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At the backdrop of the on-going variability in rainfall, this research used a quasi-longitudinal research design to assess the effect of rainfall duration on beans, maize and African nightshade production in Nyando sub-County, Kisumu County, Kenya. Primary data were obtained from questionnaires, interview schedules for key informants, photography, and observation checklist. Secondary data were obtained from Kisumu County’s Meteorological Department and Ministry of Agriculture. Data were analyzed at descriptive and regression levels. The analytical results showed that longer rainfall duration positively affected maize crop production (t = 18.82, p < .001) while it negatively affected both beans (t = -6.04, p < .001) and the African nightshade (t = -8.05, p < .001) yields. The research recommends that farmers should put emphasis on maize production during long rain seasons with minimal production of both beans and African nightshade for output maximization. More beans and African nightshade than maize should be grown in short rains durations to curb climate-related loses.

The reduction of post-harvest losses (PHLs) has been identified as a key pathway to food and nutrition security in sub-Saharan Africa. However, despite policy prioritisation, knowledge about the severity of PHLs remains scant, especially when it comes to nutrient-dense crops such as African nightshade and bush beans. Therefore, this paper identifies loss hotspots, causes and effects throughout the value chains of nightshade and bush beans in eastern Uganda. Primary data collected following the Informal Food Loss Assessment Method, combined with small-scale load tracking and secondary data, allows for an analysis of physical, economic, quality, and nutritional losses throughout the value chains of both crops. Results show that in the bush bean value chain, severe physical and quality losses occur during post-harvest handling by farmers, leading to high economic losses at this stage of the chain. Nutritional losses are not expected to be significant in the bush bean value chain. By contrast, due to the shortness of the nightshade value chain, where produce is moved from harvest to consumption within one or two days, physical losses in most parts of the chain are relatively minor. Only at consumption stage, high physical losses occur. This is also the stage where economic losses and potential nutritional losses are most pronounced. The results of this study offer a deeper understanding of the value chain dynamics of bush beans and nightshade, including underlying gender relations, and identify concrete loss hotspots, upon which further research and practical interventions can build.

Achieving zero hunger in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) without minimizing postharvest losses of agricultural products is impossible. Therefore, a holistic approach is vital to end hunger, simultaneously improving food security, diversity, and livelihoods. This review focuses on the African nightshades (ANS) Solanum spp. contribution to improving food and nutrition security in SSA. Different parts of ANS are utilized as food and medicine; however, pests and diseases hinder ANS utilization. African nightshade is rich in micronutrients such as β-carotene, vitamins C and E, minerals (iron, calcium, and zinc), and dietary fiber. The leaves contain a high amount of nutrients than the berries. Proper utilization of ANS can contribute to ending hidden hunger, mainly in children and pregnant women. Literature shows that ANS contains antinutritional factors such as oxalate, phytate, nitrate, and alkaloids; however, their quantities are low to cause potential health effects. Several improved varieties with high yields, rich in nutrients, and low alkaloids have been developed in SSA. Various processing and preservation techniques such as cooking, drying, and fermentation are feasible techniques for value addition on ANS in SSA; moreover, most societies are yet to adopt them effectively. Furthermore, promoting value addition and commercialization of ANS is of importance and can create more jobs. Therefore, this review provides an overview of ANS production and challenges that hinder their utilization, possible solutions, and future research suggestions. This review concludes that ANS is an essential nutritious leafy vegetable for improving nutrition and livelihoods in SSA.

The African nightshades (ANS) have been part of the food systems in sub-Saharan Africa for generations. They are particularly attractive to small scale farmers because the risks of crop losses are much lower compared to the exotic vegetables. Plant viruses are economically important pathogens affecting African nightshade production. More than 200 plant viruses are reported to infest solanaceous family crops. This study was carried out to detect Potato virus Y associated with African nightshade. Symptomatic leaf samples were obtained from four agro-ecological zones in Kenya. The viral pathogens were detected using serology and molecular techniques. Laboratory experiments were carried out at the University of Nairobi and Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Service (KEPHIS) from February 2017 to August, 2018. Field samples had the highest mean viral percentage frequency of 44.8% compared to greenhouse samples having 29.8% using serology methods. Molecular testing revealed that greenhouse and farm field sample were positive for the three Potato virus Y strains PVYN:O (necrotic recombinant), PVYO (ordinary) and PVYNTN (necrotic). Detection of Potato virus Y in ANS suggests that it is prevalent in the sampled regions and could cause problems to other solanaceous crops.

In 2017 in Kenya, we collected leaves from tomato plants with leaf curling. The leaves were infected with a begomovirus that was most similar to tomato leaf curl Uganda virus (ToLCUV-[UG:Iga:05]). Neither DNA-B nor satellite DNAs were detected. Recombination analyses indicated the virus was a chimera of tomato leaf curl Madagascar virus (ToLCMGV-Ats[MG:Tol:01]) and ToLCUV-[UG:Iga:05] (minor and major parents, respectively). An infectious clone induced symptoms on tomato, Nicotiana benthamiana, N. tabacum, and African nightshade. This is the first report describing the molecular characterization of tomato leaf curl disease in Kenya. GenBank/ENA/DDBJ accession number for the ToLCUV-[KE:Kia:17] sequences: LC437667.

Aims: To assess the effectiveness of fortified liquid organic manure, zero fertilizer applications and urea on the growth, physiological and pesticidal response of Solanum scabrum. Study Design: Complete randomized block experimental design. Place and Duration of Study: The green house facility and agricultural research farm at the Pan African Institute for Development – West Africa (PAID-WA), Buea, Cameroon, from August to November 2017. Methodology: Four experimental units with 4 treatments including: two fortified liquid organic manure (T1 and T2,) control (T3) and urea (T4), were established using 96 planting pots. The quantity and application rates for the liquid manure and urea were 4000 L/ha, once and twice a week, and 200 kg/ha, respectively. Leaf colour, leaf size, number of leaves per plant, plant height, stem collar diameter and growth rate were measured. Two plots with three soil beds each, was also established to record pesticide treatment response by counting the number of leaves eaten by insects Results: T2 had darker green leaves, tallest plants (27.57±11.87 cm), highest number of leaves (27.65±25.46 units), largest leaf size (38.56±21.96 cm2), biggest stem collar diameter (1.54±0.41 cm) and highest growth rates (2.54±1.02, 5.18±3.40, and 0.11±0.03 cm/week for height, number of leaves and stem collar diameter, respectively). T2 effects differed significantly (P = 0.00) from T3 and T4. T2 and T1 also reduced pest attacks on leaves significantly (P = 0.00) compare to T3. Conclusion: Liquid extracts concoctions of biomass and pesticidal botanicals prove useful towards the development of effective bio-repellent organic fertilizers. These can contribute to reducing the use of synthetic agro-chemicals, hence decreasing residual environmental and human health hazards.

