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The Komodo National Park in the Wallacea region is the komodo dragon’s primary habitats. Published report on the herpetofauna of this national park is mostly concentrated in Komodo island. To increase our knowledge of amphibian and reptile communities in Komodo National Park, we conducted a herpetofauna survey in Komodo and Rinca Island and the nearby coastal area to assess diversity and community similarity and developed a complete checklist of the herpetofauna of Komodo National Park. We conducted a Visual Encounter Survey and put glue traps from February-April 2018 at six locations on Komodo Island (Loh Liang, Loh Wau dan Komodo Village) and Rinca Island (Loh Buaya, Loh Baru, and Rinca Village); and three locations on coastal areas of Flores (Labuan Bajo and Cumbi Village) and coastal area of Sumbawa (Sape) adjacent to Komodo National Park. We found seven species of amphibians and 22 species of reptiles and, however, only two species of amphibians and 18 species of reptiles were found in Komodo and Rinca Island. The highest diversity (H’ = 2.14) is in Loh Buaya (Rinca Island), and the highest evenness (E=0.58) is in Loh Baru (Rinca Island). The highest similarity occurs between Komodo Island and Rinca Island (IS = 0.8). Using data from other research, we have compiled a list of four species of amphibians and 39 species of reptiles occurring at three main islands of Komodo National Park: Komodo island, Rinca Island and Padar Island. Keywords: Herpetofauna diversity, Komodo National Park, Lesser Sunda Islands

Large introduced mammalian herbivores, either as livestock or feral populations, can have important effects on vegetation and animals. Introduced herbivores can be of high conservation concern if they impact threatened native species in protected areas. We evaluated temporal and spatial trends in the relative abundance of introduced water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) and their potential to induce competition-related ecological and demographic effects on native rusa deer (Rusa timorensis) in Komodo National Park and the Wae Wuul Nature Reserve—two protected areas in Eastern Indonesia. To monitor ungulate population abundances and population growth rates of water buffalo and rusa deer, we counted their dung (a validated abundance index in these two species) along 350 permanently marked transects at 11 sites over five islands annually between 2003 and 2018. Water buffalo dung abundance varied with the site, year and their interaction. Water buffalo dung was most abundant within the Wae Wuul Nature Reserve, and their dung abundance varied considerably among sites in Komodo National Park. Water buffalo site-specific dung abundances fluctuated independently over time. In areas of high water buffalo dung densities, rusa deer altered resource use and had lower population densities than sites without water buffalo. Rusa deer dung-based population growth rates were negatively influenced by density-dependent regulation and only weakly by water buffalo dung density. Currently, managers do not control water buffalo in either protected area. Nevertheless, the benefits of control could reduce water buffalo effects on vegetation composition, watercourse integrity, or the potential to transmit disease into native ungulates.

Increasing wildlife awareness is a commonly used approach in community conservations programs. However, in Indonesia, this approach has rarely been quantitatively evaluated for its effectiveness. I...

Lizards, as predators, can use different prey foraging strategies that are expected to influence daily movement behavior and home range use. Variation in lizard movement behavior can be achieved via frequency changes in movement step lengths and turning angles that can facilitate distinctive prey-searching and foraging strategies. Komodo Dragons (Varanus komodoensis) exhibit a distinct dietary transition at ∼18 kg, where lizards switch from consuming small-bodied and abundant prey species to highly dispersed adult ungulate prey. Our study examined competing models for the relative effects of ontogenetic dietary shift, body mass, sex, time of day, and arboreal habitat use on Komodo Dragon movement behavior (i.e., the proportional use of Levy flight movement steps) and home range area (i.e., 50 and 95% utilization distributions). Model ranking indicated that two models incorporating the proportion of adult ungulates and body mass best explained the increased use of Levy flight movement behavior of Komodo Dragons. Body mass also best explained the increase in the 50 and 95% utilization distribution Kernel home range areas. However, the slope of this relationship was less steep than that predicted by metabolic scaling theory and suggested that attributes specific to Komodo Dragons, or their environment, may attenuate their spatial requirements. This study demonstrates that because of distinct shifts in diet and other activities associated with large body size, Komodo Dragons alter movement behavior and increase their home range area to optimize environmental resource use.

