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Abstract The spread of invasive species often follows a jump-dispersal pattern. While jumps are typically fostered by humans, local dispersal can occur due to the specific traits of a species, which are often poorly understood. This holds true for small hive beetles (Aethina tumida), which are parasites of social bee colonies native to sub-Saharan Africa. They have become a widespread invasive species. In 2017, a mark-release-recapture experiment was conducted in six replicates (A–F) using laboratory reared, dye-fed adults (N = 15,690). Honey bee colonies were used to attract flying small hive beetles at fixed spatial intervals from a central release point. Small hive beetles were recaptured (N = 770) at a maximum distance of 3.2 km after 24 h and 12 km after 1 week. Most small hive beetles were collected closest to the release point at 0 m (76%, replicate A) and 50 m (52%, replicates B to F). Temperature and wind deviation had significant effects on dispersal, with more small hive beetles being recaptured when temperatures were high (GLMM: slope = 0.99, SE = 0.17, Z = 5.72, P

The small hive beetle Aethina tumida (SHB) Murray,1867, is an invasive bee pest that is expanding its range across Latin America, parts of Australia and the Philippines, and is now established in two regions in Italy. However, despite multiple recent introductions, there is scant information about the dynamics of the initial stages of colonization of the SHB and this knowledge gap could impact management and quarantine strategies decisions for many countries. This note describes the monitoring strategies and the patterns of SHB establishment in a previously SHB‐free apiary on the island of Oahu, Hawaii in 2010–2011. The weekly hive inspections, conducted over a ten‐month period, showed that beetle prevalence increased slowly at the apiary level, and adult beetles were more commonly found (87.9%) inside the oil traps that were placed inside the hives between the outermost frames of the hive. There were relatively few "free roaming" beetles detected at this point and they were more often found on the side frames and underneath the cover of the hive, not on the floor of the hive. The results also suggest that in the early stages of colonization careful visual inspections of the frames of each colony had relatively low detection success when compared to oil traps. Our results support previous modelling studies that suggest the need to inspect a high proportion of colonies per apiary (>80%) to ensure a 5% detection rate during the initial stages of invasion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The spread of invasive species often follows a jump-dispersal pattern. While jumps are typically fostered by humans, local dispersal can occur due to the specific traits of a species, which are often poorly understood. This holds true for small hive beetles (Aethina tumida), which are parasites of social bee colonies native to sub-Saharan Africa. They have become a widespread invasive species. In 2017, a mark-release-recapture experiment was conducted in six replicates (A–F) using laboratory reared, dye-fed adults (N = 15,690). Honey bee colonies were used to attract flying small hive beetles at fixed spatial intervals from a central release point. Small hive beetles were recaptured (N = 770) at a maximum distance of 3.2 km after 24 h and 12 km after 1 week. Most small hive beetles were collected closest to the release point at 0 m (76%, replicate A) and 50 m (52%, replicates B to F). Temperature and wind deviation had significant effects on dispersal, with more small hive beetles being recaptured when temperatures were high (GLMM: slope = 0.99, SE = 0.17, Z = 5.72, P < 0.001) and confirming the role of wind for odour modulated dispersal of flying insects (GLMM: slope = − 0.39, SE = 0.14, Z = − 2.90, P = 0.004). Our findings show that the small hive beetles is capable of long-distance flights, and highlights the need to understand species specific traits to be considered for monitoring and mitigation efforts regarding invasive alien species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Invasive species require adequate reliable detection methods to mitigate their further spread and impact. However, the reliability of molecular detection methods is often hampered by both false positives (Error type I) and false negatives (Error type II). At present, the reliability of the four published molecular detection methods for small hive beetles (SHB), Aethina tumida, has not been rigorously evaluated considering their extensive genetic diversity. Here, we performed intra- and interlaboratory comparisons of the four available methods using SHB samples representing 78 regions from 27 countries on five continents, beetles from the same genus (Aethina concolor, A. inconspicua, A. flavicollis and A. major), as well as western honey bees, Apis mellifera, and ectoparasitic mites Varroa destructor. The data show that the Idrissou et al. (2018) and Li et al. (2018) methods avoid both false positives and false negatives probably due to lower sensitivity to nucleotide mismatches on the primer and probe's target sequences. Further, the Li et al. (2018) method can be considered more sensitive because the fluorescent amplification curve crosses the threshold at lower Cq values compared to the Idrissou et al. (2018) one. In light of our data, the Li et al. (2018) method is the most reliable molecular diagnostic tool for SHB. We therefore recommend using this method as it will contribute to management efforts of this invasive species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the pupal‐adult eclosion process of holometabolous insects, the old cuticle is shed and replaced by a completely different new cuticle that requires tanning and expansion, along with extensive extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling. In vertebrates, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), a class of zinc‐dependent endopeptidases, play key roles in regulating the ECM that surrounds cells. However, little is known about these extracellular proteinases available in insects. The small hive beetle (SHB), Aethina tumida, is a widespread invasive parasite of honey bees. In this study, 6 MMP homologs were identified in the SHB genome. RNA interference experiments showed that all 6 AtMmps are not required for the larval‐pupal transition, only AtMmp2 was essential for pupal‐adult eclosion in SHB. Knockdown of AtMmp2 resulted in eclosion defects and wing expansion failure, as well as mortality within 3 d of adult eclosion. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that knockdown of AtMmp2 significantly increased expression of the Toll and Imd pathways, chitin metabolism, and cross‐linking (such as the pro‐phenoloxidase activating cascade pathway and the tyrosine‐mediated cuticle sclerotization and pigmentation pathway). These data revealed evolutionarily conserved functions of Mmp2 in controlling adult eclosion and wing expansion, also provided a preliminary exploration of the novel function of regulating Toll and Imd pathways, as well as new insights into how MMPs regulate insect development and defense barriers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given the rapid spread and potential harm caused by the small hive beetle, Aethina tumida (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae) in China, it has become imperative to comprehend the developmental biology of this invasive species. Currently, there is limited knowledge regarding the impact of A. tumida female oviposition site preference on larval growth and development. To examine this, we investigated the ovipositional preference of adult female A. tumida on bee pupae, beebread, banana, and honey through a free choice test. Furthermore, we assessed the impact of these food resources on offspring performance, which included larval development time, survival, wandering larvae weight, emerged adult body mass, reproduction, and juvenile hormone titer. Our results showed that A. tumida females exhibited a strong preference for ovipositing on bee pupae compared to other diets, while showing reluctance toward honey. Moreover, A. tumida larvae that were fed on bee pupae displayed accelerated growth compared to those fed on other diets. Furthermore, A. tumida fed on bee pupae exhibited higher weights for wandering larvae, and emerged adult, increased pupation rates, enhanced fecundity and fertility, as well as a larger number of unilateral ovarioles during the larval stage when compared to those fed on other diets. Overall, the results indicate that the oviposition preferences of A. tumida females are adaptive, as their choices can enhance the fitness of their offspring. This finding aligns broadly with the hypothesis of oviposition preference and larval performance. This study can provide a foundation for the development of attractants aimed at promoting the oviposition of the A. tumida adults. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Diseases are a major cause of honeybee colony weakness and death. An effective and fast way to diagnose subclinical infections is by sampling and analyzing debris from hive bottom boards. Molecular tests, like PCR and qPCR can be used to identify disease-causing agents quickly. In this study, we analyzed hive debris samples from Croatian apiaries to check the presence of pathogens, such as Paenibacillus larvae, Melissococcus plutonius, Crithidia mellificae, Lotmaria passim, Vairimorpha spp. (Nosema spp.), Aethina tumida, Acute Bee Paralysis Virus (ABPV), Black Queen Cell Virus (BQCV), Deformed Wing Virus (DWV) and Sacbrood Virus (SBV). Debris samples were also examined to quantify Varroa destructor mites, and natural mite fall was observed in spring. Many honeybee colonies were infected with four to six agents, which is probably why some colonies failed to survive winter. Honeybee diseases are one of the most significant and most common causes of honeybee colonies' weakness and death. An early diagnosis of subclinical infections is necessary to implement precautionary and control measures. Sampling debris from hive bottom boards is simple, non-invasive, and cheap. In this study, we collected winter debris samples in apiaries located in the continental part of Croatia. We used molecular methods, PCR and qPCR, for the first time to analyze those samples. Laboratory results were compared with the health condition and strength of honeybee colonies at an apiary in spring. Our study successfully identified the presence and quantity of various pathogens, including the presence of Vairimorpha spp. (Nosema spp.), quintefied Paenibacillus larvae, Acute Bee Paralysis Virus (ABPV), Black Queen Cell Virus (BQCV), Deformed Wing Virus (DWV), and Sacbrood Virus (SBV). However, our analysis did not detect Melissococcus plutonius, Crithidia mellificae, Lotmaria passim, and Aethina tumida. Samples of winter debris were also examined for the presence and quantification of the V. destructor mites, and their natural mite fall was observed in spring. Honeybee colonies were simultaneously infected by an average of four to six pathogens. Some observed honeybee colonies developed characteristic symptoms, while others did not survive the winter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Small hive beetles (SHB), Aethina tumida, are free‐flying parasites, which actively seek and invade honeybee host colonies. Previous research suggests that SHB prefer colonies in the shade. Further, it has been stated that SHB invade any colony with equal impunity. Though, the impact of colony aggressiveness on SHB infestation levels has never been quantified. Here, we confirm significantly higher SHB infestation levels in shaded colonies and further suggest that host colony aggression is of minor importance only. In the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, local Africanized honeybee colonies at a sunny (N = 10) and at a shaded apiary (N = 11) were tested for aggression and visually screened for SHB infestations using standard methods. Both colony aggression and infestation levels were variable, but not significantly correlated. The results confirm that infestation levels are significantly higher in the shaded apiary than in the sun‐exposed one. However, host colony aggression is unlikely to interfere with SHB infestation levels of colonies. Instead, SHB seem to remain even in aggressive colonies. The underlying mechanisms for the significant differences in colony infestation levels due to sun exposure remain unknown. Beekeepers are advised to prefer sun‐exposed apiary locations in regions, where SHB are a pest of concern. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The small hive beetle (SHB), Aethina tumida Murray, native to sub-Saharan Africa, is a parasite of Apis mellifera causing significant damage to honey bee colonies. For the past decades, it has spread to many countries worldwide and once established, eradication is difficult or not feasible. In July 2022, an outbreak was reported for the first time in a French department in the Indian Ocean, Reunion Island. The origin and the pathway of the introduction were not identified. The molecular characterisation of SHB specimens collected in the southern part of the island, where the beetle has infested several apiaries, was investigated in order to provide elements on the invasive source. The sequencing of the partial Cytochrome oxidase I gene from two specimens showed that they belonged to the same new haplotype. Phylogenetic analysis suggests an introduction either from an unidentified African source or from the Asian continent since the haplotype is similar to those characterized from China and Philippines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AbstractThe European honey bee, Apis mellifera L., is the bee species with the largest geographic distribution in the world. It is considered a pollinator generalist of wild plants and agricultural crops, as well as honey bee products as honey, beeswax, and propolis. For this reason, it plays an extremely important role in the world’s ecosystems, economy, and food security. However, Apis mellifera is facing population declines due to biotic and abiotic factors, such as climate change, habitat loss, agrochemical use, and emerging pests and diseases. Pests and diseases are directly associated with a phenomenon known as colony collapse disorder (CCD), which is linked with the loss of millions of bee colonies annually worldwide. One particularly important pest is the varroa mite, which is already widely distributed and is considered the major threat to apiculture. In this review, we compile documentation of the presence and distribution of pests and diseases reported to affect Apis mellifera in Mexico. Surveys demonstrate that the following pests are present: Varroa destructor, Acarapis woodi, Aethina tumida, Galleria mellonella, as well as the diseases caused by Melissococcus plutonius, Paenibacillus larvae, Vairimorpha (Nosema) apis, V. ceranae, Ascosphaera apis and several viruses. It should be noted that the distribution and presence of European bee pathogens throughout the beekeeping states of Mexico is not very well defined, due to the lack of current bee health studies in apiaries or nationwide databases to quickly update information on their distribution and incidence.