Although positive steps have been taken towards reducing food insecurity, it remains a serious and recurrent issue, especially in developing countries. Food insecurity is aggravated by the world’s growing population and global ecological changes and calls for novel agriculture-based hunger eradication strategies. It is argued that production and consumption of indigenous vegetables (IVs) enhances accessibility and availability of nutritious food in households. Indigenous vegetables (IVs) contain significant amounts of macronutrients and high levels of micronutrients. As their agro-economic advantages make them relatively easy for uptake by resource-poor households, they represent a direct solution to ‘hidden hunger’. Household-based survey data collected from 1232 IV producers in rural and peri-urban areas of five selected counties in Kenya in 2014 were used to examine the dietary contribution of IVs. Five priority indigenous vegetables were analysed: amaranth, cowpea, African nightshade, spider plant and Ethiopian kale. Quantitative analysis was performed using food security indicators from the ADePTFood security Module data analytical software. This study’s findings indicated African nightshade was the most consumed indigenous vegetable, providing the largest share of dietary energy consumption (average of 43 kcal/person/day). Amaranth was found to provide the highest share and cheapest source of dietary protein consumption, an average of 4.9 g/person/day, thus meeting 8% of the adult daily protein requirement. These results showed the clear dominance of indigenous vegetables over exotic vegetables in terms of protein contribution, achieved both by amaranth’s high protein content compared tocabbage, as well as the low per unit cost of protein in indigenous vegetables compared to exotic vegetables. Given that, IVs have a significant protein content that adds variety to staple diets at comparatively low median dietary unit values and that they are important sources of dietary energy, efforts should be made to increase their consumption by undertaking further research, raising awareness and instituting policies.

The increasing popularity of leaf and fruit of African nightshade as vegetables in Indonesia stimulates farmers to harvest both leaf and fruit from single plant alternately; the yield is presumably affected by fertilizer rate, e.g., nitrogen. The present study aimed to evaluate such hypothesis through evaluation of plant production, N absorption, and its status. Seedlings were treated with five N levels, i.e., 0, 90, 180, 270, and 360 kg/ha in Leuwikopo Experimental Farm, IPB Bogor, Indonesia. The results revealed that leaf and fruit productions were sensitive to nitrogen level. Leaf and fruit productions had quadratic correlation to N levels, i.e., r 2=0.9671 and r 2=0.9483 with optimum dosages as 304.8 kg/ha and 336.5 kg/ha, respectively. Proper N application is important for both leaf and fruit productions because nitrate level in leaf had quadratic relationship (r 2=0.5264) and it has a linear relationship in fruit production (r2=0.9587) by increasing N level from 90 to 360 kg N/ha. From the total fresh mass leaves and fruits harvested, the optimum N for the best alternate harvesting was 271.1 kg/ha (r 2=0.9644). Keywords: African nightshade, intercropping, N uptake, nitrate status, photosynthetic rate

African indigenous vegetables have a great potential in improving livelihood, offering sustainable food security and solving the malnutrition crisis in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). African nightshade (Solanum scabrum) is one of such indigenous vegetable, highly appreciated for its nutritive and pharmacological benefits. The vegetable is rich in antioxidative compounds, vitamins, carbohydrates, carotenoids, folic acid, minerals and amino acids. However, the optimal nutritional benefits of nightshade are influenced by pre-harvest physiological maturity, postharvest storage conditions and harvesting methods. We analyzed the dynamics of phytonutrients in nightshade grown under Kenyan field conditions, harvested using different methods and at different developmental stages, 30, 60, 90 and 120 d after planting (dap) and storing them at 5 °C and room temperature (RT). Harvesting by uprooting and cutting offered higher yields, but had the lowest nutrients retained after 4 d storage at RT, while picking single leaves (continuous method) had lower yields but higher nutrients retained. The total carbohydrates (glucose, fructose, sucrose and starch) and chlorophyll were highest in concentration at 60 dap (136.3 ± 2.9 g kg−1 and 5.8 ± 0.3 g kg-1 dry weight (DW) respectively). Gallic acid equivalent phenolics (GAE), catechin equivalent flavonoids (CAE), trolox equivalent antioxidants (TEA) and total carotenoids were highest in concentrations at 90 dap with 12.6 ± 1.0 g kg−1, 24.1 ± 1.6 g kg−1, 108.8 ± 6.0 g kg−1 and 1.01 ± 0.04 g kg−1 DW respectively. The mineral elements mainly remained stable during development apart from iron which was highest at 30 dap (1.3 ± 0.5 g kg−1), zinc was highest at 120 dap (62.1 ± 4.4 mg kg−1) and calcium was highest at 90 dap (24.3 ± 0.7 g kg−1 DW). A significant decline of phytonutrients was evidenced after 2 d storage at RT. At cold storage (5 °C), there was no significant decline on most of the phytonutrients, at least up to 4 d. Results in this study highlight the importance of maturity stages and low storage temperature for optimal nutrients and postharvest quality management of African nightshades.

Different household cooking techniques (boiling, steaming, stir frying, and microwave) were tested on the changes of targeted phenolic compounds, antioxidant property (ferric reducing-antioxidant power (FRAP) activity), α-glucosidase activity, antinutritive compounds, and sensory properties in commonly consumed traditional leafy vegetables in Southern Africa, the non-heading Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa L. subsp. chinensis) and African nightshade (Solanum retroflexum Dun). Stir frying increased kaempferol-3-O-hydroxyferuloyl-trihexoside, kaempferol-dihexoside, sinapoyl malate, rutin, and isorhamnetin-O-dihexoside in Chinese cabbage leaves, followed by steaming. Similarly, stir frying increased kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside, chlorogenic acid, caffeoylmalic acid, and quercetin-3-O-xylosyl-rutinoside in nightshade, followed by steaming. Biomarkers, sinapoyl malate (Chinese cabbage) and caffeoylmalic acid (nightshade), separated the stir frying from the other cooking techniques. Steaming and stir-frying techniques significantly increased the FRAP activity; whereas boiling and microwaving reduced the tannin, oxalate, and phytate contents in both leafy vegetables and steroidal saponins in nightshade. Stir-fried nightshade leaf extract showed the most effective inhibition against α-glucosidase activity, with an IC50 of 26.4 μg ml−1, which was higher than acarbose, a synthetic compound (positive control; IC50 69.83 μg ml−1). Sensory panelists preferred the stir-fried Chinese cabbage and nightshade leaves, followed by steamed, microwaved, and boiled vegetables.

