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One of the most prevalent human infections is Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori), which affects more than half of the global population. Although H. pylori infections are widespread, only a minority of individuals develop severe gastroduodenal disorders. The global resistance of H. pylori to antibiotics has reached concerning levels, significantly impacting the effectiveness of treatment. Consequently, the development of vaccines targeting virulence factors may present a viable alternative for the treatment and prevention of H. pylori infections. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current understanding of H. pylori infection, with a particular focus on its virulence factors, pathophysiology, and vaccination strategies. This review discusses various virulence factors associated with H. pylori, such as cytotoxin-associated gene A (cagA), vacuolating cytotoxin gene (vacA), outer membrane proteins (OMPs), neutrophil-activated protein (NAP), urease (ure), and catalase. The development of vaccines based on these virulence characteristics is essential for controlling infection and ensuring long-lasting protection. Various vaccination strategies and formulations have been tested in animal models; however, their effectiveness and reproducibility in humans remain uncertain. Different types of vaccines, including vector-based vaccines, inactivated whole cells, genetically modified protein-based subunits, and multiepitope nucleic acid (DNA) vaccines, have been explored. While some vaccines have demonstrated promising results in murine models, only a limited number have been successfully tested in humans. This article provides a thorough evaluation of recent research on H. pylori virulence genes and vaccination methods, offering valuable insights for future strategies to address this global health challenge.

Abstract Klebsiella pneumoniae (K. pneumoniae) is a member of the ESKAPE group and is responsible for severe community and healthcare-associated infections. Certain Klebsiella species have very similar phenotypes, which presents a challenge in identifying K. pneumoniae. Multidrug-resistant K. pneumoniae is also a serious global problem that needs to be addressed. A total of 190 isolates were isolated from urine (n = 69), respiratory (n = 52), wound (n = 48) and blood (n = 21) samples collected from various hospitals in the Al-Qassim, Saudi Arabia, between March 2021 and October 2022. Our study aimed to rapidly and accurately detect K. pneumoniae using the Peptide Mass Fingerprinting (PMF) technique, confirmed by real-time PCR. Additionally, screening for antibiotic susceptibility and resistance was conducted. The primary methods for identifying K. pneumoniae isolates were culture, Gram staining, and the Vitek® 2 ID Compact system. An automated MALDI Biotyper (MBT) instrument was used for proteome identification, which was subsequently confirmed using SYBR green real-time polymerase chain reaction (real-time PCR) and microfluidic electrophoresis assays. Vitek® 2 AST-GN66 cards were utilized to evaluate the antimicrobial sensitivity of K. pneumoniae isolates. According to our results, Vitek® 2 Compact accurately identified 178 out of 190 (93.68%) K. pneumoniae isolates, while the PMF technique correctly detected 188 out of 190 (98.95%) isolates with a score value of 2.00 or higher. Principal component analysis was conducted using MBT Compass software to classify K. pneumoniae isolates based on their structure. Based on the analysis of the single peak intensities generated by MBT, the highest peak values were found at 3444, 5022, 5525, 6847, and 7537 m/z. K. pneumoniae gene testing confirmed the PMF results, with 90.53% detecting entrobactin, 70% detecting 16 S rRNA, and 32.63% detecting ferric iron uptake. The resistance of the K. pneumoniae isolates to antibiotics was as follows: 64.75% for cefazolin, 62.63% for trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, 59.45% for ampicillin, 58.42% for cefoxitin, 57.37% for ceftriaxone, 53.68% for cefepime, 52.11% for ampicillin-sulbactam, 50.53% for ceftazidime, 52.11% for ertapenem, and 49.47% for imipenem. Based on the results of the double-disk synergy test, 93 out of 190 (48.95%) K. pneumoniae isolates were extended-spectrum beta-lactamase. In conclusion, PMF is a powerful analytical technique used to identify K. pneumoniae isolates from clinical samples based on their proteomic characteristics. K. pneumoniae isolates have shown increasing resistance to antibiotics from different classes, including carbapenem, which poses a significant threat to human health as these infections may become difficult to treat.