The European honey bee, Apis mellifera L., is the bee species with the largest geographic distribution in the world. It is considered a pollinator generalist of wild plants and agricultural crops, as well as honey bee products as honey, beeswax, and propolis. For this reason, it plays an extremely important role in the world's ecosystems, economy, and food security. However, Apis mellifera is facing population declines due to biotic and abiotic factors, such as climate change, habitat loss, agrochemical use, and emerging pests and diseases. Pests and diseases are directly associated with a phenomenon known as colony collapse disorder (CCD), which is linked with the loss of millions of bee colonies annually worldwide. One particularly important pest is the varroa mite, which is already widely distributed and is considered the major threat to apiculture. In this review, we compile documentation of the presence and distribution of pests and diseases reported to affect Apis mellifera in Mexico. Surveys demonstrate that the following pests are present: Varroa destructor, Acarapis woodi, Aethina tumida, Galleria mellonella, as well as the diseases caused by Melissococcus plutonius, Paenibacillus larvae, Vairimorpha (Nosema) apis, V. ceranae, Ascosphaera apis and several viruses. It should be noted that the distribution and presence of European bee pathogens throughout the beekeeping states of Mexico is not very well defined, due to the lack of current bee health studies in apiaries or nationwide databases to quickly update information on their distribution and incidence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research to investigate the small hive beetle, Aethina tumida, and its effects on the honey bee requires a consistent supply of healthy beetles. This protocol describes an effective rearing method for the small hive beetle using commercially available pollen patties and equipment that can easily be constructed from local sources. In this protocol, a method is described that allows for many thousands of healthy beetles to be reared weekly in a confined space. This knowledge is a crucial step for the advancement of research studies and the development of management protocols for the small hive beetle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

La crianza y manejo de las abejas nativas sin aguijón, se conoce como “meliponicultura”, actividad ancestral de importancia ambiental y socioeconómica. En Costa Rica, se reportan más de 50 especies de abejas nativas sin aguijón; los géneros Melipona (jicotes) y Tetragonisca (mariolas) son los más utilizadas por los meliponicultores. El Pequeño Escarabajo de la Colmena, Aethina tumida (Murray 1867), es nativo de África subsahariana, donde se considera una plaga menor entre las abejas melíferas africanas. Sin embargo, desde su detección, en colmenas de abejas melíferas de origen europeo en Los Estados Unidos (1998), se considera una plaga invasora que causa serios problemas a la apicultura. Tanto larvas, como escarabajos adultos, se alimentan de miel, polen y cría de las abejas. Además, tienen una gran adaptabilidad a distintos ambientes, desde condiciones tropicales hasta clima templado. Actualmente, se encuentra en diferentes países, como: Canadá, México, Cuba y Brasil. El primer reporte de abejas africanizadas, en Centroamérica, ocurrió en El Salvador, luego en Nicaragua y posteriormente se confirmó en Costa Rica y Guatemala. A. tumida puede infestar colonias de abejas nativas sin aguijón (meliponinos) y abejorros (Bombus sp.). Se ha reportado su presencia en colonias de Melipona beecheii, Dactylurina staudingerii, Trigona carbonaria, Austroplebeia australis, Melipona rufiventris y Plebeia frontalis, así como en Bombus impatiens. En Costa Rica, aun cuando no se ha realizado una investigación sistemática del escarabajo en colonias de abejas nativas, a la fecha, no se ha reportado su presencia. En un monitoreo preliminar, se examinó colonias de M. beecheii, ubicadas cerca del foco inicial de detección del escarabajo, en la Cruz, Guanacaste, las cuales resultaron negativas. Al considerar que la meliponicultura es una actividad que se realiza en diferentes regiones de Costa Rica, se recomienda establecer vigilancia del Pequeño Escarabajo, con la finalidad de detectar o descartar su presencia en colonias de abejas nativas sin aguijón.

Biological invasions are becoming the most serious global environmental threats under changing climate. Beekeeping has faced such invasions with the changing climatic. One of these invaders is the small hive beetle (SHB), which has not yet been encountered in some countries and is currently at a preventable level. SHB can be a highly destructive pest for honey bee colonies, as it damages honey bee comb and larvae, as well as honey and pollen. Although SHB threatens honey bee populations, the impact of climate change on the severity of infestation and its growth rate are still unknown. This apicultural issue is theoretically addressed by using a coupled honey bee–SHB mathematical model in which the rate of SHB growth varies with time to account for changing climate. When the temperature rises, honey bee colonies collapse due to an increase in SHB growth rate, and the severity of the infestation also plays a role in the colony’s survival. This study suggests that in the future, global warming will increase colony losses from SHB and may increase the risk of SHBs spreading to regions where it is currently absent, and precautions should be taken to prevent transmission.

Türkiye is the second-largest honey producer globally; however, the export of honey and bee products does not adequately support the beekeeping industry. Pests account for the largest share of expenditure for agents found in honeybees in the country. Although the Small Hive Beetle (SHB) has not been detected in Türkiye, a risk assessment was performed to determine what happens if it enters the country. The risk assessment included: a) hazard identification; b) risk pathway determination; c) risk assessment for entry via the identified pathways; and d) outcome assessment for becoming endemic in Türkiye. The Risk AMP add-in program was used to assess the probability of distribution for each method of entry, pathway, and simulation. According to the simulations, the probability of SHB introduction in Türkiye varies from 0.17 per 1000 events/days (1.7 per 10000 days or 27 years) to 0.6 per 1000 events/imports (6 per 10000 days or 27 years). The highest likelihood of introduction comes from fruit import (11/15) and soil/compost import (4/15). The mean probability of introducing SHB infestation after 1000 iterations of the constructed model is 0.37 per 1000 events/days (3.7 within 10000 days or 27 years). Finally, the simulated average cost of SHB after the possible introduction is 523 million US $ for Türkiye. With these simulated data, risk assessment of a non-detected pest, SHB, was determined for Türkiye.

