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Abstract Current immunosuppressive treatments for central nervous system demyelinating diseases fail to prevent long-term motor and cognitive decline in patients. Excitingly, glial cell transplantation arises as a promising complementary strategy to challenge oligodendrocytes loss occurring in myelination disorders. A potential source of new oligodendrocytes is the subventricular zone (SVZ) pool of multipotent neural stem cells. However, this approach has been handicapped by the lack of functional methods for identification and pharmacological analysis of differentiating oligodendrocytes, prior to transplantation. In this study, we questioned whether SVZ-derived oligodendrocytes could be functionally discriminated due to intracellular calcium level ([Ca(2+)](i)) variations following KCl, histamine, and thrombin stimulations. Previously, we have shown that SVZ-derived neurons and immature cells can be discriminated on the basis of their selective [Ca(2+)](i) rise upon KCl and histamine stimulation, respectively. Herein, we demonstrate that O4+ and proteolipid protein-positive (PLP+) oligodendrocytes do not respond to these stimuli, but display a robust [Ca(2+)](i) rise following thrombin stimulation, whereas other cell types are thrombin-insensitive. Thrombin-induced Ca(2+) increase in oligodendrocytes is mediated by protease-activated receptor-1 (PAR-1) activation and downstream signaling through G(q/11) and phospholipase C (PLC), resulting in Ca(2+) recruitment from intracellular compartments. This method allows the analysis of functional properties of oligodendrocytes in living SVZ cultures, which is of major interest for the development of effective grafting strategies in the demyelinated brain. Additionally, it opens new perspectives for the search of new pro-oligodendrogenic factors to be used prior grafting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background and purpose Blockade of adenosine A2A receptors (A2AR) affords robust neuroprotection in a number of brain conditions, although the mechanisms are still unknown. A likely candidate mechanism for this neuroprotection is the control of neuroinflammation, which contributes to the amplification of neurodegeneration, mainly through the abnormal release of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin(IL)-1β. We investigated whether A2AR controls the signaling of IL-1β and its deleterious effects in cultured hippocampal neurons. Methods Hippocampal neuronal cultures were treated with IL-1β and/or glutamate in the presence or absence of the selective A2AR antagonist, SCH58261 (50 nmol/l). The effect of SCH58261 on the IL-1β-induced phosphorylation of the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38 was evaluated by western blotting and immunocytochemistry. The effect of SCH58261 on glutamate-induced neurodegeneration in the presence or absence of IL-1β was evaluated by nucleic acid and by propidium iodide staining, and by lactate dehydrogenase assay. Finally, the effect of A2AR blockade on glutamate-induced intracellular calcium, in the presence or absence of IL-1β, was studied using single-cell calcium imaging. Results IL-1β (10 to 100 ng/ml) enhanced both JNK and p38 phosphorylation, and these effects were prevented by the IL-1 type 1 receptor antagonist IL-1Ra (5 μg/ml), in accordance with the neuronal localization of IL-1 type 1 receptors, including pre-synaptically and post-synaptically. At 100 ng/ml, IL-1β failed to affect neuronal viability but exacerbated the neurotoxicity induced by treatment with 100 μmol/l glutamate for 25 minutes (evaluated after 24 hours). It is likely that this resulted from the ability of IL-1β to enhance glutamate-induced calcium entry and late calcium deregulation, both of which were unaffected by IL-1β alone. The selective A2AR antagonist, SCH58261 (50 nmol/l), prevented both the IL-1β-induced phosphorylation of JNK and p38, as well as the IL-1β-induced deregulation of calcium and the consequent enhanced neurotoxicity, whereas it had no effect on glutamate actions. Conclusions These results prompt the hypothesis that the neuroprotection afforded by A2AR blockade might result from this particular ability of A2AR to control IL-1β-induced exacerbation of excitotoxic neuronal damage, through the control of MAPK activation and late calcium deregulation.