International audience; Underutilized or traditional leafy vegetables are grown in the wild and cultivated. They are consumed as nutritional accompaniments to staples, either raw (fresh), cooked, or in a dried form, through custom, habit, and tradition. These traditional leafy vegetables are natural rich sources of phytochemicals and nutritional compounds. Over time, the keenness for consumption of traditional vegetables has become less popular. Poor nutrient diets are the main cause of mortality and morbidity, especially in developing countries, where the problem is predominant due to poverty. Consumption of traditional vegetables can assist in the prevention of chronic disease development, as they contain various bioactive compounds that exhibit multiple health benefits. Traditional leafy vegetables play a vital role in combatting hunger, food insecurity, and malnutrition, and most are suitable for food intervention programs. African nightshade (Solanum family) is one such commonly consumed traditional leafy vegetable. During dry seasons, communities often face shortages of vegetables; thus, the preservation of edible leaves is one strategy to help overcome this problem. The adoption of solar drying and fermentation are traditional methods to extend the availability of African nightshade vegetables. Additionally, the agronomy practices and postharvest processing methods affect the phytochemicals and nutritional compounds of African nightshade accessions. This mini-review provides information on changes in phytochemicals, nutrition, and antinutritive compounds with different postharvest processing methods and irrigation. The review provides the justification to promote the cultivation for consumption, by identifying the potential African nightshade accessions that are rich in phytonutritional compounds. This mini-review summarizes and discusses the major information on (i) the micro- and macronutrients present in Solanum retroflexum, the most commonly consumed nightshade species compared with other traditional vegetables in Southern Africa, (ii) the composition of phytochemical compounds present in different nightshade accessions, (iii) the impact of irrigation on phytochemical composition in different nightshade species, and (iv) the impact of postharvest processing on phytochemicals and antinutritive compounds in S. retroflexum. Inclusion of African nightshade, especially S. retroflexum, with the main staple foods can improve protein, iron, and calcium levels in daily diets, which will help to improve people's health and well-being.

International audience; Not much information is available on the changes of phenolic metabolites or anti-nutritive compounds in African nightshade leaves during moist cooking. Blanching methods (boiling, microwave, and steaming) using 5-20% lemon juice was compared with the plain water as a control. Lemon juice at 20% significantly increased the total colour differences (ΔE). Chlorophyll content and the overall acceptance were highest for samples steamed in 5% lemon juice. Steam blanching in plain water reduced the tannin, oxalate and phytate contents but showed higher comparative peak responses for steroidal saponins. Neochlorogenic, chlorogenic, and caffeoylmalic acid, kaempferol O-rhamnosyl hexoside, and rutin were identified blanched leaves. Principle component analysis (PCA) discriminated between blanching treatments while Orthogonal Projections to Latent Structures Discriminant Analysis (OPLS-DA) showed clear group distinctions between the blanching treatments. Chlorogenic acid, neochlorogenic acid and cryptochlorogenic acid were the responsible biomarkers for the separation of the steam blanching treatments. Thus, steam blanching preserves the functional compounds in nightshade leaves.

Fruits constitute a major part of the diet in many parts of the world, highly recommended for the nutritional value derived from them. Fruit maturity is an important determinant of the quality as it affects the appearance, an aspect of quality considered by most consumers. Sugar content, colour, size and firmness are some of the quality indicators associated with maturity. While the ripening and maturity indicators are well documented for climacteric fruits, non-climacteric fruits such as berries lag behind. African nightshade (Solanum nigrum L.) edible berries are among them. This study evaluated the quality parameters of the edible berries of four varieties of African nightshade and found out that they accumulate glucose and fructose as they ripen with glucose being the most abundant sugar. Sucrose is only present during the senescence stage. Size remained relatively constant within each variety while firmness decreased progressively after veraison. Black NS differed with the others in colour besides fructose and sucrose content at 29.35 and 388.40 mg/100g, respectively. Giant NS recorded the highest glucose content at 172.44 mg/100g when ripe. Conclusively, the African nightshade berries are characteristically similar to other non-climacteric fruits adopted as part of the normal diet and should be considered as a valuable addition to the diet.

The two viruses cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) and tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) are among the major viruses that constrain the production of African nightshade (ANS). The ANS provides high proportions of micronutrient content and has medicinal, economic, and agronomic benefits. In this study, we utilized molecular methods to detect these viruses present in ANS at two locations in Kenya: Kisii and Kakamega counties. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) was extracted from leaves of ANS plants exhibiting viral symptoms and sequenced on the Illumina MiSeq platform for phylogenetic studies. The isolates were grouped based on nucleotide and sequence identity. We detected two isolates of CMV and one isolate of TMV in ANS samples. The isolate sequences have been deposited in the GeneBank to obtain accession numbers. Cucumber mosaic virus nucleotide sequence closely resembled the Kirinyaga isolates in Kenya classified in subgroup I. Tobacco mosaic virus phylogenetic studies revealed close resemblance of isolates KY810785.1 from Britain and AF273221.1 from the USA in clade 1 based on nucleotide and amino acid sequences. This is an indication that the virus is widely distributed across the world. Detection of these two viruses in Kenya suggests that they are prevalent in crop-growing regions and the germplasms. African nightshade could also act as a virus reservoir infecting other plants. This study will inform management options to prevent virus epidemics and be in control of vectors.

Understanding the within-plant diurnal migration and distribution of the Red spider mite, Tetranychus evansi Baker and Pritchard, in the presence of the predatory mite Phytoseiulus longipes Evans, on African nightshade, S. scabrum, is critical in developing an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategy for the pest. The T. evansi density, day and night cycles, and presence of P. longipes, on the within-plant migration and distribution of T. evansi on African nightshade were hence investigated. The results indicated that T. evansi does not exhibit a circadian migratory movement pattern on S. scabrum at lower densities (50 and 100 mites). However, T. evansi was observed to have a density-dependent collective displacement and distribution to the top of the plant, as densities increased (300 and 600 mites). The presence of P. longipes on the plant enhanced the within-plant migration of T. evansi, even at low densities (50 and 100 mites). However, there was no apparent pattern of migration and movement that was observed within the plant. The increased within-plant movement of T. evansi in presence of the predatory mites and collective displacement of T. evansi at higher densities indicate a potential for developing an IPM strategy using the acaricide treated net, which is discussed further.

African indigenous green leafy vegetables play important role in income generation and subsistence; they are the cheapest and most readily available sources of important minerals and vitamins. On the other hand, they contain anti-nutritional factors that reduce availability of vital nutrients. This study was conducted to determine oxalates, phytates and nitrates content in commonly consumed Amaranths cruentus, Spider plant (Cleome gynandra) and African night shade (Solanum villosum) at 21, 28 and 35 days age of the plant harvest. Vegetables were planted on plots and harvested at 21, 28 and 35 days. At each stage, about 600±2 g of the edible part was harvested and standard chemical analyses procedures were followed to determine oxalate, phytate and nitrate contents. Using Statistical Product and Service Solutions (SPSS 20) data were analysed and results presented as simple means, ranges and standard deviations. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) with 5% level of significance was done to determine differences in the levels of nutrients between the vegetable varieties and three maturity stages. African nightshade Nduruma BG 16 had lowest oxalate concentrations (28.7 ± 0.1 mg/100 g) at maturity stage I while African nightshade Olevolosi SS 49 had the highest value (60.9 ± 0.9 mg/100 g) at maturity stage III. There was no particular trend for phytates in all maturity stages and in all varieties but amaranths Madiira AM 38 had exceptionally the highest values (0.7 ± 0.0 mg/100 g) at stage III of maturity. The highest nitrate content was 85.61.8 mg/100 g in Olevolosi SS 49 at maturity stage I, whereas the lowest value was 45.31.3 mg/100 g in amaranths Madiira AM 38 at stage III. There was a slight variation in antinutrients composition of the studied vegetables and the composition was generally very low. Key words: Antinutrients, indigenous vegetables, maturity stage, Tanzania.