The small hive beetle (SHB), Aethina tumida, is a parasitic pest and scavenger of social bees native to sub-Saharan Africa. It is a generalist species which can also reproduce in association with nests of stingless bees, fruits, and even rotten meat. Although in its native range, it usually does not cause severe damage to strong colonies and nests; it has invaded new areas worldwide, causing significant economic losses to social bees in some locations. Here, we present an overview of the current situation of SHB invasion into Latin America by describing its distribution, its impact on beekeeping and the commercialization of bee products, and its potential risk to native bees. In addition, we discuss the strategies carried out in different countries to manage or prevent its entrance and spread. Our findings highlight the need for further research efforts aimed at filling gaps in our understanding of the dynamics of SHB invasions in Latin America, their sources, and trajectories. By contrasting the experiences in countries in which preemptive and preventive measures were taken with countries in which they were not, we conclude that taking such measures has a positive impact on managing SHB invasions. Late notifications of SHB presence in some countries made it difficult to identify SHB dispersal routes and enabling factors. Interactions of SHB with different honey bee and native bee populations remain under-studied, and research on these interactions will determine the severity of SHB as a pest in the region. Latin America offers a dynamic and diverse environment for studying SHB and its interaction with bees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The small hive beetle (SHB), Aethina tumida Murray, is a parasite of honey bee colonies and causes the fermentation of honey as well as colony collapse. Outbreaks have been confirmed in Africa, America, Europe as well as Asia, where an outbreak was reported in the Philippines and South Korea in 2014 and 2017, respectively. In South Korea, in September 2016, this honey bee parasite was first identified in apiaries in Miryang, Gyeongnam Province. However, the invasion pathway of SHB has not been identified, and honey bee pathogens harbored by SHB have not been well characterized. Therefore, phylogenetic analysis of SHB with the use of COI gene and detection of fourteen common honey bee pathogens were conducted in this study. The confirmation of the fourteen honey bee pathogens in SHB showed that this beetle carries black queen cell virus and deformed wing virus. Therefore, SHB could have a role in the spread of these viruses. The way of entry of the SHB to South Korea remains undetermined, but the phylogenetic analysis of the COI gene revealed that it was most similar to species found in the USA. There is an urgent need for national-level monitoring and quarantine measures for preventing the spread of SHB infestation in South Korea.

Background: The molting hormone 20‐hydroxyecdysone (20E) plays a key role in insect development, metamorphosis, and reproduction. Previous studies have shown that ecdysteroid metabolism is regulated by a series of CYP genes in most of the insect species. However, the roles of these CYP genes in a Coleopteran beetle, Aethina tumida (small hive beetle, SHB) have not yet been explored. Results: In the current study, we identified seven CYP genes (six Halloween genes and one AtCYP18A1 gene) related to 20E metabolism. Reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT‐qPCR) showed that AtCYP307A1 and AtCYP307B1 were primarily expressed in the embryonic stage and in the cephalothorax of larvae. RNA interference (RNAi) screening revealed that suppression of AtCYP307A1 expression caused a lethal phenotype during the larval–pupal metamorphosis. Furthermore, Hematoxylin and Eosin staining of the integument showed that the RNAi of AtCYP307A1 inhibited the apolysis and degradation of the old cuticle. In addition, silencing of AtCYP307A1 resulted in significant down‐regulation of 20E titers and the expression levels of 20E signaling pathway genes. Finally, the AtCYP307A1 RNAi phenotype was rescued by topical application of 20E. Conclusion: Our studies suggest that AtCYP307A1 involved in 20E synthesis is indispensable during the larval–pupal metamorphosis of beetles, which could serve as a putative insecticide target for pest control. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biological invasions are becoming the most serious global environmental threats under changing climate. Beekeeping has faced such invasions with the changing climatic. One of these invaders is the small hive beetle (SHB), which has not yet been encountered in some countries and is currently at a preventable level. SHB can be a highly destructive pest for honey bee colonies, as it damages honey bee comb and larvae, as well as honey and pollen. Although SHB threatens honey bee populations, the impact of climate change on the severity of infestation and its growth rate are still unknown. This apicultural issue is theoretically addressed by using a coupled honey bee–SHB mathematical model in which the rate of SHB growth varies with time to account for changing climate. When the temperature rises, honey bee colonies collapse due to an increase in SHB growth rate, and the severity of the infestation also plays a role in the colony's survival. This study suggests that in the future, global warming will increase colony losses from SHB and may increase the risk of SHBs spreading to regions where it is currently absent, and precautions should be taken to prevent transmission. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Türkiye is the second-largest honey producer globally; however, the export of honey and bee products does not adequately support the beekeeping industry. Pests account for the largest share of expenditure for agents found in honeybees in the country. Although the Small Hive Beetle (SHB) has not been detected in Türkiye, a risk assessment was performed to determine what happens if it enters the country. The risk assessment included: a) hazard identification; b) risk pathway determination; c) risk assessment for entry via the identified pathways; and d) outcome assessment for becoming endemic in Türkiye. The Risk AMP add-in program was used to assess the probability of distribution for each method of entry, pathway, and simulation. According to the simulations, the probability of SHB introduction in Türkiye varies from 0.17 per 1000 events/days (1.7 per 10000 days or 27 years) to 0.6 per 1000 events/imports (6 per 10000 days or 27 years). The highest likelihood of introduction comes from fruit import (11/15) and soil/compost import (4/15). The mean probability of introducing SHB infestation after 1000 iterations of the constructed model is 0.37 per 1000 events/days (3.7 within 10000 days or 27 years). Finally, the simulated average cost of SHB after the possible introduction is 523 million US $ for Türkiye. With these simulated data, risk assessment of a non-detected pest, SHB, was determined for Türkiye. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Beekeepers need new registered products to control the small hive beetle (SHB), Aethina tumida, a significant pest of western honey bee (Apis mellifera) colonies. Few approved chemical controls exist, and there is no standardized system for screening compounds against SHBs. We outline a detailed method for an acute toxicity bioassay that delivers compounds via pollen. We provide a detailed method for a field trial that delivers treated pollen in traps made from modified compact disc cases. We applied both methods in proof-of-concept experiments to assess acetamiprid as a SHB control agent. Using the laboratory bioassay, we found acetamiprid ( LC 50 = 20.5 µg/g) to be more toxic to SHBs than coumaphos was ( LC 50 = 1250 µg/g), yet less toxic to SHBs than fipronil was ( LC 50 = 1.78 µg/g). In our field trial, colonies treated with acetamiprid and fipronil significantly reduced (p < 0.001) live SHB populations over those of control colonies. Traps containing acetamiprid retained significantly higher (p < 0.001) numbers of dead SHBs than did traps containing fipronil. We outline the first detailed methods to assess the toxicity of compounds delivered in pollen for adult SHB control. Our proof-of-concept experiments showed acetamiprid to be a promising control agent for SHBs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aethina tumida (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae - Small Hive Beetle - SHB), is a parasite of honey bee colonies that causes the notifiable disease called aethinosis. In 2014, SHB was detected in Southern Italy, where it is still present (Calabria region). As part of surveillance activities, official diagnosis of the disease is performed by veterinary services via visual inspection of single hives in the apiaries. New outbreaks can be eradicated and the spread of SHBs limited by early detection of new introductions. We report an alternative protocol for the diagnosis of SHB through swabs and hive debris analysis by PCR. This was tested in three apiaries through the evaluation of different SHB infestation levels with a hive inspection method. This approach for sampling, followed by biomolecular methods, was fast and useful in unfavorable conditions (bad weather, aggressiveness, robbing), could be integrated in the official diagnosis procedures and may act as pre-clinic indicator.