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a Gram-negative, spiral-shaped bacterium that colonizes the gastric epithelium and is associated with a range of gastrointestinal disorders, exhibiting a global prevalence of approximately 50%. Despite the availability of treatment options, H. pylori frequently reemerges and demonstrates increasing antibiotic resistance, which diminishes the efficacy of conventional therapies. Consequently, it is imperative to explore non-antibiotic treatment alternatives to mitigate the inappropriate use of antibiotics. This review examines H. pylori infection, encompassing transmission pathways, treatment modalities, antibiotic resistance, and eradication strategies. Additionally, it discusses alternative therapeutic approaches such as probiotics, anti-biofilm agents, phytotherapy, phototherapy, phage therapy, lactoferrin therapy, and vaccine development. These strategies aim to reduce antimicrobial resistance and enhance treatment outcomes for H. pylori infections. While alternative therapies can maintain low bacterial levels, they do not achieve complete eradication of H. pylori. These therapies are designed to bolster the immune response, minimize side effects, and provide gastroprotective benefits, rendering them suitable for adjunctive use alongside conventional treatments. Probiotics may serve as adjunctive therapy for H. pylori; however, their effectiveness as a monotherapy is limited. Photodynamic and phage therapies exhibit potential in targeting H. pylori infections, including those caused by drug-resistant strains, without the use of antibiotics. The development of a reliable vaccine is also critical for the eradication of H. pylori. This review identifies candidate antigens such as VacA, CagA, and HspA, along with various vaccine formulations, including vector-based and subunit vaccines. Some vaccines have demonstrated efficacy in clinical trials, while others have shown robust immune protection in preclinical studies. Nevertheless, each of the aforementioned alternative therapies requires thorough preclinical and clinical evaluation to ascertain their efficacy, side effects, cost-effectiveness, and patient compliance.

Introduction Despite Pakistan’s stringent tobacco control policy, its effective implementation has always been a challenge, leading to rising tobacco consumption. The aim of the study is to determine the prevalence of tobacco consumption and associated risk factors in the adult population of deprived urban areas. Methods A community-based, cross-sectional survey was conducted from February to July 2019, comprising 607 adults residing in the urban squatter settlement of Lahore using a standardized questionnaire, the WHO STEPwise approach. The outcome was current use of tobacco and/or smokeless tobacco daily. Multivariable logistic regression was applied to determine factors associated with smoking and smokeless tobacco consumption. Results Among 607 participants, about 64% were females, 49.3% were illiterate, 64.9% were currently unemployed, and 47.1% belonged to the low-income group. The prevalence of tobacco smoke was 10.5% (95% CI: 8.07–12.93), and smokeless tobacco consumption was 8.6% (95% CI: 6.38–10.82). Multivariable logistic regression found that smokeless tobacco was more likely among the aged 50–59 years (AOR=4.1; 95% CI: 1.1–13.8) and unemployed (AOR=3.6; 95% CI: 1.1–12.2). Whereas tobacco smoking was more likely among the aged 30–39 years (AOR=5.5; 95% CI: 1.8–16.7), Urdu ethnicity (AOR=2.9; 95% CI: 1.2–7.3), unemployed (AOR=6.6; 95% CI: 2.9–14.9), and never exposed to any media (AOR=3.2; 95% CI: 1.8–17.4). Participants exposed to health warnings were less likely to smoke (AOR=0.02; 95% CI: 0.01–0.05). Conclusions This study reports a high prevalence of tobacco consumption among adults and calls for effective policy implementation using a multi-pronged approach, including health professionals and media, to spread awareness about the harmful effects of tobacco and endorsement of health warnings on tobacco packaging.

Abstract Psychrotrophic Pseudomonas is one of the significant microbes that lead to putrefaction in chilled meat. One of the biggest problems in the detection of Pseudomonas is that several species are seemingly identical. Currently, antibiotic resistance is one of the most significant challenges facing the world's health and food security. Therefore, this study was designed to apply an accurate technique for eliminating the identification discrepancy of Pseudomonas species and to study their resistance against various antimicrobials. A total of 320 chicken meat specimens were cultivated, and the isolated bacteria’ were phenotypically recognized. Protein analysis was carried out for cultured isolates via Microflex LT. The resistance of Pseudomonas isolates was recorded through Vitek® 2 AST-GN83 cards. Overall, 69 samples were identified as Pseudomonas spp. and included 18 Pseudomonas lundensis (P. lundensis), 16 Pseudomonas fragi (P. fragi), 13 Pseudomonas oryzihabitans (P. oryzihabitans), 10 Pseudomonas stutzeri (P. stutzeri), 5 Pseudomonas fluorescens (P. fluorescens), 4 Pseudomonas putida (P. putida), and 3 Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) isolates. Microflex LT identified all Pseudomonas isolates (100%) correctly with a score value ≥ 2.00. PCA positively discriminated the identified isolates into various groups. The antimicrobial resistance levels against Pseudomonas isolates were 81.16% for nitrofurantoin, 71% for ampicillin and ampicillin/sulbactam, 65.22% for cefuroxime and ceftriaxone, 55% for aztreonam, and 49.28% for ciprofloxacin. The susceptibilities were 100% for cefotaxime, 98.55% for ceftazidime, 94.20% for each piperacillin/tazobactam and cefepime, 91.3% for cefazolin. In conclusion, chicken meat was found to be contaminated with different Pseudomonas spp., with high incidence rates of P. lundensis. Microflex LT is a potent tool for distinguishing Pseudomonads at the species level.