Traditional African vegetables are important for their nutraceutical benefits and contributions to farm household incomes. Consequently, their consumption, particularly among rural and urban households in developing countries, has been promoted and emphasized in recent years. Despite their multiple benefits, consumer awareness, and preference for traditional vegetables is low. This study uses the awareness, interest, desire and action (AIDA) marketing communication model to evaluate consumer awareness and perceptions and assess factors that influence consumption of traditional vegetables among 258 respondents in the Arusha region of Tanzania. Most of the respondents were aware of the nutritional importance of traditional vegetables, willing to purchase them for home consumption, and had a positive perception of their benefits. Consumers who had participated in the promotional activities were more willing to purchase and grow traditional vegetables than non-participants. The major sources of information about human nutrition and traditional vegetables included health centers, schools, friends, relatives, and radio programmes. African nightshade, African eggplant, amaranth and okra were the most widely consumed traditional vegetables. They were mainly purchased from the market. Regression estimates indicate that the consumption of traditional vegetables increases with positive health perceptions, better training, domestic production of vegetables, and increased promotional activities. Scaling up consumers awareness and home gardening would help to increase availability and consumption of traditional vegetables.

The production of African nightshade is below its potential due to a lack of superior varieties. The development of varieties through breeding programmes has been initiated in order to supply farmers with quality seeds. However, systematic studies on the agronomic performance of African nightshade germplasm have been started only recently, and publications in this area are very scarce. In this study, we analysed morphological traits relevant for the agronomic performance of 54 entries comprising two species: Solanum villosum and S. scabrum. In addition, AFLP markers and newly developed SSR markers were used to assess genetic diversity and differentiation in the African nightshade entries. An analysis of molecular variance showed higher variation within than among entries. A cluster analysis grouped the entries into two clusters representing the two species. The analysis of agronomic traits revealed significant differences among entries. The genetic diversity of the released cultivars and accessions was comparable to but lower than that of the local cultivars. Additionally, the local cultivars had higher allelic richness and a larger number of unique alleles than did the developed cultivars and could serve as a useful gene pool for future breeding of superior germplasm.

African nightshade (Solanum scabrum Mill.) is important for its nutrition, health promoting compounds and its contribution in providing a secure food supply and livelihood for smallholder farmers in rural, peri-urban and urban areas in Kenya. However, inadequate postharvest handling practices result in high losses. To address this issue, studies were conducted to evaluate the effect of modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) on improving storability, nutritional and health promoting compounds of 'Olevolosi' African nightshade. Plants were cultivated in a climate chamber for four weeks and three weeks under greenhouse conditions. Leaves were harvested and either packaged in MAP (Xtend®) or left in the open (control). The leaves were stored for 8 days to simulate retail conditions (20°C and RH 56%) and 15 days in cold storage (7°C and RH 86%). Fresh weight loss, leaf colour, antioxidative compounds (i.e., β-carotene, lutein, lycopene, vitamin E, and vitamin C), chlorophylls, protein, microbial counts, and gas composition within MAP were evaluated. The results showed that leaf colour was retained by MAP, more so at 7°C. MAP reduced weight loss by 76.4-83.9% at 20°C and 71.0-84.8% at 7°C compared with the control. Moreover, MAP maintained or even increased the content of protein, vitamins C and E, β-carotene, lutein, lycopene and chlorophylls in both storage conditions in comparison to the control. During storage, the concentration of CO2 increased to 0.7-3.3%, while O2 was reduced by 0.9-3.3% being more pronounced at 20°C, compared to ambient conditions. However, the use of MAP did not reduce microbial counts. The findings indicate the potential of using MAP to improve shelf life and preserve bioactive quality compounds of African nightshade. This could be a vital step to improve nutrition, health and the economic status of smallholder farmers in developing countries such as Kenya.

Fruits and young shoot of Solanum nigrum Linn are harvested and consumed as indigenous vegetables by different Indonesian ethnics. Preharvest factors and harvesting methods to maximize the quality of S. nigrum produce is still unknown. In this study S. nigrum was grown in full irradiance and under shading and assessed for their growth, and fruit and shoot yields. The experiment was conducted at the Leuwikopo Experimental Farm in Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia from April-July 2017. The results demonstrated that plants produced more fruits and shoots in full irradiance, i.e., 687.9 g and 211.1 g per plant, whereas only 331.1 g and 116.9 g per plant were produced in 50% shading. Although fruit and shoot production were superior under full irradiance, shoot-harvested plants had healthier leaves and life span of about 2 months longer thus facilitating longer availability. Canopy of shoot-harvested plants formed a columnar shape with 23 to 45 cm in height, in contrast to spherical shape with 48 to 203 cm in height of the fruit-harvested plants. It is likely that shading level might contribute to farmers’ decision to harvest the shoots or fruits of S. nigrum. Further studies are needed to determine the effects of shading levels on nutritional quality of the shoots and fruits of S. nigrum. Keywords: African nightshade, canopy architecture, harvesting method, indigenous vegetable, intercropping

Vegetables can play a significant role in improving peoples' nutrition, generating income and reducing poverty. The present study investigated which vegetables and locally available edible plants would be best suited for cultivation in the multi-storey cropping system of the Yayu Coffee Forest Biosphere Reserve's Transition Zone, in Ethiopia. A comprehensive species list was compiled based on a literature review and expert consultations. Plant photo cards were reviewed and pre-selected by a local botanist who assigned local names. Then the cards were presented to eight focus groups of men and women separately in four communities in the Biosphere Reserve. Focus group discussions revealed five selection criteria as being important to farmers. The plants nutritional value was included as a criterion for selection based on the combination of micronutrients likely to be deficient in the project area: iron, zinc, vitamin A, and vitamin C. In total, six criteria were combined in a composite indicator comparing equal and differential criteria weighting. Thirty-one edible wild herbaceous plants were reported from the project area. Twenty-three species were suggested by experts. Relevant selection criteria brought forward by farmers were; (1) minimal damage to coffee roots at harvest; (2) ease at coffee harvest; (3) canopy competition; and (4) tolerance to shade. Farmers' (5) knowledge and opinion about suggested plants as well as the (6) calculated nutrition index were also considered. The ten most suitable plants identified were cowpea, amaranths, African nightshade, Ethiopian kale, spider plant, jute mallow, physalis, asparagus, pigeon pea and cucurbits (for leaf production). The list of plants was identical for the equal and differential weighing, but the ranking did differ slightly. These plants were suggested to farmers who selected four crops for field testing in a participatory manner.