Abstract Background Histamine is commonly acknowledged as an inflammatory mediator in peripheral tissues, leaving its role in brain immune responses scarcely studied. Therefore, our aim was to uncover the cellular and molecular mechanisms elicited by this molecule and its receptors in microglia-induced inflammation by evaluating cell migration and inflammatory mediator release. Methods Firstly, we detected the expression of all known histamine receptor subtypes (H1R, H2R, H3R and H4R), using a murine microglial cell line and primary microglia cell cultures from rat cortex, by real-time PCR analysis, immunocytochemistry and Western blotting. Then, we evaluated the role of histamine in microglial cell motility by performing scratch wound assays. Results were further confirmed using murine cortex explants. Finally, interleukin-1beta (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) levels were evaluated by ELISA measurements to determine the role of histamine on the release of these inflammatory mediators. Results After 12 h of treatment, 100 μM histamine and 10 μg/ml histamine-loaded poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) microparticles significantly stimulated microglia motility via H4R activation. In addition, migration involves α5β1 integrins, and p38 and Akt signaling pathways. Migration of microglial cells was also enhanced in the presence of lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 100 ng/ml), used as a positive control. Importantly, histamine inhibited LPS-stimulated migration via H4R activation. Histamine or H4R agonist also inhibited LPS-induced IL-1β release in both N9 microglia cell line and hippocampal organotypic slice cultures. Conclusions To our knowledge, we are the first to show a dual role of histamine in the modulation of microglial inflammatory responses. Altogether, our data suggest that histamine per se triggers microglia motility, whereas histamine impedes LPS-induced microglia migration and IL-1β release. This last datum assigns a new putative anti-inflammatory role for histamine, acting via H4R to restrain exacerbated microglial responses under inflammatory challenge, which could have strong repercussions in the treatment of CNS disorders accompanied by microglia-derived inflammation.

BDNF levels are reduced in the chronically stressed brain, in the area of hippocampus. Part of the hippocampal BDNF is provided by neuronal projection of the entorhinal cortex. Studying the cortico-hippocampal transport of BDNF in vivo is technically difficult. Here, we describe a protocol that reproduces mouse cortico-hippocampal circuit in vitro by plating neurons on the microfluidic devices and infecting the neurons with virus-encoding BDNF-mCherry, which allows investigation of the effects of elevated corticosterone levels on BDNF axonal transport. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Agasse et al. (2020)., Competing Interests: The authors declare no competing interests., (© 2021 The Authors.)

Although Huntington's disease is a late-manifesting neurodegenerative disorder, both mouse studies and neuroimaging studies of presymptomatic mutation carriers suggest that Huntington's disease might affect neurodevelopment. To determine whether this is actually the case, we examined tissue from human fetuses (13 weeks gestation) that carried the Huntington's disease mutation. These tissues showed clear abnormalities in the developing cortex, including mislocalization of mutant huntingtin and junctional complex proteins, defects in neuroprogenitor cell polarity and differentiation, abnormal ciliogenesis, and changes in mitosis and cell cycle progression. We observed the same phenomena in Huntington's disease mouse embryos, where we linked these abnormalities to defects in interkinetic nuclear migration of progenitor cells. Huntington's disease thus has a neurodevelopmental component and is not solely a degenerative disease., (Copyright © 2020 The Authors, some rights reserved; exclusive licensee American Association for the Advancement of Science. No claim to original U.S. Government Works.)

Chronic exposure to stress is a major risk factor for neuropsychiatric disease, and elevated plasma corticosterone (CORT) correlates with reduced levels of both brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and hippocampal neurogenesis. Precisely how these phenomena are linked, however, remains unclear. Using a cortico-hippocampal network-on-a-chip, we find that the glucocorticoid receptor agonist dexamethasone (DXM) stimulates the cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (CDK5) to phosphorylate huntingtin (HTT) at serines 1181 and 1201 (S1181/1201), which retards BDNF vesicular transport in cortical axons. Parallel studies in mice show that CORT induces phosphorylation of these same residues, reduces BDNF levels, and suppresses neurogenesis. The adverse effects of CORT are reduced in mice bearing an unphosphorylatable mutant HTT (Hdh S1181A/S1201A ). The protective effect of unphosphorylatable HTT, however, disappears if neurogenesis is blocked. The CDK5-HTT pathway, which regulates BDNF transport in the cortico-hippocampal network, thus provides a missing link between elevated CORT levels and suppressed neurogenesis., Competing Interests: Declaration of Interests The authors declare no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Neurogenesis in the subventricular zone (SVZ) is regulated by diffusible factors and cell-cell contacts. In vivo , SVZ stem cells are associated with the abluminal surface of blood vessels and such interactions are thought to regulate their neurogenic capacity. SVZ neural stem cells (NSCs) have been described to contact endothelial-derived laminin via α6β1 integrin. To elucidate whether heterocellular contacts with brain endothelial cells (BEC) regulate SVZ cells neurogenic capacities, cocultures of SVZ neurospheres and primary BEC, both obtained from C57BL/6 mice, were performed. The involvement of laminin-integrin interactions in SVZ homeostasis was tested in three ways. Firstly, SVZ cells were analyzed following incubation of BEC with the protein synthesis inhibitor cycloheximide (CHX) prior to coculture, a treatment expected to decrease membrane proteins. Secondly, SVZ cells were cocultured with BEC in the presence of an anti-α6 integrin neutralizing antibody. Thirdly, BEC were cultured with β1 -/- SVZ cells. We showed that contact with BEC supports, at least in part, proliferation and stemness of SVZ cells, as evaluated by the number of BrdU positive (+) and Sox2+ cells in contact with BEC. These effects are dependent on BEC-derived laminin binding to α6β1 integrin and are decreased in cocultures incubated with anti-α6 integrin neutralizing antibody and in cocultures with SVZ β1 -/- cells. Moreover, BEC-derived laminin sustains stemness in SVZ cell cultures via activation of the Notch and mTOR signaling pathways. Our results show that BEC/SVZ interactions involving α6β1 integrin binding to laminin, contribute to SVZ cell proliferation and stemness.

