and such patients may have a severer form of the COVID-19. Increased 8-iso-PGF2α in co-infection and decreased alphatocopherol levels can reflect the severity and adverse outcomes compared to COVID-19 naïve because of their tremendous involvement in the pathogenesis and progression of diseases.

Introduction. T-helper cells (Th)-1& -2 cytokines homeostasis control orpredict clinical outcome of infected persons, especially those with HIV /AIDS. This case-control study evaluated the leucocytes differentials, TNF-alpha, interleukin (IL)-2 and -10 levels among HIV infected persons with serological evidence of leishmaniasis attending University of Abuja Teaching Hospital, Nigeria. Material and Methods. Blood samples from 28 HIV infected persons who had Leishmania donovani rK39 and IgG positive (group 1), 30 age- & -sex matched HIV infected persons without Leishmania antibodies (group 2) and 30 apparently healthy persons without HIV and Leishmania antibodies (group 3). Full blood counts, TNF alpha, IL-2 and -10 levels were analyzed using automated hematology analyzer and ELISA, respectively. Structured questionnaires were used to collate biodata and clinical presentations of participants. Results. Ten (35.7%) participants in group 1 were on ART, 15 (50%) in group 2 were on ART, while group 3 were ART naïve. There were significantly higher values in basophil (4.4 ± 2.5%) and eosinophil counts (12.9 ± 3.8%) in HIV/leishmania coinfected persons (p ˂ 0.005). However, other white cells subpopulation was significantly lower in HIV/leishmania co-infected participants (p ˂ 0.05). There was significantly reduced CD4+ T cell counts ([119 ± 26 versus 348 ± 63 versus 605 ± 116 cells/mm3]), TNF-alpha ([36.82 ± 8.21 versus 64.67 ± 12.54 versus 254.98 ± 65.59 pg/mL]) and IL-2 levels ([142.14 ± 20.91 versus 507.6 ± 84.42 versus 486.62 ± 167.87 pg/mL]) among HIV/Leishmania co-infected participants compared to group 2 and group 3 participants, respectively. However, higher IL-10 level (80.35 ± 14.57 pg/mL) was found in HIV/Leishmania co-infected participants as opposed to the HIV mono-infected (62.2 ± 10.43 pg/mL) and apparently healthy persons (23.97 ± 4.88 pg/mL) (p ˂ 0.001). Conclusion. Eosinophil, basophil counts and serum IL-10 level were high in HIV/Leishmania coinfected persons, demonstrating parasite-induced hypersensitivity and immunosuppression.

Background: The recent guidelines for HIV treatment initiation in Nigeria do not depend on CD4 cell count or plasma viral load however, assessment of the baseline immunologic and virologic markers could indicate prognosis and transmission index. This study was aimed to estimate CD4 cells and plasma HIV-1 RNA viral load among antiretroviral treatment (ART)-naive populations in three HIV treatment centres in Nigeria. Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional hospital-based study of 50 adult ART-naive patients. Whole blood and plasma samples were estimated for CD4 cells and HIV RNA-1 plasma viral load respectively. Results: The median age of the study participants was 35 years and 64% were female. The median CD4 cell count was 176 cell/μl while the median HIV viral load was 158391 copies/mL. There was a significant moderately strong, negative Spearman correlation between HIV-1 plasma viral load and CD4 cell count (r = −0.5007, P = 0.0002). Female recorded relatively higher CD4 cell count and lower plasma viral load. Six percent (6%) of the ART-naive patients had undetectable viral load. Conclusion: This study indicates the baseline plasma viral load and CD4 cell count which can affect prognosis, disease progression and transmission. The drug-naive participants reported with undetectable plasma RNA could be ‘elite’ controllers.

Prenatal diagnostic testing is gaining more anticipated acceptance in Nigeria as more expectant mothers are offered tests to detect presence or absence of monogenetic disorders associated with foetus such as sickle cell disease. It is however known that many ethical quandaries are related to the process. These issues comprise the counselling skills, type and method of sample collection, justification for the tests requested, option of selected abortion of affected foetus and violation of other ethical principles. Ethical standards in medical laboratories are derived from medical ethics therefore, the four fundamental principles are important in managing genetic testing processes. The principles are autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence and justice. These ethical issues are discussed in this paper vis-a-vis the foetus, the pregnant woman, society, counselling and informed consent. Keywords: Counselling, Diagnosis, Ethics, Molecular, Prenatal