We studied annual trends and characteristics of nesting activities and hatchling production by female Komodo Dragons (Varanus komodoensis) in Komodo National Park, Indonesia between 2002 and 2006. During this period, we recorded 12, 16, 15, 13, and 6 females nesting annually at 42 potential nesting sites. An average female nesting periodicity was estimated at 1.2±0.4 years. This result arose because most females bred annually and some biennially. Some females reused nest sites in successive years while others did not. Nesting females had significantly lower body mass compared to when they were recaptured again in a non-nesting state. All-female nesting activities were conducted within their resident valleys and suggested a strong tendency for spatial fidelity. Komodo Dragons were generally considered solitary nesters as only on one occasion were two nesting females observed to use the same nesting site. On average, 21.0±3.6 Komodo Dragon hatchlings emerged from each nest. We estimated that within the study area, nesting female Komodo Dragons produced between 129.0±21.8 and 344.0±58.16 hatchlings per annum. We discuss the ecological and evolutionary significance of these attributes. However, the main conservation management implications drawn from this study are that there are a low annual number of nesting females and associated hatchling production in Komodo National Park. Hence, a continuation of more extensive nesting surveys could provide a cost-effective and accurate way to gather important long-term demographic information for this species.

Nonconsumptive effects can strongly influence apex predator ecological function. These effects arise because prey often induce costly phenotypic responses to mitigate predation risk. Yet because predator–prey interactions are complex, prey defenses may vary considerably. We investigated if the Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis), a reptile apex predator, induced multiscale antipredator responses in key prey, the Rusa deer (Cervus timorensis) and the wild pig (Sus scrofa). To this end, we examined the temporal and spatial partitioning of habitats by predator and prey, determined the size of ungulate groups as a function of risk, and assessed changes in individual behavior of prey individuals exposed to predator kairomones at feeding stations. Komodo dragon, deer, and pig populations exhibited significant, but subtle differences in 3 habitat preferences that otherwise indicated high niche overlap. Komodo dragon predation risk, alongside other commonly considered predictor variables, did not affect deer or pig group size. With the exception of one individual-based vigilance-type behavior in pigs, no other antipredator behavior, including reduced food consumption, significantly varied in the presence of predator odor cue at feeding stations. Overall, our results indicated limited evidence for antipredator behavior and suggested Komodo dragons exert weak nonconsumptive effects of predation in ungulates. However, weak predatory interactions could be beneficial in island ecosystems as it could promote predator–prey coexistence that reduces extinction risk.

Understanding how threatened wildlife can coexist with humans over the long term is a central issue in conservation and wildlife management. Komodo National Park in Eastern Indonesia, harbors the largest extant populations of the endemic Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis). Consistent with global trends, this species is expected to be increasingly exposed to human activities and in particular growing ecotourism activities. Here we comprehensively evaluated how human activities affected individual and population level attributes of Komodo dragons. We compared Komodo dragons phenotypic (behaviour, body size, and body condition) and demographic (age structure, sex ratio, survival, and density) responses to variation in human activities across national park. Komodo dragons were found to exhibit pronounced responses to high human activity level relative to sites with low and negligible human activities. Komodo dragons exposed to ecotourism exhibited significantly less wariness, larger body mass, better body condition, and higher survival. These results are entirely consistent with ecotourism activities that provided Komodo dragons with long-term and substantial nutritional subsidies as a consequence of feeding and human food refuse. However, we also noted the potential negative consequences of altered behaviour and adult-biased populations in ecotourism areas which may influence demographic processes through intraspecific competition or predation. To address this issue, we recommend that three management strategies to be implemented in future include: (1) removal of human-mediated nutritional subsidies, (2) alternative ecotourism, and (3) spatial regulation of ecotourism. Furthermore, we advocate the development of approaches to achieve a socio–ecological sustainability that benefits both people and wildlife conservation.