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), a highly malignant brain tumor, accounts for half of all gliomas. Despite surgery, radiation and chemotherapy, the median survival is between 12 and 15 months. The poor prognosis is due to tumor recurrence attributed to chemoresistant glioma cancer stem cells (GSCs). Here we examined the effects of a novel compound NEO212, which is composed of two covalently conjugated anti-cancer compounds - temozolomide (TMZ) and perillyl alcohol (POH), on GSCs expressing either the proneural or mesenchymal gene signatures. These GSCs were obtained from patient-derived tumor tissue. Our findings demonstrate that NEO212 is 10 fold more cytotoxic to GSCs than TMZ (standard-of-care). Furthermore, NEO212 is effective against both proneural and clinically aggressive mesenchymal GSC subtypes. The mechanism of NEO212 mediated-cytotoxicity is through double-strand DNA breaks and apoptosis. In vivo studies show that NEO212 significantly delays tumor growth of both proneural and mesenchymal tumor stem cell populations. Patient-derived GSCs and tumors derived from these cells are highly reflective of the heterogeneity in human GBM. The efficacy of NEO212 against both GSC subtypes indicates that NEO212 has great clinical potential to effectively target GBM., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Methamphetamine (METH) is a highly addictive psychostimulant drug of abuse that negatively interferes with neurogenesis. In fact, we have previously shown that METH triggers stem/progenitor cell death and decreases neuronal differentiation in the dentate gyrus (DG). Still, little is known regarding its effect on DG stem cell properties. Herein, we investigate the impact of METH on mice DG stem/progenitor cell self-renewal functions. METH (10nM) decreased DG stem cell self-renewal, while 1nM delayed cell cycle in the G0/G1-to-S phase transition and increased the number of quiescent cells (G0 phase), which correlated with a decrease in cyclin E, pEGFR and pERK1/2 protein levels. Importantly, both drug concentrations (1 or 10nM) did not induce cell death. In accordance with the impairment of self-renewal capacity, METH (10nM) decreased Sox2(+)/Sox2(+) while increased Sox2(-)/Sox2(-) pairs of daughter cells. This effect relied on N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) signaling, which was prevented by the NMDA receptor antagonist, MK-801 (10μM). Moreover, METH (10nM) increased doublecortin (DCX) protein levels consistent with neuronal differentiation. In conclusion, METH alters DG stem cell properties by delaying cell cycle and decreasing self-renewal capacities, mechanisms that may contribute to DG neurogenesis impairment followed by cognitive deficits verified in METH consumers., (Copyright © 2014. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Background: Accumulating evidence suggests that growth hormone (GH) may play a major role in the regulation of postnatal neurogenesis, thus supporting the possibility that it may be also involved in promoting brain repair after brain injury. In order to gain further insight on this possibility, in this study we have investigated the pathways signaling the effect of GH treatment on the proliferation and survival of hippocampal subgranular zone (SGZ)-derived neurospheres., Results: Our results demonstrate that GH treatment promotes both proliferation and survival of SGZ neurospheres. By using specific chemical inhibitors we have been also able to demonstrate that GH treatment promotes the activation of both Akt-mTOR and JNK signaling pathways, while blockade of these pathways either reduces or abolishes the GH effects. In contrast, no effect of GH on the activation of the Ras-ERK pathway was observed after GH treatment, despite blockade of this signaling path also resulted in a significant reduction of GH effects. Interestingly, SGZ cells were also capable of producing GH, and blockade of endogenous GH also resulted in a decrease in the proliferation and survival of SGZ neurospheres., Conclusions: Altogether, our findings suggest that GH treatment may promote the proliferation and survival of neural progenitors. This effect may be elicited by cooperating with locally-produced GH in order to increase the response of neural progenitors to adequate stimuli. On this view, the possibility of using GH treatment to promote neurogenesis and cell survival in some acquired neural injuries may be envisaged.