Indigenous leafy vegetables play a major role in strategies to attain food and nutritional security for African households. However, the potential of these vegetables in meeting the nutritional req...

African nightshade is an indigenous leafy vegetable in Eastern and Western Africa that is valued for its high nutrient content and potential to generate income. Efforts to improve this crop have been hampered by limited information available on intra- and interspecific genetic diversity. Here, we present data on the development and application of polymorphic simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers in a broad collection of entries (gene bank accessions, landraces from farmers, breeding lines and commercial cultivars) from two species of African nightshades, Solanum scabrum (Mill.) and S. villosum (Mill.). Next generation sequencing information was used to develop 16 polymorphic SSR markers that revealed genetic diversity within and between the 54 entries collected from various geographic locations in Sub-Saharan Africa. High levels of polymorphism were detected within entries, indicating gene flow between entries and/or a low intensity of selection during development of breeding lines and improved cultivars. As a consequence, they have retained sufficient variation for further selection within the improved germplasm. The two species were clearly distinct, and S. scabrum was found to be less diverse compared to S. villosum. Furthermore, some entries were identified as probably misclassified based on morphological markers as they can clearly be placed within the gene pool of either S. scabrum or S. villosum using the SSR data. In addition to the diversity studies, we determined the genome size and ploidy of a selection of 29 entries helpful for the design of future NGS-based marker projects. All entries of S. scabrum were found to be hexaploid, whereas entries of S. villosum were tetraploid with a haploid genome size of all samples slightly varying by approximately 1 pg. Finally, we also determined pollen viability parameters, which differed significantly between the two species but did not correlate to any of the other parameters measured.

Neglected and underutilized crop species (NUCS) are valuable sources of food and income for several rural households in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). A thorough understanding of their diversity, uses, socio-economic roles, and factors for their neglect would be necessary for guiding promotion efforts. This study was conducted in two steps: (1) interviews with rural households involved in NUCS production and trade, and (2) greenhouse characterization of the two most popular NUCS′ morphotypes, African nightshade and amaranth, from Walungu and Kabare territories, eastern DRC. About 19% of farmers of the entire study area were involved in NUCS production. We identified 22 and 23 NUCS used in Kabare and Walungu territories, respectively. These species belonged to 19 botanical families, among which Solanaceae (∼24% in Walungu and ∼11 in Kabare) and Fabaceae (8% in Walungu and 11% in Kabare) were the most dominant families. They were of different ranges: grasses and herbs (62%), shrubs (20%), thorns (2%), and trees (16%). These species were used whether for nutritional (60%), medicinal (7%), or both nutritional and medicinal values (33%). NUCS' market value was low, and thus, discouraged further investment in their farming. The seed delivery system was informal, dominated by farmer-saved seed, seed from local markets, and farmer seed exchange. Characterization experiment for the most popular leafy NUCS showed differences among collected morphotypes for most traits, with some local genotypes outperforming exogenous commercial varieties. Supply of quality seed, training of farmers on the most appropriate cropping system, processing technologies, increased consumer awareness, linking research to policy, and increasing market opportunities for smallholder farmers are strategies for promoting wide use of these crops in eastern DRC.

Okello OP, Gweyi JPO, Nawiri Mp, Musila W. 2017. Effects of water stress on phenolic contents and antioxidant activity of African nightshades. Biofarmasi J Nat Prod Biochem 15: 79-95. This study aimed at mapping out the distribution of different African Nightshade species in Siaya and Kisii Counties of Kenya and to determine water stress effect on total antioxidant capacity and total phenolic content of two selected African nightshade namely, giant nightshade (Solanum scabrum) and black nightshade (Solanum villosum). Before selection of the two varieties, the study involved farmer field visits, mapping of nightshades present and administration of semi-structured questionnaires to farmers to determine the indigenous vegetables being grown, the nightshade species grown and factors affecting their production. The experiments were conducted both in the field and greenhouse conditions. Watering intervals were at 15 cbars, 50 cbars, and 85 cbars. Data on the number of secondary buds, leaf area, shoot height, shoot and root dry weights were gathered. The total antioxidant capacity and the total phenolic content were recorded using DPPH radical scavenging method and Folin-Ciolcalteu method, respectively. The data collected were subjected to ANOVA. In both counties where production was 100% under small scale, Solanum scabrum was the main variety grown is Siaya County (36%) while in Kisii the main variety was Solanum villosum (32%). There were significant differences (P≤0.05) among treatments in leaf area, plant height, shoot biomass, number of secondary buds, leaf and root total phenolic content and leaf and root antioxidant activity. At all stress levels, Solanum scabrum exhibited the tallest plants with a maximum height of 45.17cm at 15cbars, while Solanum villosum had the shortest plants at all stress levels, with the shortest one being recorded at 16.65 cm at 85 cbars. S. scabrum also had the highest root dry weight (7.78g), shoot dry weight (50.78g) and highest leaf area of (304.45cm2). However, Solanum villosum had the highest number of secondary buds at all stress levels with the highest being 24 at 15 cbars. Concerning phytochemicals, Solanum villosum had a higher concentration of both the total phenolics and antioxidant activity in the shoots (46.41g GAE/Kg DM total phenolic content and 52.68% total antioxidant activity). Meanwhile, Solanum scabrum had a higher concentration in the roots (25.06gGAE/Kg DM total phenolic content and 27.18% total antioxidant activity). Water stress cause a decline in all growth parameters but increased phytochemical accumulation in nightshade accessions grown. It is therefore suggested that for better yields, irrigation should be performed at every 15 cbars, however for adequate phytochemical accumulation, the irrigation should be carried out at 50 cbars. Further research to explore and quantify other phytochemical components as affected by different watering regimes need to be undertaken.