The islands of Komodo National Park in the Wallacea region are the habitats of Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis). Although the Wallacea islands have lower species richness compared to the other large islands in Indonesia, they are rich in endemics, and the occurrence of invasive species would therefore threatened the ecological, economic and social balance of the regions. Several papers have hinted at the possibility of the invasion of Komodo National Parks by Asian toads, a situation which would potentially affect the survival of the Komodo dragon. To detect the presence of the invansive toad Duttaphrynus melanostictus in Komodo National Park and its surroundings areas we carried out an amphibian survey using a Visual Encounter Survey method during February to April 2018. The surveyed location consisted of two main islands within Komodo National Park (Rinca island and Komodo island), Flores island (Labuan Bajo and Cumbi village) and Sumbawa island (Sape). Two species of amphibians were found in Komodo National Park (Rinca island and Komodo island), while seven species of amphibians were found across all four locations. No D. melanostictus toads were found in Flores (including in Komodo National Park), however the toad was found to be abundant in Sape (Sumbawa island).

Apex predators can have substantial and complex ecological roles in ecosystems. However, differences in species-specific traits, population densities, and interspecific interactions are likely to determine the strength of apex predators' roles. Here we report complementary studies examining how interactions between predator per capita metabolic rate and population density influenced the biomass, population energy use, and ecological effects of apex predators on their large mammalian prey. We first investigated how large mammal prey resources and field metabolic rates of terrestrial apex predators, comprising large mammals and the Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis), influenced their biomass densities and population energy use requirements. We next evaluated whether Komodo dragons, like apex mammalian predators, exerted top-down regulation of their large mammal prey. Comparison of results from field studies demonstrates that Komodo dragons attain mean population biomass densities that are 5.75-231.82 times higher than that of apex mammalian predator species and their guilds in Africa, Asia, and North America. The high biomass of Komodo dragons resulted in 1.96-108.12 times greater population energy use than that of apex mammalian predators. Nevertheless, substantial temporal and spatial variation in Komodo dragon population energy use did not regulate the population growth rates of either of two large mammal prey species, rusa deer (Rusa timorensis) and wild pig (Sus scrofa). We suggest that multiple processes weaken the capacity of Komodo dragons to regulate large mammal prey populations. For example, a low per capita metabolic rate requiring an infrequent and inactive hunting strategy (including scavenging), would minimize lethal and nonlethal impacts on prey populations. We conclude that Komodo dragons differ in their predatory role from, including not being the ecological analogs of, apex mammalian predators.