Neural stem cells (NSCs) from the subventricular zone (SVZ) have been indicated as a source of new oligodendrocytes to use in regenerative medicine for myelin pathologies. Indeed, NSCs are multipotent cells that can self-renew and differentiate into all neural cell types of the central nervous system. In normal conditions, SVZ cells are poorly oligodendrogenic, nevertheless their oligodendrogenic potential is boosted following demyelination. Importantly, progressive restriction into the oligodendrocyte fate is specified by extrinsic and intrinsic factors, endocannabinoids being one of these factors. Although a role for endocannabinoids in oligodendrogenesis has already been foreseen, selective agonists and antagonists of cannabinoids receptors produce severe adverse side effects. Herein, we show that hemopressin (Hp), a modulator of CB1 receptors, increased oligodendroglial differentiation in SVZ neural stem/progenitor cell cultures derived from neonatal mice. The original results presented in this work suggest that Hp and derivates may be of potential interest for the development of future strategies to treat demyelinating diseases.

Neural stem cells of the subventricular zone (SVZ) represent a potentially important source of surrogate cells for the treatment of brain damage. Proper use of these cells for neuronal replacement depends on the ability to drive neuronal differentiation. Several neuromodulators stimulate neurogenesis. Here we examined the effects of the neuropeptide galanin, on neuronal differentiation in murine SVZ cultures. SVZ neurospheres obtained from early postnatal mice were treated with 10 nM to 2 μM galanin. Galanin promoted neuronal differentiation, increasing numbers of NeuN-, vesicular GABA transporter- and tyrosine hydroxylase-expressing neurons. In contrast, galanin neither affected cell proliferation assessed by BrdU incorporation nor cell death evaluated by terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick-end labeling (TUNEL). Neuronal differentiation was further confirmed at the functional level by measuring [Ca(2+)]i variations in single SVZ cells after KCl and histamine stimulations to distinguish neurons from immature cells. Galanin treatment increased the numbers of neuronal-like responding cells compared to immature cells. Using selective agonists (M617, AR-M1896) and antagonists (galantide, M871) for galanin receptors 1 and 2, we showed that both galanin receptors mediated neuronal differentiation. Early proneuronal effects of galanin included positive regulation of the transcription factor neurogenin-1 (Ngn1). In addition, galanin promoted axonogenesis and dendritogenesis, increasing both the length of phosphorylated stress-activated protein kinase- and Tau-positive axons and the numbers of microtubule associated protein-2 (MAP-2)-labelled dendrites. Moreover, galanin inhibited SVZ cell migration in the transwell assay. Our results show a proneurogenic effect of galanin and open new perspectives for future applications in stem cell-based therapies for neuronal replacement.

The endocannabinoid system has been implicated in the modulation of adult neurogenesis. Here, we describe the effect of type 1 cannabinoid receptor (CB1R) activation on self-renewal, proliferation and neuronal differentiation in mouse neonatal subventricular zone (SVZ) stem/progenitor cell cultures. Expression of CB1R was detected in SVZ-derived immature cells (Nestin-positive), neurons and astrocytes. Stimulation of the CB1R by (R)-(+)-Methanandamide (R-m-AEA) increased self-renewal of SVZ cells, as assessed by counting the number of secondary neurospheres and the number of Sox2+/+ cell pairs, an effect blocked by Notch pathway inhibition. Moreover, R-m-AEA treatment for 48 h, increased proliferation as assessed by BrdU incorporation assay, an effect mediated by activation of MAPK-ERK and AKT pathways. Surprisingly, stimulation of CB1R by R-m-AEA also promoted neuronal differentiation (without affecting glial differentiation), at 7 days, as shown by counting the number of NeuN-positive neurons in the cultures. Moreover, by monitoring intracellular calcium concentrations ([Ca(2+)]i) in single cells following KCl and histamine stimuli, a method that allows the functional evaluation of neuronal differentiation, we observed an increase in neuronal-like cells. This proneurogenic effect was blocked when SVZ cells were co-incubated with R-m-AEA and the CB1R antagonist AM 251, for 7 days, thus indicating that this effect involves CB1R activation. In accordance with an effect on neuronal differentiation and maturation, R-m-AEA also increased neurite growth, as evaluated by quantifying and measuring the number of MAP2-positive processes. Taken together, these results demonstrate that CB1R activation induces proliferation, self-renewal and neuronal differentiation from mouse neonatal SVZ cell cultures.

Herein, we report the use of retinoic acid-loaded polymeric nanoparticles as a potent tool to induce the neuronal differentiation of subventricular zone neural stem cells. The intracellular delivery of retinoic acid by the nanoparticles activated nuclear retinoic acid receptors, decreased stemness, and increased proneurogenic gene expression. Importantly, this work reports for the first time a nanoparticle formulation able to modulate in vivo the subventricular zone neurogenic niche. The work further compares the dynamics of initial stages of differentiation between SVZ cells treated with retinoic acid-loaded polymeric nanoparticles and solubilized retinoic acid. The nanoparticle formulation developed here may ultimately offer new perspectives to treat neurodegenerative diseases.