Food products that are ready-to-eat have become increasingly popular in recent years due to their efficiency, affordability, and convenience. However, there are concerns about public health because certain products, particularly animal products, may contain antibiotic-resistant bacteria. This study aimed to quickly and accurately identify foodborne pathogens, such as Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), in samples of shawarma and chicken burgers using peptide mass fingerprinting (PMF) technology. Additionally, the prevalence and levels of antibiotic resistance in the pathogens were determined. The study utilized 300 samples obtained from fast food restaurants in Al Qassim, Saudi Arabia. A variety of methods were used to identify foodborne pathogens, including culture on specific media, bacterial counts by numerical dilutions of homogenized samples, and proteome identification by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). The Kirby–Bauer method was applied to detect the susceptibility and resistance of the bacteria to various antibiotics. PCR was utilized to identify antimicrobial resistance genes such as blaTEM, tet(A), blaZ, and mecA in S. aureus and E. coli isolates. The percentage of E. coli, S. aureus, Salmonella, Listeria monocytogenes (L. monocytogenes), Acinetobacter baumannii (A. baumannii), and Hafnia alevei (H. alevei) was 34%, 31%, 10.67%, 7.33%, 6.67%, and 4%, respectively. Shawarma samples were found to contain the highest levels of pathogens, compared with chicken burger samples. According to the MBT Compass Flex Series Version 1.3 software, all isolates were identified with 100% accuracy. The log score for MBT identification ranged from 2.00 to 2.56. Among E. coli isolates, ampicillin, and penicillin had the highest resistance rate (100%), followed by tetracycline (35.29%). A number of antibiotics were reported to be resistant to S. aureus, including nalidixic acid (100%), followed by penicillin (96.77%), piperacillin (45.16%), and norfloxacin (32.26%). Some E. coli isolates were susceptible to tetracycline (49.02%), nalidixic acid (47.06%), and piperacillin (43.14%), whereas amikacin was the only drug that was effective against 32.72% of S. aureus isolates. The proportions of the blaTEM and tet(A) genes in E. coli isolates were 55.89% and 45.1%, respectively, whereas S. aureus strains did not possess either of these genes. However, 21.5% and 47.31% of blaz and mecA genes were present among various isolates of S. aureus, respectively. In contrast, E. coli strains did not possess either of these genes. In conclusion, the fast identification and antimicrobial profiles of the foodborne pathogens were useful in identifying which restaurants and fast food outlets may need to improve their food safety practices. Ultimately, our results will be used to devise targeted strategies to control foodborne pathogens.

In animal production systems around the world, brucellosis is a serious zoonotic disease that creates public health hazards and losses in economic terms. The aim of the study is to genotype and molecularly characterize Brucella melitensis (B. melitensis) and Brucella abortus (B. abortus) collected from different animal species and humans. A total of 50 isolates of Brucella species (16B. melitensis and 34B. abortus) were isolated from 1081 animal and human samples using a culture technique, followed by biochemical identification using the Vitek 2 compact system and proteomic identification using mass spectrometry technology. Molecular genotyping was performed on all isolates using multiplex real-time PCR. Six isolates from each genotype of Brucella species were selected and genetically evaluated by IS711 insertion sequences. Microchips-based real-time PCR for Brucella species identification was performed on twelve genetically characterized isolates as a first attempt. Forty-four (88%) isolates of Brucella species were detected using multiplex real-time PCR. Based on IS711 nucleotide sequencing, twelve isolates were phylogenetically clustered into their specific clusters. The results of the comparative analysis of conventional real time and microchips-based real time indicated that the later is faster and qualitatively more sensitive than conventional real time; however, further studies are needed to ensure that it is capable of serving as a gold standard alternative for Brucella species monitoring.

In hospitals and other clinical settings, Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a particularly dangerous pathogen that can cause serious or even fatal infections. Thus, the detection and differentiation of MRSA has become an urgent matter in order to provide appropriate treatment and timely intervention in infection control. To ensure this, laboratories must have access to the most up-to-date testing methods and technology available. This study was conducted to determine whether protein fingerprinting technology could be used to identify and distinguish MRSA recovered from both inpatients and outpatients. A total of 326 S. aureus isolates were obtained from 2800 in- and outpatient samples collected from King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, from October 2018 to March 2021. For the phenotypic identification of 326 probable S. aureus cultures, microscopic analysis, Gram staining, a tube coagulase test, a Staph ID 32 API system, and a Vitek 2 Compact system were used. Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS), referred to as protein fingerprinting, was performed on each bacterial isolate to determine its proteomic composition. As part of the analysis, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and a single-peak analysis of MALDI-TOF MS software were also used to distinguish between Methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA) and MRSA. According to the results, S. aureus isolates constituted 326 out of 2800 (11.64%) based on the culture technique. The Staph ID 32 API system and Vitek 2 Compact System were able to correctly identify 262 (80.7%) and 281 (86.2%) S. aureus strains, respectively. Based on the Oxacillin Disc Diffusion Method, 197 (62.23%) of 326 isolates of S. aureus exhibited a cefoxitin inhibition zone of less than 21 mm and an oxacillin inhibition zone of less than 10 mm, and were classified as MRSA under Clinical Laboratory Standards Institute guidelines. MALDI-TOF MS was able to correctly identify 100% of all S. aureus isolates with a score value equal to or greater than 2.00. In addition, a close relationship was found between S. aureus isolates and higher peak intensities in the mass ranges of 3990 Da, 4120 Da, and 5850 Da, which were found in MRSA isolates but absent in MSSA isolates. Therefore, protein fingerprinting has the potential to be used in clinical settings to rapidly detect and differentiate MRSA isolates, allowing for more targeted treatments and improved patient outcomes.