Over the last decade, African indigenous leafy vegetables (AIVs) such as African nightshade ( Solanum scabrum Mill.) have featured increasingly in both formal and informal markets in the peri-urban and urban centres of Africa, due to the increasing awareness of their nutritive and medicinal as well as expanding economic value. AIVs are rich in nutritional and health promoting plant compounds such as vitamins, minerals, proteins, dietary fibre and antioxidant compounds. However, the crop is highly perishable and more than half of it is lost before it reaches the consumer. In Kenya, appropriate postharvest handling and treatments, storage or refrigeration facilities are lacking. More so, the information on postharvest losses of the AIVs is limited, making the management of such losses along the supply chain very difficult. The objective of the study was to determine nutritional and economic losses of African nightshade plants along the supply chain, i.e. from producer until marketing. The study was conducted in the three main commercial AIVs producing counties in Kenya, i.e. Nakuru, Kisii and Kakamega, where three farmers from each county were randomly selected. The farmers were allowed to carry out their normal routine AIVs handling procedure right from harvesting to selling; and samples were collected at each supply chain stage (at harvest, before transport, after transport and at the market). Dry matter, selected macro-nutrients (N, P, K, Ca and Mg) and micro-nutrients (Fe and Zn), protein, carotenoids and chlorophyll content, cumulative produce and economic losses as well as the causes of losses were evaluated. The results obtained revealed significant quantitative, nutritive, and economic losses of African nightshade along the supply chain. The dry matter content was reduced by between 32.8–45.5%, depending on the county, along the supply chain. The mineral elements and protein were reduced by between 3.2–29.4%, while chlorophylls and carotenoids were reduced by between 70.9–90.9% and 70.4–91.9%, respectively. Cumulative produce loss was between 71.8–292.4% while the economic loss was between 12.6–34.4%. The findings indicate the immense losses of nutritional, quantitative and economic values of African nightshade along the supply chain. Lack of certified seed varieties, unfavourable weather, inadequate postharvest handling practices and technologies as well as insect pest and diseases are the main causes of losses during the supply chain. Therefore, maintaining quality attributes and managing postharvest losses in AIVs could be among the key issues to improving food security in developing countries.

Currently, consumer eating habits have shifted to an increasing demand for high quality, safe and healthy food products worldwide. In many African countries, specifically African indigenous leafy vegetables (AIVs) gained importance in this respect contributing to human diet by providing minerals, proteins, vitamins and health-promoting antioxidant compounds. Moreover, these vegetables have an immense potential in creating job opportunities in rural as well as peri-urban areas. However, AIVs tend to suffer severe quantitative and qualitative postharvest losses because of their high perishability. UV-C has been mainly applied in sanitation and food safety for its germicidal effect but also has an impact on preventing nutritional losses. To address this, studies were conducted to evaluate the effect of postharvest application of hormic UV-C dosages on bioactive plant compounds of two AIVs, i.e. African nightshade (Solanum scabrum Mill.) cv. Olevolosi and vegetable amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus L.) cv. Madiira. Eight weeks after planting, the leaves were harvested and treated with UV-C (254 nm) at either 1.7 kJ m−2 or 3.4 kJ m−2 while untreated leaves served as control. The leaves were kept for 4 and 14 d at 20 °C (65% RH) and 5 °C (85% RH), respectively. The quality parameters studied were fresh weight loss, mineral elements (N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, and Zn), protein, and structural carbohydrates determining dietary fibre content and microbial counts. In addition, antioxidative, health promoting plant compounds, i.e. carotenoid, and chlorophyll contents were evaluated. The results showed that fresh weight loss of both AIVs was significantly reduced with application of lower UV-C dosage (1.7 kJ m−2). Mineral elements and proteins were variedly affected with a general decline in the initial stages followed by an increase compared to the untreated leaves. Hemicellulose and cellulose was significantly increased in vegetable amaranth and lignin content was significantly increased in African nightshade following UV-C treatment. Chlorophyll and carotenoid contents declined within 2–4 d during storage, depending on storage conditions; but thereafter increased again significantly compared to the control. Aerobic mesophyllic and yeast counts were significantly reduced by UV-C treatment, while mould counts were not affected. The findings demonstrate the potential of using hormic UV-C for maintaining the nutritional quality of AIVs during their supply chain as an easy to apply and effective tool, hence contributing to improved food accessibility and food safety in Sub-Saharan areas such as Kenya.

Studies were conducted at Ekona in the humid forest agro-ecological zone of Cameroon to evaluate the effects of cassava peel-based manures on the growth and yield of African Nightshade. The first experiment consisted of evaluating the composted cassava peel and poultry manure applied at the rates of 0, 5, 10 and 20 t/ha and 150 kg/ha NPK (20:10:10) fertilizer. In the second experiment, a dried and grind mixture of cassava peel and poultry manure were applied at rates of 0, 5, 10 and 20 t/ha and 150 kg/ha NPK (20:10:10) fertilizer. Treatments were laid out in a randomized complete design and replicated three times. Growth and yield data were collected and subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA). Significant treatments means were separated using students T test at p≤0.05. The different manures prepared were rich in macro nutrients particularly N (1-1.6%), P (0.7-1.4%) and K (1-1.7%). The experimental results showed that the applications of cassava peel-based manures significantly (p

This study developed comprehensive quantification methods for major nutritive and antinutritive phytochemical aglycones in edible African nightshade leaves, an underutilized food resource in the sub-Saharan area. A simultaneous hydrolysis and extraction method was developed using methanol with 2 M sulfuric acid with incubation at 65 °C for 60 min. UHPLC–QqQ–MS/MS methods were developed and validated for hydrolysis optimization and for quantification of eight major aglycones of polyphenols, alkaloids and sapogenins in 20 differently sourced nightshade leaves, comprising two African species Solanum scabrum and S. nigrum, and from two distinct cultivation sites, one in New Jersey, US and the other in Kenya Eldoret. Variation in species, accessions and cultivation environment played an important role in affecting the phytochemical profile. Total antinutritive alkaloids and sapogenins in all nightshade leaves were evaluated and found to be safe for consumption. This work provides evidence that the consumption of African nightshade leaves as a nutrient rich leafy green vegetable is safe and can contribute to food security and nutritional improvement in the sub-Saharan area.

Plant-parasitic nematodes, particularly root-knot nematodes (RKN: Meloidogyne spp.) and cyst nematodes (CN: Globodera and Heterodera spp.) cause severe yield reduction in most cultivated crops and are of high economic importance. African nightshade (Solanum spp.) and African spinach (Amaranthus spp.) are important African indigenous vegetables (AIV) and are rich sources of nutrition and income. However, their host status to plant-parasitic nematodes remains largely speculative. Therefore, a survey was conducted which revealed that S. villosum exhibited high root galling, whereas on S. scabrum, A. cruentus, and A. dubius root galling was rare or very low. Additionally, soil collected from the rhizosphere of S. villosum and S. scabrum contained few cysts of potato cyst nematodes (PCN), and no developing PCN females were observed on the roots of growing plants. Therefore, we studied the dynamics of RKN and PCN on A. dubius, A. cruentus, S. scabrum, and S. villosum over 2 years in a field experiment. The effects of AIV crop species on RKN and PCN soil infestation were evaluated using susceptible S. lycopersicum or S. tuberosum. After first, second, and third cultivation of A. dubius, A. cruentus, and S. scabrum, RKN infestation of the soil decreased by more than 85%, whereas S. scabrum and S. villosum decreased PCN densities by more than 80%. When cropping susceptible crops, after three seasons of successive cultivation of these AIV, galling index and number of developing PCN females measured on susceptible crops decreased by more than 75%. Wilting and RKN-PCN coinfection incidences also decreased significantly. Here, we present data that support the development of a novel cropping system including African spinach and African nightshade, which reveals a high potential to manage RKN and PCN in an environmentally friendly, effective, and productive way.