Turkey is the second largest honey producer in the world. However, the beekeeping sector, especially the export of honey and honey products, is not supported by income compatible with this asset. The main reasons for this discrepancy are the presence of honey bee diseases (predators) and their residues in honey. Due to the observation of Aethina tumida (small hive beetle; SHB) in Europe (Italy) and Tropilealaps spp. Iran’s border regions close to Turkey, the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry of the Republic of Turkey has raised its alert level for these two notifiable diseases. Aethina tumida is a fruit insect originally from South Africa and it has later adapted to bee colonies. In the early 2000s, the agent came to North America with imported fruits and caused serious bee losses. SHB, which has spread to 12 countries so far, caused serious economic losses in the countries it entered and could not be eliminated. Tropilaelaps spp. is an ectoparasite that cannot survive for long without honey bee brood it feeds on and needs to survive. Tropilaelaps mite even suppresses Varroa when found in a colony and extinguishes the colony in a short time. It is a fact that these two pests may spread rapidly in Turkey due to the practice of migratory beekeeping and they can cause serious damage to our beekeeping. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The small hive beetle (SHB) Aethina tumida Murray (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae) is an invasive pest of honey bees reported in Korea in 2016. This study was carried out to understand adult performance of SHBs under different temperatures and to construct an oviposition model as a part of the population model. Newly emerged adults were subjected to constant temperatures (15, 20, 25, 30, 35 and 37 °C), their longevity and oviposition were measured and an oviposition model was built afterwards. The longevity of SHBs female decreases from 160.1 to 57.9 days with increasing temperature from 20 to 37 °C. SHB males lived significantly shorter than the females. No oviposition was recorded at 15 °C. The fecundity showed a parabolic trend with a maximum of 1381.6 eggs/female at 30 °C and reduced to 515.8 eggs/female at 37 °C. The model combining all parameters of the SHB females simulated oviposition between 20 and 37 °C and predicted that SHBs could perform better at moderately higher temperatures which are in line with the brood area temperature (34–35 °C) of the honey bee, Apis mellifera. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The small hive beetle (SHB), Aethina tumida was first detected in the Calabria and Sicily region (Southern Italy) in 2014. In this regard, a more effective and faster inspection method than the Official one (Ministry of Health) was tested to detect the beetle in the hive. In collaboration with Calabria beekeepers' association, a "mobile divider"-based method was tested, in order to facilitate the detection of A. tumida and save time during hive inspection. In this short communication, we provide an update on the mobile divider technique and its related inspection procedure, which was first proposed and used in Calabria (Southern Italy) from 2014 to 2016. We report preliminary data concerning the number of detected SHBs and the time spent for their detection, based on the inspection of two apiaries in Calabria region, using both methods (official method and mobile divider method). The preliminary data presented here show that, on average, the mobile divider method seems to be able to recover a slightly higher number of beetles (0.9 adults) per inspected hive, in a shorter time (25 s). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aethina tumida (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae), commonly known as the Small Hive Beetle (SHB), is becoming a significant pest in the beekeeping industry outside of its natural distribution range. In Mexico, recent reports indicate that the SHB is distributed throughout the Yucatan peninsula. The invasion of honey bee colonies by SHB it is mainly chemically mediated by volatiles produced by the yeast Kodamaea ohmeri which is regarded as a secondary symbiont of the SHB. It was analyzed the presence of this yeast in honey bee colonies of Yucatan based on the premise that symbionts are often conjointly distributed with their hosts, therefore the presence of K. ohmeri in hives will be closely associated with the presence of SHB. In managed Africanized honey bee (AHB) colonies, yeasts associated with adult beetles were isolated and identified and the results show that the SHB together with their associated yeast, K. ohmeri, have invaded AHB colonies in Yucatan. It was also reported the presence of yeasts other than K. ohmeri associated with SHB that for the first time are recorded in a geographical region where they had not been recorded before.