This study was implemented to assess the mechanism by which Moringa oleifera leaf extract (MOLE) improves the quality and prolongs shelf-life of the broilers’ breast meat. Ninety Cobb chicks were randomly allocated to 3 groups. A control group received the standard diet, whereas the other two groups received diets containing MOLE at the doses of 250 and 500 mg/kg for 21 days. Inclusion of MOLE in broilers diet significantly reduced the detrimental changes in the overall sensory attribute scores, characteristic color and odor, and the loss of breast muscle elasticity during storage. Furthermore, it significantly reduced concentrations of thiobarbituric acid, total volatile nitrogen, non-esterified fatty acids, and peroxide, during storage compared to the control samples. No effect on the concentrations of heavy metals, such as copper, cadmium, and lead, was observed. Decomposition of samples was delayed as indicated by lower pH values and higher sensory scores at 4 and 6 days of storage in the MOLE groups. Reduced contamination with E. coli and Salmonella species indicated an antibacterial effect of MOLE. Finally, the present study highlights that MOLE supplementation may play a role in improving quality and shelf-life of the chilled breast meat in broilers.

There is growing concern among healthcare providers worldwide regarding the prevalence of multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii (A. baumannii). Some of the worst hospital-acquired infections, often in intensive care units (ICUs), are caused by this bacterial pathogen. In recent years, the rise in multidrug-resistant A. baumannii has been linked to the overuse of antimicrobial drugs and the lack of adequate infection control measures. Infections caused by this bacterial pathogen are the result of prolonged hospitalization and ICU stays, and they are associated with increased morbidity and mortality. This review outlines the epidemiology, risk factors, and antimicrobial resistance associated with A. baumannii in various countries, with a special focus on the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. In response to the growing concern regarding this drug-resistant bacteria, fundamental information about its pathology has been incorporated into the development of vaccines. Although these vaccines have been successful in animal models, their effectiveness in humans remains unproven. The review will discuss the development of A. baumannii vaccines, potential related obstacles, and efforts to find an effective strategy against this pathogen.

Brucellosis is considered one of the most serious zoonotic diseases worldwide. This disease affects both human and animal health, in addition to being one of the most widespread zoonotic illnesses in the Middle East and Northern Africa. Human brucellosis generally presents in a diverse and non-specific manner, making laboratory confirmation of the diagnosis critical to the patient’s recovery. A coordinated strategy for diagnosing and controlling brucellosis throughout the Middle East is required, as this disease cannot be known to occur without reliable microbiological, molecular, and epidemiological evidence. Consequently, the current review focuses on the current and emerging microbiological diagnostic tools for the early detection and control of human brucellosis. Laboratory assays such as culturing, serology, and molecular analysis can frequently be used to diagnose brucellosis. Although serological markers and nucleic acid amplification techniques are extremely sensitive, and extensive experience has been gained with these techniques in the laboratory diagnosis of brucellosis, a culture is still considered to be the “gold standard” due to the importance of this aspect of public health and clinical care. In endemic regions, however, serological tests remain the primary method of diagnosis due to their low cost, user-friendliness, and strong ability to provide a negative prediction, so they are commonly used. A nucleic acid amplification assay, which is highly sensitive, specific, and safe, is capable of enabling rapid disease diagnosis. Patients who have reportedly fully healed may continue to have positive molecular test results for a long time. Therefore, cultures and serological methods will continue to be the main tools for diagnosing and following up on human brucellosis for as long as no commercial tests or studies demonstrate adequate interlaboratory reproducibility. As there is no approved vaccine that prevents human brucellosis, vaccination-based control of animal brucellosis has become an important part of the management of human brucellosis. Over the past few decades, several studies have been conducted to develop Brucella vaccines, but the problem of controlling brucellosis in both humans and animals remains challenging. Therefore, this review also aims to present an updated overview of the different types of brucellosis vaccines that are currently available.