The subventricular zone (SVZ) and the hippocampal subgranular zone (SGZ) comprise two main germinal niches in the adult mammalian brain. Within these regions there are self-renewing and multipotent neural stem cells (NSCs) which can ultimately give rise to new neurons, astrocytes and oligodendrocytes. Understanding how to efficiently trigger NSCs differentiation is crucial to devise new cellular therapies aimed to repair the damaged brain. A large amount of data ranging from epigenetic alterations, chromatin remodelling and signalling pathways involved in NSCs differentiation are now within reach. Furthermore, a vast array of proteins and molecules have been described to modulate NSCs fate and tested in innovative therapeutic applications, however with little success so far. Nowadays, the main focus is on how to manipulate these factors to our full advantage. Unfortunately, concerns related to solubility, stability, concentration or spatial and temporal positioning can hinder their desirable effects. Biomaterials emerge as the ideal support to overcome these limitations and consequently boost NSCs differentiation towards desired phenotypes. However, the balance between biomaterials and differentiating factors must be well established, since the bioaccumulation and concomitant toxicity can be an undesired side-effect. Currently, innovative materials and formulations including more degradable carriers allow a controlled and efficient release of bioactive factors with minimal side-effects. Recently, micro- and nanoparticles have been successfully used to deliver molecules able to induce neurogenesis. This review presents recent research that highlights the role of both extracellular environmental factors as well as molecular remodelling mechanisms in the control of NSCs differentiation processes. Appropriate biomaterials that may trigger an efficient delivery of therapeutic molecules will be also discussed. Therefore, the interface between NSCs biology and tissue engineering may offer great potential in future therapeutics for treatment or amelioration of neurodegenerative diseases or brain injury.

Ampakines are chemical compounds known to modulate the properties of ionotropic α-amino-3-hydroxyl-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionate (AMPA)-subtype glutamate receptors. The functional effects attributed to ampakines involve plasticity and the increase in synaptic efficiency of neuronal circuits, a process that may be intimately associated with differentiation of newborn neurons. The subventricular zone (SVZ) is the main neurogenic niche of the brain, containing neural stem cells with brain repair potential. Accordingly, the identification of new pharmaceutical compounds with neurogenesis-enhancing properties is important as a tool to promote neuronal replacement based on the use of SVZ cells. The purpose of the present paper is to examine the possible proneurogenic effects of ampakine CX546 in cell cultures derived from the SVZ of early postnatal mice. We observed that CX546 (50 μm) treatment triggered an increase in proliferation, evaluated by BrdU incorporation assay, in the neuroblast lineage. Moreover, by using a cell viability assay (TUNEL) we found that, in contrast to AMPA, CX546 did not cause cell death. Also, both AMPA and CX546 stimulated neuronal differentiation as evaluated morphologically through neuronal nuclear protein (NeuN) immunocytochemistry and functionally by single-cell calcium imaging. Accordingly, short exposure to CX546 increased axonogenesis, as determined by the number and length of tau-positive axons co-labelled for the phosphorylated form of SAPK/JNK (P-JNK), and dendritogenesis (MAP2-positive neurites). Altogether, this study shows that ampakine CX546 promotes neurogenesis in SVZ cell cultures and thereby may have potential for future stem cell-based therapies., (© 2012 The Authors. European Journal of Neuroscience © 2012 Federation of European Neuroscience Societies and Blackwell Publishing Ltd.)