The small hive beetle, Aethina tumida Murray (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae), belongs to a family of beetles known as sap beetles. As an agricultural pest they feed upon damaged, overripe fruits and vegetables, such as strawberries, corn, melons, tomatoes, and raspberries. The small hive beetle is a major parasite of honey bee hives worldwide. The beetle lives in the honey bee hive and feeds on honey, pollen, and honey bee brood. Fruit volatiles collected from overripe fruit provide for an effective attractant for both sexes of the small hive beetle. A laboratory trapping assay was performed using ripe fruit and a fruit-semiochemical attractant blend containing ethanol, ethyl butyrate, acetic acid, ethyl acetate, and acetaldehyde. Results indicated that the synthetic fruit blends captured beetles at the same rate as the cut fruit. The blend with the highest concentration had significantly more beetles captured. The key to an effective trapping system is a good attractant. The isolated fruit volatiles show promise as a possible attractant for control and monitoring of small hive beetle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given the consolidated circulation of Aethina tumida (SHB) in Reggio Calabria and Vibo Valentia provinces of Calabria region (Southern Italy), the need for a more effective and less time-consuming approach to SHB surveillance emerged. Accordingly, honeybee sentinel colonies were established in the infested areas under the supervision and management of the Veterinary Services of the Local Health Unit. In this short communication, we present the protocol adopted in the Calabria region to manage the SHB positive sentinel honeybee colonies. The procedures for safely packing and transport the SHB infested sentinel honeybee colonies from the field to the official laboratory and the subsequent procedure for their careful inspection in the laboratory are illustrated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Beekeepers need new registered products to control the small hive beetle (SHB), Aethina tumida, a significant pest of western honey bee (Apis mellifera) colonies. Few approved chemical controls exist, and there is no standardized system for screening compounds against SHBs. We outline a detailed method for an acute toxicity bioassay that delivers compounds via pollen. We provide a detailed method for a field trial that delivers treated pollen in traps made from modified compact disc cases. We applied both methods in proof-of-concept experiments to assess acetamiprid as a SHB control agent. Using the laboratory bioassay, we found acetamiprid (LC50 = 20.5 µg/g) to be more toxic to SHBs than coumaphos was (LC50 = 1250 µg/g), yet less toxic to SHBs than fipronil was (LC50 = 1.78 µg/g). In our field trial, colonies treated with acetamiprid and fipronil significantly reduced (p < 0.001) live SHB populations over those of control colonies. Traps containing acetamiprid retained significantly higher (p < 0.001) numbers of dead SHBs than did traps containing fipronil. We outline the first detailed methods to assess the toxicity of compounds delivered in pollen for adult SHB control. Our proof-of-concept experiments showed acetamiprid to be a promising control agent for SHBs.

Cuticular hydrocarbons (CHCs) play key olfactory roles in insect mating, and can therefore be used for pest control. However, the CHC profiles of adult small hive beetles (SHB), Aethina tumida, are currently unknown, even though this widespread invasive species threatens agriculture and wild bee populations. Here we show that CHC profiles can differ between SHB males and females, as well as their mating statuses. In the laboratory, SHB were reared individually and then kept singly or in mixed groups of males and females until sexual maturity at day 10. Then, CHC profiles were compared between the six groups (virgin 1 and 10 days old females, mated 10 days old females, virgin 1 and 10 days old males, and mated 10 days old males). The data show largely homogenous CHC profiles, with no substance being specific to males. However, Hexahydropyridine,1-methyl-4-[4,5-dihydroxyphenyl] was only detected in female SHBs and 2′-Hydroxypropiophenone, TMS derivative was only detected in 10 days old virgin females, and 5-Cyclohexyl-1-pentene was exclusively found in mated beetles, regardless of sex or age. The biological activity of these candidates needs to be confirmed. Given that they constitute olfactory cues involved in mating, this would offer a promising avenue for sustainable pest control of SHB, enabling for the first time to protect wild bee populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Invasive species may exploit a wide range of food sources, thereby fostering their success and hampering mitigation, but the actual degree of opportunism is often unknown. The small hive beetle (SHB), Aethina tumida, is a parasite of honeybee colonies endemic to sub‐Saharan Africa. SHBs have now spread on all habitable continents and can also infest colonies of other social bees. To date, the possible role of solitary bee nests as alternative hosts is unknown. Similarly, flowers as possible alternative food sources are not well understood. Here, we show that SHBs can complete an entire life cycle in association with nests of solitary bees Megachile rotundata. The data also show that flowers can serve as alternative food sources. These results support the opportunistic nature of this invasive species, thereby generating further obstacles for mitigation efforts in the field. It also suggests that SHB invasions may result in more serious consequences for endemic bee fauna than previously thought. This provides further motivation to slow down the global spread of this pest, and to improve its management in areas, where it is established.

BACKGROUND Small hive beetle (SHB), Aethina tumida is an invasive pest of managed honey bees and has invaded Europe from Africa. The main risk point identified for incursions of this pest into the UK is imports of package bees and queens. Surveillance of this pest, carried out by the National Bee Unit, involves monitoring imports of live bees and routine screening of sentinel apiaries around the UK through collection of hive debris for visual inspection of pests. Currently, no molecular methods are used for screening hive debris for this pest in the UK. A new invasion of this pest would likely occur at low levels and might present with partial specimens broken up in the hive or eggs from the beetle, difficult to identify by visual inspection. Therefore, we sought to develop a fast and sensitive method for detecting SHB in hive debris by developing a loop‐mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay. RESULT: The LAMP assay was able to detect the SHB in 19 to 25.37 min and did not cross‐react with any non‐target species tested. The assay was sensitive and could detect 12pg of DNA and it was able to detect less than 1 mg of tissue in a 30 g complex matrix of honey bee hive debris. The assay could successfully amplify from crude extracts of partial tissue specimens. CONCLUSION: This tool will allow rapid field screening of suspect beetle specimens and laboratory screening of hive debris for a notifiable exotic pest of honey bees. © 2020 Crown copyright. Pest Management Science © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The emergence of resistance to chemical drugs in beekeeping is becoming a phenomenon of widespread concern. One promising alternative to the use of chemicals is entomopathogenic organisms that are environmentally friendly and are capable of stopping the expression of resistance once it has evolved. In the recent past, the scientific community has carried out several experiments addressing the use of microbiological control agents. In particular, experimental studies using entomopathogenic fungi have had more success in honey bee research. With their adherence properties and their ability to digest the cuticle and overcome the host defense mechanism, they could be a suitable ingredient in bioacaricides. Several promising fungi have been identified in the search for effective means to control pest populations. The data obtained from the different experiments are interesting and often favorable to their use, but there are also conflicting results. The aim of this review is to describe the state of the art on the topic under investigation.