Background: This cross-sectional study evaluated Apoptotic Protease Activating Factor and cluster of differentiation-4+ (CD4+) T-cell counts in patients infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Bauchi, Nigeria. Methods: This involved 180 blood samples from 90 tuberculosis (TB)-infected patients and 90 of their close contacts at home or attending Federal Medical Center Azare and Infectious Disease Hospital Bayara, Bauchi, Nigeria. The blood samples were analyzed for Apoptotic Protease Activating Factor (Apaf-1) expression using ELISA and CD4+ T cells using cyflow counter. Structured questionnaires were also used to collect the sociodemographic and clinical data of the study participants. Results: Eighty-six of the TB-infected patients had pulmonary TB (PTB), two had spine TB, and two had pleural TB. No statistically significant difference was recorded in CD4+ T-cell counts (P = 0.2935) between participants with PTB (mean ± standard deviation [SD]: 680.4 ± 235 cells/mm3) and those with extra-PTB (mean ± SD: 553.0 ± 130.5 cells/mm3). Similarly, there was no significant difference in Apaf-1 concentration (P = 0.1432) between participants with PTB (mean ± standard error of the mean [SEM]: 320.3 ± 35.4 pg/ml), and participants with extra-PTB (mean ± SEM: 143.7 ± 7.8 pg/ml). No significant difference was recorded in CD4+ T-cell counts (P = 0.4299) between the participants on treatment (mean ± SD: 758.6 ± 358.6 cells/mm3) and those who are treatment naïve (mean ± SD: 637.7 ± 208.4 cells/mm3). Similarly, there was no significant difference in Apaf-1 concentration (P = 0.6829) between the study participants on treatment (mean ± SEM: 336.3 ± 34.7 pg/ml) and those who are not on treatment (mean ± SEM: 381.2 ± 176.8 pg/ml). The CD4+ T-cells count was significantly higher in the controls (866.7 ± 288.4 cells/mm3) compared to the TB (675.0 ± 232.7 cells/mm3) patients (P < 0.0001). However, there was no significant difference in Apaf-1 expression between the control (312.4 ± 34.6 pg/ml) and the TB patients (329.1 ± 44.0 pg/ml) (P = 0.7658). Conclusion: Findings from this study showed a lower T-cell immune function during TB infection. However, Apaf-1 has no relevance on TB progression and control.

Background: Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is hyperendemic in Nigeria. Available literature reveal genotype E as being predominant in West Africa. This study aimed at identifying the current pattern and prevalent genotypes of HBV in Zaria, Nigeria. Materials and Methods: Four millilitre of blood was collected in ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid-container from each of 165 HBV surface antigen-positive participants recruited purposively from the gastroenterology clinic from May to August, 2017. Plasma was separated and frozen at −20°C till analysis. Multiplex-nested polymerase chain reaction using type-specific primers was used to identify the various HBV genotypes. Results: Median (and interquartile range ) age of the participants was 31.0 (25.5–39.0) years, with males constituting 107 (64.8%). Majority (83.6%) of the samples analysed were HBV-DNA-positive with 82.6% of the HBV-DNA-positive samples being mixed genotype infections. Irrespective of mode of occurrence, five HBV genotypes were identified with HBV/E (97.1%) being the most predominant, followed by HBV/B (82.6%), HBV/A (24.6%), then HBV/C (17.4%), while HBV/D (0.7%) was the least prevalent. Conclusion: In most (99.1%) of the mixed-infection were a combination of genotype E, the predominant genotype, with other genotypes predominantly genotype B. HBV genotypes E, B, A, C and D are the prevalent genotypes in Zaria, Nigeria, as they occur in single genotype and in mixed-genotypes pattern.

Studying the replication pattern of Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is essential to understand modalities that could halt its survival in-vivo. The CC chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) is exploited by HIV to gain entry into CD4+ cells. There are several polymorphisms in CCR5; the major coreceptor of HIV that has major influence on HIV transmission and progression to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). CCR5 genes that code for the CCR5 differ in humans, some individuals acquire mutant form of this genes with 32 base pair deletion through mendelian inheritance pattern. Individuals who are homozygous for this gene are completely resistant to HIV infection while heterozygous individuals had extended life span while being infected for an average of 2 to 3 years. CCR5delta32 allele is young in evolutionary time, yet it has reached relatively high frequencies in Caucasians but very low among native Africans. These properties indicate that the mutation has been under intense pressure selection. Surprisingly, there has not been any categorical explanation for this genetic selection. The absence or rare occurrence of CCR5delta32 allele among native Africans may be an explanation for the high HIV transmission rate and disease burden in this race. There are very limited CCR5delta32 studies from Africa thus, justifies the need for researchers to embark on more CCR5delta32 projects in order to establish full range of mutant CCR5 genes that may exist in our societies.

Background Individuals with human T-cell lymphotrophic virus type-1 (HTLV-1)/HIV-1 coinfection have been demonstrated to undergo CD4+ lymphocytosis even in the face of immunodeficiency and increased vulnerability to opportunistic pathogens that can lead to poor prognosis. Objective This study investigated the prevalence as well as the effects of HIV-1/HTLV-1 coinfection on CD4+ cell counts, routine hematology, and biochemical parameters of study participants. Materials and Methods This prospective cross-sectional study involved 184 blood samples collected from HIV-1-seropositive individuals attending HIV-special clinic of the University of Abuja Teaching Hospital, Gwagwalada, Nigeria. These samples were analyzed for anti-HTLV-1/2 IgM antibodies using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, CD4+ cell counts, and some routine hematological and biochemical parameters. All samples were also tested for HTLV-1 provirus DNA using real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay. Results Of the 184 subjects studied, 9 (4.9%) were anti-HTLV-1/2 IgM seropositive; however, upon real-time PCR testing, 12 (6.5%) had detectable HTLV-1 provirus DNA. The CD4+ cell count was significantly high in HTLV-1-positive (742 ± 40.2) subjects compared to their HTLV-1-negative (380 ± 28.5) counterpart ( P-value = 0.025). However, there was no significant association between HTLV-1 positivity with other hematology and biochemical parameters studied ( P > 0.05). Conclusion All subjects (100%) who were HTLV-1/HIV-1-coinfected had normal CD4+ counts. This gives contrasting finding on the true extent of immunodeficiency of subjects. So it is suggested to be very careful in using only CD4+ counts to monitor disease progression and as indicators for antiretroviral therapy (ART) in resource-limited settings. In such conditions, there may be a need to test for HTLV-1 alongside HIV viral loads in order to begin appropriate ART regimens that contain both pathogens.