The roles of density-dependent and density-independent factors in the dynamics of tropical large herbivore populations are poorly understood. Understanding these dynamics is particularly important if the herbivore is prey for an apex predator of conservation concern because a decline in the prey could cause the predator to decline. We tested hypotheses about the roles of density-dependent and density-independent factors in the dynamics of 2 tropical ungulates, Rusa deer ( Rusa timorensis ) and wild pigs ( Sus scrofa ), in Komodo National Park, eastern Indonesia. We counted the dung of Rusa deer and wild pigs (a validated index of abundance for these 2 species) along permanently marked transects at 10 sites over 4 islands annually during 2003–2014 to estimate ungulate abundance. Ungulates were much more abundant on the 2 larger islands compared with the 2 smaller islands, with wild pig dung completely absent from the latter. During our 12-year study, Rusa deer abundance declined slightly on Nusa Kode and Rinca islands, did not change on Komodo Island, and increased on Gili Motang Island. There was a decline in abundance of wild pigs on Komodo Island and an increase on Rinca Island. Annual variation in population growth rate was strongly density-dependent and island-specific for both species, with annual rainfall and vegetation composition being relatively unimportant. Population growth rates of Rusa deer exhibited spatial synchrony, with synchrony declining with increasing intersite distance. Our findings confirm the importance of density dependence in the dynamics of tropical large herbivore populations. However, the strength of density dependence varied between species and spatially. Declines of Rusa deer and wild pigs on the larger 2 islands, which are strongholds of the Komodo dragon, are cause for concern. Continued monitoring of ungulate populations is critical for the conservation of Komodo dragon populations in Komodo National Park. Peran faktor-faktor yang terpengaruh kepadatan ( density-dependent ) dan faktor-faktor yang tidak terpengaruh kepadatan ( density-independent ) dalam dinamika populasi herbivora besar di daerah tropis masih sangat kurang dipahami. Pemahaman terhadap dinamika populasi satwa herbivora sangatlah penting ketika satwa tersebut merupakan satwa mangsa dari predator puncak terutama bagi kelangsungan upaya konservasi satwa predator tersebut. Penurunan populasi mangsa dapat menyebabkan penurunan populasi satwa predatornya. Kami menguji hipotesis mengenai peranan faktor-faktor yang terpengaruh kepadatan dan faktor-faktor yang tidak terpengaruh kepadatan pada dinamika populasi dua satwa mangsa ungulata tropis, yaitu rusa ( Rusa timorensis ) dan babi hutan ( Sus scrofa ) di dalam kawasan Taman Nasional Komodo, Indonesia bagian timur. Estimasi kelimpahan ungulata ini dilakukan dengan cara menghitung kotoran rusa dan babi hutan (indeks kelimpahan yang telah divalidasi pada kedua spesies tersebut) di sepanjang transek permanen pada 10 lokasi penelitian di empat pulau setiap tahunnya dalam kurun waktu tahun 2003–2014. Kelimpahan kedua satwa ungulata tersebut jauh lebih tinggi di dua pulau besar dibandingkan di dua pulau kecil lainnya, di mana pada kedua pulau kecil, kotoran babi hutan bahkan sama sekali tidak dijumpai. Dalam kurun waktu 12 tahun penelitian ini, kelimpahan rusa sedikit menurun di Pulau Nusa Kode dan Pulau Rinca, namun stabil di Pulau Komodo dan meningkat di Pulau Gili Motang. Penurunan kelimpahan babi hutan terpantau di Pulau Komodo, sebaliknya di Pulau Rinca populasinya meningkat. Variasi tahunan laju pertambahan jumlah populasi satwa ungulata tersebut sangat dipengaruhi oleh faktor kepadatannya meskipun untuk kedua spesies ungulata ini sangat spesifik pada setiap pulau, di mana curah hujan tahunan dan komposisi vegetasi relatif tidak memberikan pengaruh. Laju pertumbuhan populasi rusa menunjukkan adanya perbedaan berdasarkan lokasi, dengan kecenderungan penurunan seiring dengan bertambahnya jarak antar lokasi penelitian. Hasil penelitian membuktikan pentingnya faktor yang tergantung kepadatan dalam dinamika populasi herbivora besar di daerah tropis, meskipun terdapat variasi antar spesies dan lokasi. Penurunan populasi ungulata di kedua pulau besar yang menjadi habitat utama biawak komodo ini menjadi hal penting untuk diperhatikan. Pemantauan secara kontinyu terhadap populasi satwa ungulata sangatlah penting bagi kelangsungan kegiatan konservasi biawak Komodo di Taman Nasional Komodo.