Infestation with Aethina tumida (ethiniosis) is a disease of bees caused by the small hive beetle, Aethina tumida, parasite and predator of bees. This disease is on the International Organization for Epizootic diseases (OIE) list of dangerous infectious diseases, and in the list of dangerous infectious diseases of national regulations in Montenegro. Ethiniosis leads to great economic damage to the beekeeping of a country and once it occurs it is almost impossible to eradicate. Adult forms and larvae of the small hive beetle feed on bee brood, honey, pollen, bee food as well as ripe fruit. Adult forms of small hive beetles can also feed by taking food from the worker bees while they feed the bee larvae. During the honey feeding, fermentation and spoilage of the remaining honey in the hive result in the smell of rotted orange. In addition, the larvae damage the honeycomb by making tunnels in it, which leads to honey leaking. A small hive of beetles can cause the collapse of bee brood and the escape of adult bees from heavily infested bee colonies. This disease has not been diagnosed in Montenegro so far. However, given the presence of this disease in Italy, there is a high risk of its introduction into Montenegro by importing risky materials - fruits, beekeeping equipment, etc. via international ports and airports. Therefore, a program for the protection of honey bees from ethiniosis in Montenegro should be adopted in a timely manner. This program should cover measures such as the detection of a hive beetle at an early stage of its occurrence, annual controls on the ethiniosis of apiaries located in risk zones, control of apiaries during relocation or sale etc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report the infestation of small hive beetle, Aethina tumida, in a honeybee, Apis cerana, in South China. This is the first record for domestic Chinese honey bee infested with small hive beetle.

Bees and elephant interactions are the core of a conservation curiosity since it has been demonstrated that bees, one of the smallest domesticated animals, can keep away elephants, the largest terrestrial animals. Yet, insects' parasites can impact the fitness and activity of the bees. Since their activity is critical to the repellent ability against elephants, this study assessed the impact of small hive beetles (Aethina tumida) on bee (Apis mellifera adansonii) reproduction and ability to keep forest elephants (Loxodonta africana cyclotis) away. Because interspecies interactions are not easy to investigate, we have used camera traps and digital video to observe the activity of bees and their interactions with wild forest elephants under varying conditions of hive infestation with the small hive beetle, a common bee pest. Our results show that queen cells are good visual indicators of colony efficiency on keeping away forest elephants. We give evidences that small hive beetles are equivalently present in large and small bee colonies. Yet, results show no worries about the use of bees as elephant deterrents because of parasitism due to small hive beetles. Apis mellifera adansonii bees seem to effectively cope with small hive beetles showing no significant influence on its reproduction and ability to keep elephants away. This study also reports for the first time the presence of Aethina tumida as a constant beekeeping pest that needs to be addressed in Gabon.

The Small Hive Beetle (Aethina tumida Murray, 1867) is an invasive scavenger of honeybees. Originally endemic in sub-Saharan Africa, it is regulated internationally in order to preserve the areas still free from this species. To ensure the reliability of official diagnoses in case of introduction, an inter-laboratory comparison was organised on the identification of A. tumida by morphology and real-time PCR. Twenty-two National Reference Laboratories in Europe participated in the study and analysed 12 samples with adult coleopterans and insect larvae. The performance of the laboratories was evaluated in terms of sensitivity and specificity. Sensitivity was satisfactory for all the participants and both types of methods, thus fully meeting the diagnostic challenge of confirming all truly positive cases as positive. Two participants encountered specificity problems. For one, the anomaly was minor whereas, for the other, the issues concerned a larger number of results, especially real-time PCR, which probably were related to inexperience with this technique. The comparison demonstrated the reliability of official diagnosis, including the entire analytical process of A. tumida identification: from the first step of the analysis to the expression of opinions. The performed diagnostic tools, in parallel with field surveillance, are essential to managing A. tumida introduction.

The small hive beetle (SHB), Aethina tumida was first detected in the Calabria and Sicily region (Southern Italy) in 2014. In this regard, a more effective and faster inspection method than the Official one (Ministry of Health) was tested to detect the beetle in the hive. In collaboration with Calabria beekeepers’ association, a “mobile divider”-based method was tested, in order to facilitate the detection of A. tumida and save time during hive inspection. In this short communication, we provide an update on the mobile divider technique and its related inspection procedure, which was first proposed and used in Calabria (Southern Italy) from 2014 to 2016. We report preliminary data concerning the number of detected SHBs and the time spent for their detection, based on the inspection of two apiaries in Calabria region, using both methods (official method and mobile divider method). The preliminary data presented here show that, on average, the mobile divider method seems to be able to recover a slightly higher number of beetles (0.9 adults) per inspected hive, in a shorter time (25 s).