Methamphetamine (METH) is a psychostimulant drug of abuse that causes severe brain damage. However, the mechanisms responsible for these effects are poorly understood, particularly regarding the impact of METH on hippocampal neurogenesis. Moreover, neuropeptide Y (NPY) is known to be neuroprotective under several pathological conditions. Here, we investigated the effect of METH on dentate gyrus (DG) neurogenesis, regarding cell death, proliferation and differentiation, as well as the role of NPY by itself and against METH-induced toxicity. DG-derived neurosphere cultures were used to evaluate the effect of METH or NPY on cell death, proliferation or neuronal differentiation. Moreover, the role of NPY and its receptors (Y(1), Y(2) and Y(5)) was investigated under conditions of METH-induced DG cell death. METH-induced cell death by both apoptosis and necrosis at concentrations above 10 nM, without affecting cell proliferation. Furthermore, at a non-toxic concentration (1 nM), METH decreased neuronal differentiation. NPY's protective effect was mainly due to the reduction of glutamate release, and it also increased DG cell proliferation and neuronal differentiation via Y(1) receptors. In addition, while the activation of Y(1) or Y(2) receptors was able to prevent METH-induced cell death, the Y(1) subtype alone was responsible for blocking the decrease in neuronal differentiation induced by the drug. Taken together, METH negatively affects DG cell viability and neurogenesis, and NPY is revealed to be a promising protective tool against the deleterious effects of METH on hippocampal neurogenesis., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Neural stem/progenitor cells present in the subventricular zone (SVZ) are a potential source of repairing cells after injury. Therefore, the identification of novel players that modulate neural stem cells differentiation can have a huge impact in stem cell-based therapies. Herein, we describe a unique role of histamine in inducing functional neuronal differentiation from cultured mouse SVZ stem/progenitor cells. This proneurogenic effect depends on histamine 1 receptor activation and involves epigenetic modifications and increased expression of Mash1, Dlx2, and Ngn1 genes. Biocompatible poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) microparticles, engineered to release histamine in a controlled and prolonged manner, also triggered robust neuronal differentiation in vitro. Preconditioning with histamine-loaded microparticles facilitated neuronal differentiation of SVZ-GFP cells grafted in hippocampal slices and in in vivo rodent brain. We propose that neuronal commitment triggered by histamine per se or released from biomaterial-derived vehicles may represent a new tool for brain repair strategies., (Copyright © 2012 AlphaMed Press.)

Increasing evidences suggest that neuropeptide Y (NPY) may act as a key modulator of the cross-talk between the brain and the immune system in health and disease. In the present study, we dissected the possible inhibitory role of NPY upon inflammation-associated microglial cell motility. NPY, through activation of Y(1) receptors, was found to inhibit lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced microglia (N9 cell line) motility. Moreover, stimulation of microglia with LPS was inhibited by IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra), suggesting the involvement of endogenous interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) in this process. Direct stimulation with IL-1β promoted downstream p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase mobilization and increased microglia motility. Moreover, consistently, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase inhibition decreased the extent of actin filament reorganization occurring during plasma membrane ruffling and p38 phosphorylation was inhibited by NPY, involving Y(1) receptors. Significantly, the key inhibitory role of NPY on LPS-induced motility of CD11b-positive cells was further confirmed in mouse brain cortex explants. In summary, we revealed a novel functional role for NPY in the regulation of microglial function that may have important implications in the modulation of CNS injuries/diseases where microglia migration/motility might play a role., (© 2011 The Authors. Journal of Neurochemistry © 2011 International Society for Neurochemistry.)

Directing neural stem cells (NSCs) differentiation towards oligodendroglial cell lineage is a crucial step in the endeavor of developing cell replacement-based therapies for demyelinating diseases. Evaluation of NSCs differentiation is mostly performed by methodologies that use fixed cells, like immunocytochemistry, or lysates, like Western blot. On the other hand, electrophysiology allows differentiation studies on living cells, but it is highly time-consuming and endowed with important limitations concerning population studies. Herein, we describe a functional method, based on single cell calcium imaging, which accurately and rapidly distinguishes cell types among NSCs progeny, in living cultures prepared from the major reservoir of NSCs in the postnatal mouse brain, the subventricular zone (SVZ). Indeed, by applying a rational sequence of three stimuli-KCl, histamine, and thrombin-to the heterogeneous SVZ cell population, one can identify each cell phenotype according to its unique calcium signature. Mature oligodendrocytes, the myelin-forming cells of the central nervous system, are the thrombin-responsive cells in SVZ cell culture and display no intracellular calcium increase upon KCl or histamine perfusion. On the other hand, KCl and histamine stimulate neurons and immature cells, respectively. The method described in this chapter is a valuable tool to identify novel pro-oligodendrogenic compounds, which may play an important role in the design of future treatments for demyelinating disorders such as multiple sclerosis.

Neurogenesis in the adult mammalian brain occurs in two specific brain areas, the subventricular zone (SVZ) bordering the lateral ventricles and the subgranular zone (SGZ) of the hippocampus. Although these regions are prone to produce new neurons, cultured cells from these neurogenic niches tend to be mixed cultures, containing both neurons and glial cells. Several reports highlight the potential of the self-healing capacity of the brain following injury. Even though much knowledge has been produced on the neurogenesis itself, brain repairing strategies are still far away from patients cure. Here we review general concepts in the neurogenesis field, also addressing the methods available to study neural stem cell differentiation. A major problem faced by research groups and companies dedicated to brain regenerative medicine resides on the lack of good methods to functionally identify neural stem cell differentiation and novel drug targets. To address this issue, we developed a unique single cell calcium imaging-based method to functionally discriminate different cell types derived from SVZ neural stem cell cultures. The unique functional profile of each SVZ cell type was correlated at the single cell level with the immunodetection of specific phenotypic markers. This platform was raised on the basis of the functional response of neurons, oligodendrocytes and immature cells to depolarising agents, to thrombin and to histamine, respectively. We also outline key studies in which our new platform was extremely relevant in the context of drug discovery and development in the area of brain regenerative medicine.