The population dynamics of island species are considered particularly sensitive to variation in environmental, demographic and/or genetic processes. However, few studies have attempted to evaluate the relative importance of these processes for key vital rates in island endemics. We integrated the results of long-term capture–mark–recapture analysis, prey surveys, habitat quality assessments and molecular analysis to determine the causes of variation in the survival rates of Komodo dragons Varanus komodoensis at 10 sites on four islands in Komodo National Park, Indonesia. Using open population capture–mark–recapture methods, we ranked competing models that considered environmental, ecological, genetic and demographic effects on site-specific Komodo dragon survival rates. Site-specific survival rates ranged from 0.49 (95% CI: 0.33–0.68) to 0.92 (0.79–0.97) in the 10 study sites. The three highest-ranked models (i.e. ΔQAICc < 2) explained ∼70% of variation in Komodo dragon survival rates and identified interactions between inbreeding coefficients, prey biomass density and habitat quality as important explanatory variables. There was evidence of additive effects from ecological and genetic (e.g. inbreeding) processes affecting Komodo dragon survival rates. Our results indicate that maintaining high ungulate prey biomass and habitat quality would enhance the persistence of Komodo dragon populations. Assisted gene flow may also increase the genetic and demographic viability of the smaller Komodo dragon populations.

We document six observations of an aquatic behaviour used by rusa deer (Rusa timorensis) to delay an imminent attack from Komodo dragons (Varanus komodoensis). This unusual behaviour arose after rusa deer fled into the nearby seawater following an attack from a solitary Komodo dragon. Once in the sea, rusa deer remained relatively stationary by standing in shallow water (

Multidisciplinary conservation initiatives are increasingly advocated as best practice for recovering endangered species. The Komodo dragon Varanus komodoensis is the world's largest lizard, of prominent conservation value as an umbrella species for protection of south-east Indonesian ecosystems. Komodo dragons have faced multiple human-related threat processes in the past 30 years and are listed on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, and considered Vulnerable according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List. We report on a protection programme conducted from 2005 to 2012 in the Wae Wuul nature reserve, on the island of Flores, Indonesia. The Wae Wuul ranger post was completely rebuilt, and community awareness and involvement of local people in habitat-protection schemes were regularly and successfully implemented. Local rangers were trained in wildlife-monitoring techniques. Monitoring results indicated that Komodo dragon densities were lower in Wae Wuul than in the adjacent Komodo National Park; however, a relatively high level of genetic diversity was recorded for this population. Ungulate prey showed a relatively stable prey population density. Community-based initiatives and regular wildlife monitoring are crucial to ensure the persistence of Komodo dragons on Flores. The Wae Wuul protection programme is providing several sustainability indicators by which informed management plans can be designed for long-term conservation of Komodo dragons.

Finding practical ways to robustly estimate abundance or density trends in threatened species is a key facet for effective conservation management. Further identifying less expensive monitoring methods that provide adequate data for robust population density estimates can facilitate increased investment into other conservation initiatives needed for species recovery. Here we evaluated and compared inference-and cost-effectiveness criteria for three field monitoring-density estimation protocols to improve conservation activities for the threatened Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis). We undertook line-transect counts, cage trapping and camera monitoring surveys for Komodo dragons at 11 sites within protected areas in Eastern Indonesia to collect data to estimate density using distance sampling methods or the Royle–Nichols abundance induced heterogeneity model. Distance sampling estimates were considered poor due to large confidence intervals, a high coefficient of variation and that false absences were obtained in 45 % of sites where other monitoring methods detected lizards present. The Royle–Nichols model using presence/absence data obtained from cage trapping and camera monitoring produced highly correlated density estimates, obtained similar measures of precision and recorded no false absences in data collation. However because costs associated with camera monitoring were considerably less than cage trapping methods, albeit marginally more expensive than distance sampling, better inference from this method is advocated for ongoing population monitoring of Komodo dragons. Further the cost-savings achieved by adopting this field monitoring method could facilitate increased expenditure on alternative management strategies that could help address current declines in two Komodo dragon populations.