Pathogens found in food are believed to be the leading cause of foodborne illnesses; and they are considered a serious problem with global ramifications. During the last few decades, a lot of attention has been paid to determining the microorganisms that cause foodborne illnesses and developing new methods to identify them. Foodborne pathogen identification technologies have evolved rapidly over the last few decades, with the newer technologies focusing on immunoassays, genome-wide approaches, biosensors, and mass spectrometry as the primary methods of identification. Bacteriophages (phages), probiotics and prebiotics were known to have the ability to combat bacterial diseases since the turn of the 20th century. A primary focus of phage use was the development of medical therapies; however, its use quickly expanded to other applications in biotechnology and industry. A similar argument can be made with regards to the food safety industry, as diseases directly endanger the health of customers. Recently, a lot of attention has been paid to bacteriophages, probiotics and prebiotics most likely due to the exhaustion of traditional antibiotics. Reviewing a variety of current quick identification techniques is the purpose of this study. Using these techniques, we are able to quickly identify foodborne pathogenic bacteria, which forms the basis for future research advances. A review of recent studies on the use of phages, probiotics and prebiotics as a means of combating significant foodborne diseases is also presented. Furthermore, we discussed the advantages of using phages as well as the challenges they face, especially given their prevalent application in food safety.

Brucellae are intracellular sneaky bacteria and they can elude the host's defensive mechanisms, resulting in therapeutic failure. Therefore, the goal of this investigation was to rapid identification of Brucella species collected from animals and humans in Saudi Arabia, as well as to evaluate their resistance to antibiotics. On selective media, 364 animal samples as well as 70 human blood samples were cultured. Serological and biochemical approaches were initially used to identify a total of 25 probable cultured isolates. The proteomics of Brucella species were identified using the MALDI Biotyper (MBT) system, which was subsequently verified using real-time polymerase chain reaction (real-time PCR) and microfluidic electrophoresis assays. Both Brucella melitensis (B. melitensis) and Brucella abortus (B. abortus) were tested for antimicrobial susceptibility using Kirby Bauer method and the E-test. In total, 25 samples were positive for Brucella and included 11 B. melitensis and 14 B. abortus isolates. Twenty-two out of 25 (88%) and 24/25 (96%) of Brucella strains were recognized through the Vitek 2 Compact system. While MBT was magnificently identified 100% of the strains at the species level with a score value more than or equal to 2.00. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, rifampin, ampicillin-sulbactam, and ampicillin resistance in B. melitensis was 36.36%, 31.82%, 27.27%, and 22.70%, respectively. Rifampin, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, ampicillin, and ampicillin-sulbactam resistance was found in 35.71%, 32.14%, 32.14%, and 28.57% of B. abortus isolates, correspondingly. MBT confirmed by microfluidic electrophoresis is a successful approach for identifying Brucella species at the species level. The resistance of B. melitensis and B. abortus to various antibiotics should be investigated in future studies.

Brucellosis is an endemic zoonotic disease caused by Brucella species, which are intramacrophage pathogens that make treating this disease challenging. The negative effects of the treatment regime have prompted the development of new antimicrobials against brucellosis. A new treatment modality for antibiotic-resistant microorganisms is the use of nanoparticles (NPs). In this study, we examined the antibacterial activities of silver and gold NPs (SNPs and GNPs, respectively), the resistance developed by Brucella melitensis (B. melitensis) and Brucella abortus (B. abortus) strains and the toxicity of both of these NPs in experimental rats. To test the bactericidal effects of the SNPs and GNPs, we used 22 multidrug-resistant Brucella isolates (10 B. melitensis and 12 B. abortus). The minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of both types of NPs were determined utilizing the microdilution technique. To test the stability of resistance, 7 B. melitensis and 6 B. abortus isolates were passaged ten times in culture with subinhibitory concentrations of NPs and another ten times without NPs. Histopathological analysis was completed after rats were given 0.25, 0.5, 1, and 2 mg/kg NPs orally for 28 consecutive days. The MIC values (μg/ml) of the 10-nm SNPs and 20-nm GNPs against B. melitensis were 22.43 ± 2.32 and 13.56 ± 1.22, while these values were 18.77 ± 1.33 and 12.45 ± 1.59 for B. abortus, respectively. After extensive in vitro exposure, most strains showed no resistance to the 10-nm SNPs or 20-nm GNPs. The NPs and antibiotics did not cross-react in any of the evolved Brucella strains. SNPs and GNPs at doses below 2 mg/kg were not harmful to rat tissue according to organ histopathological examinations. However, a greater dose of NPs (2 mg/kg) harmed all of the tissues studied. The bactericidal properties of NPs are demonstrated in this work. Brucella strains develop similar resistance to SNPs and GNPs, and at low dosages, neither SNPs nor GNPs were hazardous to rats.