Current diagnostic techniques for the detection of the small hive beetle (SHB), Aethina tumida are limitedly available and not cost effective. More sensitive pragmatic methods are preferred for early detection. To improve diagnostics, we focused on sampling techniques for SHB frass, as an indicator for SHB presence in a honey bee colony. In this study, we successfully tested a novel approach of employing swab sample collection of frass for real-time PCR detection of SHB. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aethina tumida (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae), commonly known as the Small Hive Beetle (SHB), is becoming a significant pest in the beekeeping industry outside of its natural distribution range. In Mexico, recent reports indicate that the SHB is distributed throughout the Yucatan peninsula. The invasion of honey bee colonies by SHB it is mainly chemically mediated by volatiles produced by the yeast Kodamaea ohmeri which is regarded as a secondary symbiont of the SHB. It was analyzed the presence of this yeast in honey bee colonies of Yucatan based on the premise that symbionts are often conjointly distributed with their hosts, therefore the presence of K. ohmeri in hives will be closely associated with the presence of SHB. In managed Africanized honey bee (AHB) colonies, yeasts associated with adult beetles were isolated and identified and the results show that the SHB together with their associated yeast, K. ohmeri, have invaded AHB colonies in Yucatan. It was also reported the presence of yeasts other than K. ohmeri associated with SHB that for the first time are recorded in a geographical region where they had not been recorded before. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The small hive beetle (SHB, Aethina tumida) is an invasive honey bee pest. It has been introduced into many countries worldwide and it will continue to spread. The lifecycle of the SHB is divided between a feeding and reproduction phase inside honey bee colonies and a pupation phase in the soil, surrounding colonies. Once larvae have achieved their ideal weight, they leave the hive in search of suitable soil in which to pupate. Trapping larvae when they leave the hive could reduce the reproductive success of SHBs, as this would break their lifecycle. Therefore, we investigated the larvae containment rate of different trap designs. Dry and wet larvae were released into traps and left to wander for 12 h, after which we counted the larvae remaining in the trap. Similarly, we tested the permeability of different mesh sizes for dry and wet larvae. Finally, we investigated the speed dry larvae are capable of crawling, by recording the time it took them to crawl a known distance. Dry larvae were contained by all traps. While most designs were unable to contain wet larvae, a trap with walls of sandpaper was able to contain all larvae successfully. Larvae could not pass through a mesh size of 1 mm in dry or wet conditions. The mean wandering larvae speed observed was 0.42 cm/sc. We recommend the use of traps for wandering SHB larvae as a mitigative measure for new introductions and a control method for established populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research investigates the development of an attract-and-kill bait for in-hive control of the small hive beetle, Aethina tumida. The control method employs attracting the beetles to an in-hive trap with a feeding attractant/stimulant where a toxicant is delivered by consuming an edible bait. Investigations into mild insecticides led to the use of boric acid. At low doses, boric acid is non-toxic to humans but lethal to insects. This research was designed to identify key compounds that would attract small hive beetles, develop an edible bait using those compounds and if the diet would be consumed by the beetle, determine the lethal dose with the lowest amount of toxicant, and the effects the toxicant would have on the honey bee. Attractive compounds were identified from honey bee pollen patties inoculated Kodamaea ohmeri yeast and resulted in the identification of three key components: ethyl propionate, isobutyl propionate, and ethyl butyrate. A diet comprised of corn gluten meal, barley flour, soy flour, Brewer's yeast, and glycerin containing the attractant/feeding stimulant was highly attractive and readily consumed. In laboratory trials, the treatments containing the attract-and-kill with 2% boric acid reduced the beetle population to zero within a few days. There was no significant difference between the sex of the beetle for survival on any of the treatments. Honey bee survival was reduced by ingesting the boric acid. The development of an inexpensive small hive beetle trapping system is essential for in-hive control of this devastating pest. This system has the potential to provide beekeepers a tool for control of this pest species that affects honey bee health and survival worldwide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Small Hive Beetle (SHB), Aethina tumida, is an invasive pest of honey bee colonies that causes significant damage to the beekeeping sector. SHB was detected in southern Italy (EU) in 2014 and despite adopted eradication measures, is still present there. After three years of observations of SHB in Calabria (2014-2016), we provide here some practical tips for improving control measures. A new time-saving colony examination method, including the use of an internal divider reduced the time needed for hive inspections by 31.86 % on average. Prioritizating the inspection of pollen and honey combs rather than brood combs is advised. Sentinel apiaries with no more than five colonies without supers are suggested for each beekeeping location in order to attract and to monitor the early appearance of SHB. The use of these methods will enable early detection and prompt control measures application before this destructive pest can spread in the region.

Climate change and biological invasions are two major global environmental challenges. Both may interact, e.g. via altered impact and distribution of invasive alien species. Even though invasive species play a key role for compromising the health of honey bees, the impact of climate change on the severity of such species is still unknown. The small hive beetle (SHB, Aethina tumida, Murray) is a parasite of honey bee colonies. It is endemic to sub‐Saharan Africa and has established populations on all continents except Antarctica. Since SHBs pupate in soil, pupation performance is governed foremost by two abiotic factors, soil temperature and moisture, which will be affected by climate change. Here, we investigated SHB invasion risk globally under current and future climate scenarios. We modelled survival and development time during pupation (=pupal performance) in response to soil temperature and soil moisture using published and novel experimental data. Presence data on SHB distribution were used for model validation. We then linked the model with global soil data in order to classify areas (resolution: 10 arcmin; i.e. 18.6 km at the equator) as unsuitable, marginal and suitable for SHB pupation performance. Under the current climate, the results show that many areas globally yet uninvaded are actually suitable, suggesting considerable SHB invasion risk. Future scenarios of global warming project a vehement increase in climatic suitability for SHB and corresponding potential for invasion, especially in the temperate regions of the Northern hemisphere, thereby creating demand for enhanced and adapted mitigation and management. Our analysis shows, for the first time, effects of global warming on a honey bee pest and will help areas at risk to prepare adequately. In conclusion, this is a clear case for global warming promoting biological invasion of a pest species with severe potential to harm important pollinator species globally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given the consolidated circulation of Aethina tumida (SHB) in Reggio Calabria and Vibo Valentia provinces of Calabria region (Southern Italy), the need for a more effective and less time-consuming approach to SHB surveillance emerged. Accordingly, honeybee sentinel colonies were established in the infested areas under the supervision and management of the Veterinary Services of the Local Health Unit. In this short communication, we present the protocol adopted in the Calabria region to manage the SHB positive sentinel honeybee colonies. The procedures for safely packing and transport the SHB infested sentinel honeybee colonies from the field to the official laboratory and the subsequent procedure for their careful inspection in the laboratory are illustrated.

Cuticular hydrocarbons (CHCs) cover insects’ bodies and play important roles in chemical communication, including nestmate recognition, for social insects. To enter colonies of a social host species, parasites may acquire host-specific CHCs or covertly maintain their own CHC profile by lowering its quantity. However, the chemical profile of small hive beetles (SHBs), Aethina tumida, which are parasites of honey bee, Apis mellifera, colonies, and other bee nests, is currently unknown. Here, adults of SHB and honey bee host workers were collected from the same field colonies and their CHC profiles were analysed using GC-MS. The chemical profiles of field-sampled SHBs were also compared with those of host-naive beetles reared in the laboratory. Laboratory-reared SHBs differed in their CHC profiles from field-sampled ones, which showed a more similar, but ten-fold lower, generic host CHC profile compared to host workers. While the data confirm colony-specific CHCs of honey bee workers, the profile of field-collected SHBs was not colony-specific. Adult SHBs often commute between different host colonies, thereby possibly preventing the acquisition of a colony-specific CHC profiles. An ester was exclusive to both groups of SHBs and might constitute an intraspecific recognition cue. Our data suggest that SHBs do not use any finely tuned chemical strategy to conceal their presence inside host colonies and instead probably rely on their hard exoskeleton and defence behaviours.