The Komodo dragon ( Varanus komodoensis ) is the world’s largest lizard and endemic to five islands in Eastern Indonesia. The current management of this species is limited by a paucity of demographic information needed to determine key threats to population persistence. Here we conducted a large scale trapping study to estimate demographic parameters including population growth rates, survival and abundance for four Komodo dragon island populations in Komodo National Park. A combined capture mark recapture framework was used to estimate demographic parameters from 925 marked individuals monitored between 2003 and 2012. Island specific estimates of population growth, survival and abundance, were estimated using open population capture–recapture analyses. Large island populations are characterised by near or stable population growth (i.e. λ ∼ 1), whilst one small island population (Gili Motang) appeared to be in decline ( λ = 0.68 ± 0.09). Population differences were evident in apparent survival, with estimates being higher for populations on the two large islands compared to the two small islands. We extrapolated island specific population abundance estimates (considerate of species habitat use) to produce a total population abundance estimate of 2448 (95% CI: 2067–2922) Komodo dragons in Komodo National Park. Our results suggest that park managers must consider island specific population dynamics for managing and recovering current populations. Moreover understanding what demographic, environmental or genetic processes act independently, or in combination, to cause variation in current population dynamics is the next key step necessary to better conserve this iconic species.

Monitoring the abundances of prey is important for informing the management of threatened and endangered predators. We evaluated the usefulness of faecal counts and distance sampling for monitoring the abundances of rusa deer Rusa timorensis, feral pig Sus scrofa and water buffalo Bubalus bubalis, the three key prey of the Komodo dragon Varanus komodoensis, at 11 sites on five islands in and around Komodo National Park, eastern Indonesia. We used species-specific global detection functions and cluster sizes (i.e. multiple covariates distance sampling) to estimate densities of rusa deer and feral pig, but there were too few observations to estimate densities of water buffalo. Rusa deer densities varied from from 2.5 to 165.5 deer/km2 with coefficients of variation (CVs) of 15-105%. Feral pig densities varied from 0.0 to 25.2 pigs/km2 with CVs of 25-106%. There was a positive relationship between estimated faecal densities and estimated population densities for both rusa deer and feral pig: the form of the ...

Ontogenetic allometries in ecological habits and niche use are key responses by which individuals maximize lifetime fitness. Moreover, such allometries have significant implications for how individuals influence population and community dynamics. Here, we examined how body size variation in Komodo dragons (Varanus komodoensis) influenced ecological allometries in their: (1) prey size preference, (2) daily movement rates, (3) home range area, and (4) subsequent niche use across ontogeny. With increased body mass, Komodo dragons increased prey size with a dramatic switch from small (≤10 kg) to large prey (≥50 kg) in lizards heavier than 20 kg. Rates of foraging movement were described by a non-linear concave down response with lizard increasing hourly movement rates up until ∼20 kg body mass before decreasing daily movement suggesting reduced foraging effort in larger lizards. In contrast, home range area exhibited a sigmoid response with increased body mass. Intrapopulation ecological niche use and overlap were also strongly structured by body size. Thus, ontogenetic allometries suggest Komodo dragon's transition from a highly active foraging mode exploiting small prey through to a less active sit and wait feeding strategy focused on killing large ungulates. Further, our results suggest that as body size increases across ontogeny, the Komodo dragon exhibited marked ontogenetic niche shifts that enabled it to function as an entire vertebrate predator guild by exploiting prey across multiple trophic levels.

Loss of dispersal typifies island biotas, but the selective processes driving this phenomenon remain contentious. This is because selection via, both indirect (e.g. relaxed selection or island syndromes) and direct (e.g. natural selection or spatial sorting) processes may be involved, and no study has yet convincingly distinguished between these alternatives. Here, we combined observational and experimental analyses of an island lizard, the Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis, the world's largest lizard), to provide evidence for the actions of multiple processes that could contribute to island dispersal loss. In the Komodo dragon, concordant results from telemetry, simulations, experimental translocations, mark-recapture, and gene flow studies indicated that despite impressive physical and sensory capabilities for long-distance movement, Komodo dragons exhibited near complete dispersal restriction: individuals rarely moved beyond the valleys they were born/captured in. Importantly, lizard site-fidelity was insensitive to common agents of dispersal evolution (i.e. indices of risk for inbreeding, kin and intraspecific competition, and low habitat quality) that consequently reduced survival of resident individuals. We suggest that direct selection restricts movement capacity (e.g. via benefits of spatial philopatry and increased costs of dispersal) alongside use of dispersal-compensating traits (e.g. intraspecific niche partitioning) to constrain dispersal in island species.