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection, which affects approximately half of the world’s population, remains a serious public health problem. As H. pylori infection leads to a number of gastric pathologies, including inflammation, gastroduodenal ulcers, and malignancies, early detection and treatment are crucial to preventing the spread of the infection. Multiple extragastric complications, such as iron deficiency anaemia, immune thrombocytopenic purpura, vitamin B12 deficiency, diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular diseases, and certain neurological disorders, have also been linked to H. pylori infection. An awareness of H. pylori and associated health hazards is necessary to minimize or even eradicate the infection. Therefore, there is an urgent need to raise the standards for the currently employed diagnostic, eradication, alternative treatment strategies. In addition, a brief overview of traditional and cutting-edge approaches that have proven effective in identifying and managing H. pylori is needed. Based on the test and laboratory equipment available and patient clinical characteristics, the optimal diagnostic approach requires weighing several factors. The pathophysiology and pathogenic mechanisms of H. pylori should also be studied, focusing more on the infection-causing virulence factors of this bacterium. Accordingly, this review aims to demonstrate the various diagnostic, pathophysiological, therapeutic, and eradication tactics available for H. pylori, emphasizing both their advantages and disadvantages. Invasive methods (such as quick urease testing, biopsy, or culture) or noninvasive methods (such as breath tests, stool investigations, or serological tests) can be used. We also present the most recent worldwide recommendations along with scientific evidence for treating H. pylori. In addition to the current antibiotic regimens, alternative therapies may also be considered. It is imperative to eradicate the infections caused by H. pylori as soon as possible to prevent problems and the development of stomach cancer. In conclusion, significant advances have been made in identifying and treating H. pylori. To improve eradication rates, peptide mass fingerprinting can be used as a diagnostic tool, and vaccines can also eliminate the infection.

There is a growing risk of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) having an adverse effect on the healthcare system, which results in higher healthcare costs, failed treatments and a higher death rate. A quick diagnostic test that can spot infections resistant to antibiotics is essential for antimicrobial stewardship so physicians and other healthcare professionals can begin treatment as soon as possible. Since the development of antibiotics in the last two decades, traditional, standard antimicrobial treatments have failed to treat healthcare-associated infections (HAIs). These results have led to the development of a variety of cutting-edge alternative methods to combat multidrug-resistant pathogens in healthcare settings. Here, we provide an overview of AMR as well as the technologies being developed to prevent, diagnose, and control healthcare-associated infections (HAIs). As a result of better cleaning and hygiene practices, resistance to bacteria can be reduced, and new, quick, and accurate instruments for diagnosing HAIs must be developed. In addition, we need to explore new therapeutic approaches to combat diseases caused by resistant bacteria. In conclusion, current infection control technologies will be crucial to managing multidrug-resistant infections effectively. As a result of vaccination, antibiotic usage will decrease and new resistance mechanisms will not develop.

Healthcare settings have been utilizing matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) since 2010. MALDI-TOF MS has various benefits over the conventional method of biochemical identification, including ease of use, speed, accuracy, and low cost. This approach can solve many of the obstacles to identifying bacteria, fungi and viruses. As technology advanced, more and more databases kept track of spectra, allowing species with similar morphological, genotypic, and biochemical traits to be identified. Using MALDI-TOF MS for identification has become more accurate and quicker due to advances in sample preparation and database enrichment. Rapid sample detection and colony identification using MALDI-TOF MS have produced promising results. A key application of MALDI-TOF MS is quickly identifying highly virulent and drug-resistant diseases. Here, we present a review of the scientific literature assessing the effectiveness of MALDI-TOF MS for locating clinically relevant pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses. MALDI-TOF MS is a useful strategy for locating clinical pathogens, however, it also has some drawbacks. A small number of spectra in the database and inherent similarities among organisms can make it difficult to distinguish between different species, which can result in misidentifications. The majority of the time additional testing may correct these problems, which happen very seldom. In conclusion, infectious illness diagnosis and clinical care are being revolutionized by the use of MALDI-TOF MS in the clinical microbiology laboratory.

Infections contracted during healthcare delivery in a hospital or ambulatory setting are collectively referred to as healthcare-associated infections (HAIs). Healthcare workers and patients alike are vulnerable to serious problems as a result of the risk of HAIs. In the healthcare system, HAIs are considered among the most common and serious health problems. However, the occurrence of HAIs differs between different types of clinical departments within the hospital. Recently, the risk of HAIs has been increasing in radiology departments globally due to the central role of radiology in guiding clinical decisions for the diagnosis, treatment, and monitoring of different diseases from almost all medical specialties. The radiology department is particularly vulnerable to HAIs because it serves as a transit hub for infected patients, non-infected patients, and healthcare workers. Furthermore, as the number of patients referred to radiology and the length of patient contact time has increased, thanks to modern imaging techniques such as computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging, the risk of HAIs has also increased significantly. With the increasing use of interventional radiological procedures, patients and healthcare workers face a potentially greater risk of contracting HAIs due to the invasive nature of such procedures. Although not exhaustive, we attempted through a literature search to provide a general overview of infection prevention and control practices, address HAIs in the radiology departments, and highlight the challenges and measures taken to control infection transmission in the radiology departments.