Methamphetamine (METH) is a potent and widely consumed psychostimulant drug that causes brain functional and structural abnormalities. However, there is little information regarding METH impact on adult neurogenic niches and, indeed, nothing is known about its consequences on the subventricular zone (SVZ). Thus, this work aims to clarify the effect of METH on SVZ stem/progenitor cells dynamics and neurogenesis. For that purpose, SVZ neurospheres were obtained from early postnatal mice and treated with increasing concentrations of METH (1  μM to 500  μM). Exposure to 100, 250, or 500  μM METH for 24  h triggered cell death both by necrosis and apoptosis, as assessed by propidium iodide uptake, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) staining, and quantification of the proapoptotic caspase-3 activity. Furthermore, we showed that METH inhibited SVZ progenitor cells proliferation as it decreased BrdU incorporation. Interestingly, at non-toxic concentrations (1 and 10  μM), METH decreased neuronal differentiation and maturation, which were evaluated by quantification of the number of neuronal nuclei-positive neurons and measurements of phospho-c-Jun-NH(2)-terminal kinase signal in growing axons, respectively. Altogether, our data demonstrate that METH has a negative impact on SVZ stem/progenitor cells, inducing cell death and inhibiting neurogenesis, effects that in vivo may challenge the cell replacement capacities displayed by endogenous populations of brain stem/progenitor cells.

The subventricular zone (SVZ) is a major reservoir for stem cells in the adult mammalian brain. Neural stem cells supply the olfactory bulb with new interneurons and provide cells that migrate towards lesioned brain areas. Neuropeptide Y (NPY), one of the most abundant neuropeptides in the brain, was previously shown to induce neuroproliferation on mice SVZ cells. In the present study, performed in rats, we demonstrate the endogenous synthesis of NPY by cells in the SVZ that suggests that NPY could act as an autocrine/paracrine factor within the SVZ area. We observed that NPY promotes SVZ cell proliferation as previously reported in mice, but does not affect self-renewal of SVZ stem cells. Additionally, this study provides the first direct evidence of a chemokinetic activity of NPY on SVZ cells. Using pharmacological approaches, we demonstrate that both the mitogenic and chemokinetic properties of NPY involve Y1 receptor-mediated activation of the ERK1/2 MAP kinase pathway. Altogether, our data establish that NPY through Y1 receptors activation controls chemokinetic activity and, as for mice, is a major neuroproliferative regulator of rat SVZ cells., (© 2011 The Authors. Journal of Neurochemistry © 2011 International Society for Neurochemistry.)

The manipulation of endogenous stem cell populations from the subventricular zone (SVZ), a neurogenic niche, creates an opportunity to induce neurogenesis and influence brain regenerative capacities in the adult brain. Herein, we demonstrate the ability of polyelectrolyte nanoparticles to induce neurogenesis exclusively after being internalized by SVZ stem cells. The nanoparticles are not cytotoxic for concentrations equal or below 10 μg/mL. The internalization process is rapid, and nanoparticles escape endosomal fate in a few hours. Retinoic acid-loaded nanoparticles increase the number of neuronal nuclear protein (NeuN)-positive neurons and functional neurons responding to depolarization with KCl and expressing NMDA receptor subunit type 1 (NR1). These nanoparticles offer an opportunity for in vivo delivery of proneurogenic factors and neurodegenerative disease treatment.

Over the course of the 20(th) century, it became increasingly clear that amphetamine-like psychostimulants carried serious abuse liability that has resulted in sociological use patterns that have been described as epidemics. In fact, drug addiction is a brain disease with a high worldwide prevalence, and is considered the most expensive of the neuropsychiatric disorders. This review goes beyond the previously well-documented evidence demonstrating that amphetamines cause neuronal injury. Cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in the neurotoxicity of psychostimulants drugs have been extensively described giving particular attention to the role of oxidative stress and metabolic compromise. Recently, it was shown that the amphetamine class of drugs of abuse triggers an inflammatory process, emerging as a critical concept to understand the toxic effects of these drugs. Moreover, it has been suggested that psychostimulants compromise the capacity of the brain to generate new neurons (neurogenesis), and can also lead to blood-brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction. Together, these effects may contribute to brain damage, allowing the entry of pathogens into the brain parenchyma and thus decreasing the endogenous brain repair resources. The overall objective of this review is to highlight experimental evidence in an attempt to clarify the role of neuroinflammation in amphetamines-induced brain dysfunction and the effect of these drugs on both neurogenesis and BBB integrity.