African leafy vegetables are widely consumed in western Kenya. The most popular being Solanum spp. (African nightshade), Cleome gynandra (spider plant), Vigna unguiculata (cowpea leaves), jute mallow, Amaranthus spp. (amaranth), Crotalaria spp. (slender leaf) and Cucurbita spp. (pumpkin leaves). Other vegetables that are consumed but to a lesser extent are the Basella alba (vine spinach) and Brassica carinata (Ethiopian kale). The wide genetic diversity of African leafy vegetable species contributes to their wide distribution and ability to perform over a wide range of agro-ecological zones in western Kenya. African leafy vegetable domestication is a recent occurrence with some still being harvested in the wild. The genetic diversity of African leafy vegetables therefore comprises of the wild landraces and the recently developed improved varieties. The differences are mostly brought about in taste and morphology. Yield aspects (leaves and seed) of these vegetables are contributed to by the genetic diversity. Morphological characteristic differences in some species like amaranth are distinct and easily observable, but in other species like spider plant differences are not that obvious. These differences bring about variations in popularity, depending on age groups, locations and utilization. An example is African nightshade, where the landraces known for bitter tastes are preferred by the older people and the improved varieties that are mild in taste are popular with the young generation who like the mild ones. The urban women prefer the improved varieties which have wider leaves and are easy to prepare. The landraces are threatened with extinction because of population increase in western Kenya. People have encroached into the wild such as the Kakamega Forest and open fields, thereby reducing the biodiversity of ALVs. The diversity is also threatened by change in climate, people’s culture and eating habits due to the influence from the west. Efforts being made to conserve the genetic biodiversity of ALVs are in-situ by local farmers and ex-situ by institutions such the Kenya Agricultural & Livestock and Research Organization gene bank.

The interest in the consumption of African indigenous leafy vegetables increased in African countries, e.g. Kenya, within the last years. One example of African indigenous leafy vegetables is African nightshade (Solanum scabrum) which is nutritious, rich in proteins and micronutrients and therefore could contribute to a healthy diet. African nightshade has several agricultural advantages. However, the most important disadvantage is the fast perishability which leads to enormous post-harvest losses. In this study, we investigated the fermentation of African nightshade as a post-harvest processing method to reduce post-harvest losses. The two lactic acid bacterial starter strains Lactiplantibacillus plantarum BFE 5092 and Limosilactobacillus fermentum BFE 6620 were used to inoculate fermentations of African nightshade leaves with initial counts of 106–107 cfu/ml. Uninoculated controls were conducted for each fermentation trial. Fermentations were performed both in Kenya and in Germany. The success of the inoculated starter cultures was proven by the measurement of pH values and determination of lactic acid concentration. Lactobacilli strains dominated the microbiota of the starter inoculated samples in contrast to the non-inoculated controls. This was supported by classical culture-dependent plating on different microbiological media as well as by the culture-independent molecular biological methods denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis and 16S rRNA gene high-throughput amplicon sequencing. We could demonstrate that the use of the selected starter cultures for fermentation of African nightshade leaves led to controlled and reliable fermentations with quick acidification. Thus, controlled fermentation with appropriate starter cultures is a promising method for post-harvest treatment of African nightshade leaves.

This study aimed to investigate the influences of fermentation at 37 &deg, C for 3 days by different lactic acid bacterium strains, Lactobacillus plantarum (17a), Weissella cibaria (21), Leuconostoc pseudomesenteroides (56), W. cibaria (64) or L. plantarum (75), on color, pH, total soluble solids (TSS), phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity of African nightshade (leaves). Results indicated fermentation with L. plantarum 75 strain significantly decreased the pH and total soluble solids, and increased the concentration of ascorbic acid after 3 days. L. plantarum 75 strain limited the color modification in fermented nightshade leaves and increased the total polyphenol content and the antioxidant activity compared to the raw nightshade leaves. Overall, L. plantarum75 enhanced the functional potential of nightshade leaves and improved the bioavailability of gallic, vanillic acid, coumaric, ferulic ellagic acids, flavonoids (catechin, quercetin and luteolin) and ascorbic acid compared to the other lactic acid bacterium strains. Correlation analysis indicated that vanillic acid and p-coumaric acid were responsible for the increased antioxidant activity. Proximate analysis of the fermented nightshade leaves showed reduced carbohydrate content and low calculated energy.

Solanum nigrum complex is a green, indigenous leafy vegetable that grows in many parts of the world and its utilization can deliver more nutrients and phytochemicals into the diet. Even though it can help in alleviating the burden of hidden hunger, only the leafy part is utilized whereas the plant has edible berries. This study sought to address the problem of underutilization by looking at the benefits that can be derived from the berries. Four varieties of the plant were harvested through four stages; green, colour break, ripe and at senescence. Chemical analyses of the berries were done to determine the content and changes in macro and micro-nutrients and the phytochemical content of the berries as they ripened. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to determine the significant difference between nutrient and phytochemical composition of the different S. nigrum varieties at different ripening stages. The results show that fibre, ash and protein increased at senescence while carbohydrates decreased. Magnesium was the most abundant mineral. As berries ripened, oxalates, total phenols, flavonoids and phytates decreased while Vitamin C, tannins and total carotenoids increased. Conclusively, the berries in this study have comparable nutritional value with other commonly consumed fruits and could, therefore, be incorporated into the family pot.

Nightshade (Solanum species) is a priority African indigenous vegetable of great importance that plays a significant role in nutrition, food security and income generation. Much research attention on nightshade has focused on leaf yields, nutritional value, agronomic practices and post-harvest handling. However, African nightshade production is mainly constrained by lack of quality seeds occasioned by methods of seed harvesting, processing and storage. This study sought to find out existing knowledge on methods of seed harvesting, processing and storage techniques and their associations with farmers’ characteristics. A household survey was done in Siaya, Kakamega, Vihiga, Kisumu, Busia and Kisii counties in Kenya between June 2014 and June 2015. The survey targeted farmers who produced and processed nightshade seeds in a bid to document existing methods of nightshade seed harvesting, processing and storage techniques. Purposive sampling was conducted on the targeted counties so as to survey only households that grow and process nightshade seeds. Scheduled interviews together with structured questionnaires were used to collect data. A total of 60 farmers were interviewed. Data were collected on nightshade production, cultural practices, harvesting processing and storage techniques, seed accessibility and availability, seed quality, quantity, cost and the challenges facing the nightshade seed production. Data collected were subjected to descriptive statistics using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 21. Significantly more women were involved in nightshade seed production than men (X 2 = 4.81, P = 0.028). While, the level of education of farmers significantly influenced seed sourcing (X 2 = 17.99, P = 0.021), the age and sex of farmers did not affect seed sourcing. The choice of methods used for nightshade seed extraction was not significantly associated with age, sex and the level of education. Similarly, nightshade seed packaging and storage techniques are not influenced by age, sex and level of education. Nightshade seed processing techniques were predominantly traditional and the seed systems informal. Farmers produced their own seeds and stored them for periods of less than one year. Therefore, farmers should be trained on production, storage and use of quality African nightshade seeds and more studies that focus on improvement, standardising and formalizing nightshade seed systems should be done. Keywords: Indigenous vegetables, Nightshade seeds, Production, Harvesting, Processing, Storage techniques, Seed systems