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is one of the most prevalent bacterial pathogens recovered from diabetic foot infections (DFIs). Most S. aureus isolates exhibit methicillin resistance, so treatment is recommended with antimicrobials active against methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) in patients who have risk factors associated with MRSA infections. The main goal of this study was to see if proteomics and molecular methods could be effective in identifying and distinguishing MRSA recovered from DFIs. Since MRSA is highly resistant to β-lactam antibiotics and usually does not respond to other antimicrobial drugs, we evaluated the resistance of MRSA isolates against different antibiotics. The standard procedures were followed for a culture of 250 skin swabs collected from diabetic foot patients. The phenotypic characteristics of 48 suspected S. aureus cultures were determined via microscopic examination, Gram staining, a coagulase test, a BBL™ Staphyloslide™ Latex test, a Staph ID 32 API system, and a Vitek 2 Compact system. Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) was used to examine the protein profile of all isolates, and real-time PCR was then used to identify mecA and PVL virulence genes. S aureus isolates were tested using the Vitek 2 Compact for antimicrobial susceptibility using Gram-positive cards (GP71). Among the 48 bacterial isolates tested, 45 (93.75%), 42 (87.5%), and 46 (95.83%) were positive in tube coagulase, the Staph ID 32 API system, and the Vitek 2 Compact system, respectively. We correctly identified all suspected S. aureus isolates (100%) via MALDI-TOF MS with a score value ≥2.00 and differentiated them into 22/48 MRSA (45.83%) and 26/48 MSSA (54.17%) isolates. A higher peak intensity at masses of 5530 Da, 6580 Da, 6710 Da, and 6820 Da was detected in MRSA, but not in MSSA. All MRSA isolates tested positive for the mecA gene, while all isolates tested negative for the PVL gene. The antibiotic susceptibility results showed that 22 (100%), 20 (90.91%), 19 (86.36%), 18 (81.82%), 17 (77.27%), 15 (68.18%), 13 (59.1%), and 12 (54.55%) MRSA strains were resistant to cefoxitin, daptomycin, erythromycin, benzylpenicillin, ciprofloxacin, oxacillin, and clindamycin, respectively. In contrast, all MRSA strains were extremely susceptible (100%) to linezolid, nitrofurantoin, quinupristin–dalfopristin, tigecycline, and vancomycin. Moreover, 20 (90.91%), 18 (81.82%), and 17 (77.27%) of the MRSA strains exhibited high sensitivity against rifampin, trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole, and gentamicin, respectively. In DFIs, MALDI-TOF MS is a powerful and accurate method of identifying and distinguishing both MRSA and MSSA isolates. A high level of antimicrobial resistance was found in MRSA isolates, and antibiotic therapy based on antibiotic susceptibility patterns is essential for a successful outcome.

Raw ground meat is known as a transmission vehicle for biological agents that may be harmful to human health. The objective of the present study was to assess microbiological quality of the ground meats. A total of 280 samples of local and imported chilled meats were randomly collected from retail shops in Buraydah City, Saudi Arabia. The meat samples were microbiologically analyzed using standard methods, peptide mass fingerprinting (PMF) technique, MicroScan Walkaway System (MicroScan) and qPCR System. The imported meat was more bacterially contaminated than local meat, with variable contamination degrees of Staphylococcus aureus (40.33%), Escherichia coli (36.13%), Hafnia alvei (7.56%), Pseudomonas spp. (6.72%), Salmonella spp. (5.88%) and Aeromonas spp. (3.36%). PMF verified all the isolated bacteria by 100%, compared to 75–95% achieved by MicroScan. The gene encoding flagellin (fliC) was recognized in 67.44% of E. coli strains, while the thermonuclease (nuc) and methicillin resistance (mecA) genes were detected in 100% S. aureus and 39.6% of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) strains, respectively. The S. aureus and E. coli strains were highly resistant to multiple antibiotics (e.g., ampicillin, amoxicillin-clavulanic acid and cephalothin). For identifying various foodborne pathogens, PMF has been recognized as a powerful and precise analytical method. In light of the increasing use of PMF to detect multidrug-resistant bacteria, this study emphasizes the need for improved ways of treating and preventing pathogens, as well as setting up monitoring systems to guarantee hygiene and safety in meat production.