In this study we assessed interactions among Komodo dragon Varanus komodoensis populations, individual Komodo dragons and two tick parasites Amblyomma robinsoni and Aponomma komodoense to assess variation in host-parasite aggregations. Prevalence of ticks was uniformly high (> 98%) but median tick abundance varied 3.52 fold among 9 host lizard populations. There was no evidence to suggest that average tick abundances were correlated with genetic similarities (Rm = 0.133, P = 0.446) or geographic proximities (Rm = 0.175 P=0.303) among host populations. Temporal concordance in tick abundance was measured for host populations between two different years but not for the individual hosts within these populations. General linearized modelling indicated that ≈ 23% of host variation in tick abundance was positively correlated to a multivariate function incorporating lizard body size, body condition, their interactions, and habitat differences. The covariates of host population density and inbreeding coefficients,...

Megapodes are unique in using only heat from the environment, rather than body heat, to incubate their eggs as well as the precocious independence of their chicks on hatching. Of 22 recognized species of megapodes, 9 are listed as threatened due to factors including habitat loss and fragmentation, and pr?dation on eggs and chicks. Orange-footed Scrubfowl (Megapodius reinwardt) are conspicuous components of the Oriental/Austral avifauna that inhabit the monsoon forests of the Lesser Sunda chain of islands in Indonesia. We examined the abundance, patterns of distribution, physical characteristics, seasonal activity, and pr?dation risk of incubation mounds of Orange-footed Scrubfowl on Komodo Island in eastern Indonesia. We surveyed 13 valleys on Komodo Island from April 2002 to January 2005 and located 113 tended and 107 untended incubation mounds. Densities of scrubfowl mounds in our study were similar to that reported by investigators during the 1970s, suggesting little change in the scrubfowl population since then. Most scrubfowl mounds were on sandy or loamy soils in open monsoon forest with little overhead shade, and placement of mounds in such areas may ensure adequate temperatures for egg incubation. Although some mounds were tended during all months, mound use peaked during the late wet season in March. During the dry season (April-November), only a few mounds were tended. Komodo dragons ( Varanus komodoensis) and wild pigs (Sus seroja) were the primary predators of scrubfowl eggs, with no indication of egg pr?dation by humans. The valley with the largest number of untended mounds in our study also had the largest number of active Komodo dragon nests. This suggests an effect of Komodo dragons on scrubfowl numbers, but additional study is needed.

Somatic growth patterns represent a major component of organismal fitness and may vary among sexes and populations due to genetic and environmental processes leading to profound differences in life-history and demography. This study considered the ontogenic, sex-specific and spatial dynamics of somatic growth patterns in ten populations of the world’s largest lizard the Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis). The growth of 400 individual Komodo dragons was measured in a capture-mark-recapture study at ten sites on four islands in eastern Indonesia, from 2002 to 2010. Generalized Additive Mixed Models (GAMMs) and information-theoretic methods were used to examine how growth rates varied with size, age and sex, and across and within islands in relation to site-specific prey availability, lizard population density and inbreeding coefficients. Growth trajectories differed significantly with size and between sexes, indicating different energy allocation tactics and overall costs associated with reproduction. This leads to disparities in maximum body sizes and longevity. Spatial variation in growth was strongly supported by a curvilinear density-dependent growth model with highest growth rates occurring at intermediate population densities. Sex-specific trade-offs in growth underpin key differences in Komodo dragon life-history including evidence for high costs of reproduction in females. Further, inverse density-dependent growth may have profound effects on individual and population level processes that influence the demography of this species.