BACKGROUND Tetranychus evansi is an invasive pest of solanaceous crops in Africa, and in the field it differentially attacks edible African nightshades. The chemical basis for the differential attack on these plant species is largely unknown. Using bioassays and chemical analysis, we investigated the differential bioactivity of leaf extracts of three edible African nightshade species, Solanum sarrachoides, S. scabrum and S. villosum, on adult T. evansi females. RESULTS Only the bioactivity of the leaf extract of S. sarrachoides (LC50 7.44 mg mL−1) and that of its most polar fraction (LC50 5.44 mg mL−1) paralleled that of the positive control, neem oil (LC50 1.89 mg mL−1), across all doses tested. Liquid chromatography–quadruple time of flight–mass spectrometry identified a mixture of steroidal glycoalkaloids (SGAs), including α-solasonine, α-solamargine and derivatives of tomatine and demissine, which were neither detected in the crude extract nor in any of the fractions obtained from S. scabrum and S. villosum. CONCLUSION Our results suggest that the presence of SGAs may play a key role in the differential defence of edible African nightshades against attack by T. evansi. These findings may add to the plethora of environmentally friendly tools from natural plant products for management of T. evansi. © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry

Underutilized local vegetables (ULVs) in Vihiga County within the Lake Victoria Basin that could provide micronutrients to fight hidden hunger contain phytate and oxalate that reduce bioavailability. These can be reduced through appropriate traditional food processing techniques adopted by households. The aim of this study was to determine the content of phytate and oxalate in formulated ULV recipes. This was an experimental design with eleven selected ULVs: spider plant (C. gynandra), pumpkin leaves (C. moschata), cowpea (V. unguiculata), amaranth (A. blitum), jute mallow (C. olitorius), sweet potatoes leaves (I. batatas), African nightshade (S. nigrum), cassava leaves (M. esculenta), Slender leaf (C. ochroleuca), vine spinach (B. alba) and kales (B. carinata). Eleven single vegetables and five vegetable combinations were blanched and divided into two lots. One lot was boiled and fermented for 48 h and the other was not fermented. The non-fermented were subjected to three treatments; cooked by boiling in water, cooked by boiling with the addition of cow's milk and lye and cooked by sauteing. Phytate and oxalate content in the obtained recipes were determined using HPLC. Independent t-test was used to compare the mean content of phytate and oxalate between fermented recipes and non-fermented recipes. One-way ANOVA was used to compare the mean content of phytate and oxalate between different methods of cooking. The phytate content in fermented ULVs ranged from 27.5-70.67 mg 100 g-1 fresh weight (FW) and 40.0-83.44 mg 100 g-1 FW for non-fermented ones. The oxalate content ranged from 2.62-10.17 mg 100 g-1 FW for non-fermented and 1.54-20.36 mg 100 g-1 FW for fermented. Mean levels of phytate in ULVs were higher than those of oxalate in the same vegetables. The mean phytate and oxalate levels were lower in most fermented vegetables compared to non-fermented ones (p 0.05) suggesting that degradation of phytate and oxalate by fermentation depends on the type of vegetable since different ULVs responded differently to fermentation. Cooking methods and microbial fermentation differently affected the levels of phytate and oxalate; in some ULVs a decrease was observed while in others there was no significant change. It is concluded that heat during cooking reduced phytate and oxalate levels in most ULVs and that microbial fermentation reduced phytate and oxalate levels in most ULVs but the degree of degradation depends on the type of vegetable sampled since different samples have a varied sample matrix. It is suggested that additives like onions and tomatoes during sauteing and milk and lye during boiling may have introduced some phytate and oxalate to the ULV recipes.

Intercropping is widespread in small-holder farming systems in tropical regions and is also practiced in the cultivation of indigenous vegetables, to alleviate the multiple burdens of malnutrition. Due to interspecific competition and/or complementation between intercrops, intercropping may lead to changes in plants accumulation of minerals and secondary metabolites and hence, alter nutritional quality for consumers. Intercropping aims to intensify land productivity, while ensuring that nutritional quality is not compromised. This study aimed to investigate changes in minerals and secondary plant metabolites in intercropped Brassica carinata and Solanum scabrum, two important African indigenous vegetables, and evaluated the suitability of this combination for dryer areas. B. carinata and S. scabrum were grown for 6 weeks under controlled conditions in a greenhouse trial. Large rootboxes (8000 cm3 volume) were specifically designed for this experiment. Each rootbox was planted with two plants, either of the same plant species (mono) or one of each plant species (mixed). A quartz sand/soil substrate was used and fertilized adequately for optimal plant growth. During the last 4 weeks of the experiment, the plants were either supplied with optimal (65% WHC) or low (30% WHC) irrigation, to test the effect of a late-season drought. Intercropping increased total glucosinolate content in B. carinata, while maintaining biomass production and the contents of other health related minerals in both B. carinata and S. scabrum. Moreover, low irrigation led to an increase in carotene accumulation in both mono and intercropped S. scabrum, but not in B. carinata, while the majority of kaempferol glycosides and hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives of both species were decreased by intercropping and drought treatment. This study indicates that some health-related phytochemicals can be modified by intercropping or late-season drought, but field validation of these results is necessary before definite recommendation can be made to stakeholders.

The tomato red spider mite, Tetranychus evansi Baker and Pritchard, is one of the most serious pests of solanaceous crops in Africa. Field experiments were conducted to investigate its effects on the growth and leaf yield of five African nightshade species viz. Solanum americanum, S. sarrachoides, S. scabrum, S. tarderemotum and S. villosum during the 2008 and 2009 growing seasons. Plants were infested with 2–4 day-old female spider mites which were allowed to multiply. The number of mite motiles increased throughout the growing season in unsprayed plots and this number varied significantly between the African nightshade species. Except for S. sarrachoides, leaf damage was high on the other four Solanum species irrespective of the spraying regime during both seasons. However, S. scabrum had a significantly greater leaf area ratio (ratio of leaf area to total plant weight) and specific leaf area (ratio of leaf area to total leaf dry weight) during both seasons. Overall yields were 1.5 times more in S. scabrum and S. sarrachoides compared to S. americanum, S. tarderemotum and S. villosum. Our results show that T. evansi infestation affects the leaf area ratio and specific leaf area of African nightshade species differentially which eventually determines the plant's overall leaf yield. These findings present an opportunity for evaluation and selection of African nightshade species that can withstand spider mite infestation in small holder farms for increased vegetable production in Africa.