Healthcare-associated infections lead to considerable morbidity, a prolonged hospital stay, antibiotic resistance, long-term disability, mortality and increased healthcare costs. Based on the literature, some individual and socio-demographic factors including knowledge, age and length of service or work experience, gender and type of profession influence compliance with infection prevention and control procedures. In addition, organizational culture, which refers to the assumptions, values, and norms shared among colleagues, can influence an individual’s thinking and healthcare workers’ behavior, either positively or negatively. Infection control practices based on the perspective of patients, hospital management and healthcare workers may help develop a better understanding of the factors influencing compliance with infection prevention and control policies and guidelines.

Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) lead to considerable morbidity. Prolonged hospital HAIs, also known as hospital infections or nosocomial infections, refer to infectious diseases that occur within 48 h of hospital admission, within three days of discharge or 30 days after having received healthcare. A total of 39 government-owned hospitals with a total of 10,822 beds providing the majority (59.9%) of Saudi Arabian healthcare were analyzed. Medicare and Medicaid use hospital data to track hospital performance on matters pertaining to IPC. In addition, many hospitals have limited capacity with which to develop the core components required to build an effective IPC programme. Hajj has been associated with the increased prevalence and spread of infectious diseases. These factors include changes in human demographics and behaviour, the effect of new technologies and industries, an increase in international travel and commerce, and breakdown resulting from public health measures. Overall public health service expenditure originates from the administration and services that are provided free of charge to all Saudi citizens.

Objective: This study assessed the intention and predictors of accepting the corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccine in Jordan. Method: A national-level online survey was conducted among adults (≥18 years) in Jordan between June and September 2021. Descriptive analyses were performed to report vaccination intent. In addition, bivariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were done to evaluate the association between vaccination intent and its predictors. Results: A total of 2307 adults participated. Most of them (83.7%) expressed an intention to receive a COVID-19 vaccine. Their vaccination intention was significantly (p < 0.001) associated with male gender (aOR: 2.6), residence in the Amman region (aOR: 51.8), and no history of COVID-19 infection (aOR: 6.0). In contrast, individuals aged 50-64 years (aOR: 0.2, p < 0.001), Jordanians (aOR: 0.7, p = 0.038), and those with an occupation designated as “other” (unemployed, general workers, housewives) (aOR: 0.2, p < 0.001) were less likely to have a positive vaccination intent. Among the health belief model constructs, perceived future (aOR: 2.8) and present (aOR: 5.0) susceptibility to COVID-19 infection; severity of complications (aOR: 9.9); and benefits (aOR: 100.8) were significantly (p < 0.001) associated with a higher likelihood of having a vaccination intent. On the other hand, individuals who are concerned about the efficacy (aOR: 0.2) and side effects (aOR: 0.2) of the vaccine were less likely to have a positive vaccination intent (p < 0.001). Conclusion: Despite having high rates of intention to receive a COVID-19 vaccine, Jordanians, older adults and housewives, general workers and unemployed individuals were less likely to be vaccinated. These findings highlight that need-based public health campaigns are necessary to ensure maximum COVID-19 vaccination uptake in Jordan.

BackgroundPrevalence of different respiratory allergies is increasing in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). Environmental risk factors of respiratory allergy vary regionally, hence the prevalence. This necessitates the needs for regional studies. This article reports prevalence and symptoms of respiratory allergies in the Qassim region, and the factors associated with the prevalence.MethodsEight hundred and fifty individuals aged ≥18 years and were living in the Qassim region filled up our structured online questionnaire between September and December 2020. We estimated the prevalence of different respiratory allergies with 95% confidence intervals. Multi-variable logistic regression analyses were performed to investigate the risk factors of respiratory allergies.FindingsThe prevalence of any respiratory allergy in the Qassim region was 28.8%. Most families (58.1%) had at least one member with respiratory allergy. The prevalence of allergic rhinitis and bronchial asthma were 13.5% and 11.2% 4.1% respectively. The reported symptoms included runny nose (13.6%), red, watery, and itchy eyes (10.4%), difficulty sleeping at night (10.2%), difficulty breathing in cold weather (9.2%), noisy breathing (8.5%), sneezing (8%), repeated coughing (7.5%) and shortness of breath (6.4%). Individuals with a family history were more likely to report any respiratory allergy (OR: 7.8), bronchial asthma (OR: 4.2) and allergic rhinitis (OR: 8.1) compared to the individuals without such family history. Odds of respiratory allergies was higher among males (OR: 1.5). Saudi nationals were less likely to report allergic rhinitis than the non-Saudis (OR: 0.4). Among those who reported a respiratory allergy, most (73.5%) received treatment and majority (61.7%) demonstrated compliance to the treatment, 8.8% needed hospitalization, and 23.1% needed emergency nebulization.ConclusionsPrevalence reported in our study is different than that reported in other regions. Variability in the environmental exposures might explain this. We recommend a meta-analysis to estimate the national prevalence of respiratory allergies.