Nitric oxide (NO) was described to inhibit the proliferation of neural stem cells. Some evidence suggests that NO, under certain conditions, can also promote cell proliferation, although the mechanisms responsible for a potential proliferative effect of NO in neural stem cells have remained unaddressed. In this work, we investigated and characterized the proliferative effect of NO in cell cultures obtained from the mouse subventricular zone. We found that the NO donor NOC-18 (10 microM) increased cell proliferation, whereas higher concentrations (100 microM) inhibited cell proliferation. Increased cell proliferation was detected rapidly following exposure to NO and was prevented by blocking the mitogen-activated kinase (MAPK) pathway, independently of the epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor. Downstream of the EGF receptor, NO activated p21Ras and the MAPK pathway, resulting in a decrease in the nuclear presence of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1, p27(KIP1), allowing for cell cycle progression. Furthermore, in a mouse model that shows increased proliferation of neural stem cells in the hippocampus following seizure injury, we observed that the absence of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS(-/-) mice) prevented the increase in cell proliferation observed following seizures in wild-type mice, showing that NO from iNOS origin is important for increased cell proliferation following a brain insult. Overall, we show that NO is able to stimulate the proliferation of neural stem cells bypassing the EGF receptor and promoting cell division. Moreover, under pathophysiological conditions in vivo, NO from iNOS origin also promotes proliferation in the hippocampus.

In the adult mammalian brain, the subventricular zone (SVZ) hosts stem cells constantly generating new neurons. Angiopoietin-1 (Ang-1) is an endothelial growth factor with a critical role in division, survival, and adhesion of endothelial cells via Tie-2 receptor activity. Expression of Tie-2 in nonendothelial cells, especially neurons and stem cells, suggests that Ang-1 may be involved in neurogenesis. In the present work, we investigated the putative role of Ang-1 on SVZ neurogenesis. Immature cells from SVZ-derived neurospheres express Ang-1 and Tie-2 mRNA, suggesting a role for the Ang-1/Tie-2 system in the neurogenic niche. Moreover, we also found that Tie-2 protein expression is retained on differentiation in neurons and glial cells. Ang-1 triggered proliferation via activation of the ERK1/2 (extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2) mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) kinase pathway but did not induce cell death. Accordingly, coincubation with an anti-Tie-2 neutralizing antibody prevented the pro-proliferative effect of Ang-1. Furthermore, Ang-1 increased the number of NeuN (neuronal nuclear protein)-positive neurons in cultures treated for 7 d, as well as the number of functional neurons, as assessed by monitoring [Ca(2+)](i) rises after application of specific stimuli for neurons and immature cells. The proneurogenic effect of Ang-1 is mediated by Tie-2 activation and subsequent mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin kinase) mobilization. In agreement, neuronal differentiation significantly decreased after exposure to an anti-Tie-2 neutralizing antibody and to rapamycin. Moreover, Ang-1 elicited the activation of the SAPK (stress-activated protein kinase)/JNK (c-Jun N-terminal kinase) MAPK, involved in axonogenesis. Our work shows a proneurogenic effect of Ang-1, highlighting the relevance of blood vessel/stem cell cross talk in health and disease.

Neural stem cells persist in the adult mammalian brain, within the subventricular zone (SVZ). The endogenous mechanisms underpinning SVZ neural stem cell proliferation, self-renewal, and differentiation are not fully elucidated. In the present report, we describe a growth-stimulatory activity of liver explant-conditioned media on SVZ cell cultures and identify hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) as a major player in this effect. HGF exhibited a mitogenic activity on SVZ cell cultures in a mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) (ERK1/2)-dependent manner as U0126, a specific MAPK inhibitor, blocked it. Combining a functional neurosphere forming assay with immunostaining for c-Met, along with markers of SVZ cells subtypes, demonstrated that HGF promotes the expansion of neural stem-like cells that form neurospheres and self-renew. Immunostaining, HGF enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and Madin-Darby canine kidney cell scattering assay indicated that SVZ cell cultures produce and release HGF. SVZ cell-conditioned media induced proliferation on SVZ cell cultures, which was blocked by HGF-neutralizing antibodies, hence implying that endogenously produced HGF accounts for a major part in SVZ mitogenic activity. Brain sections immunostaining revealed that HGF is produced by nestin-expressing cells and c-Met is expressed within the SVZ by immature cells. HGF intracerebroventricular injection promoted SVZ cell proliferation and increased the ability of these cells exposed in vivo to HGF to form neurospheres in vitro, whereas intracerebroventricular injection of HGF-neutralizing antibodies decreased SVZ cell proliferation. The present study unravels a major role, both in vitro and in vivo, for endogenous HGF in SVZ neural stem cell growth and self-renewal.

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha has been reported to modulate brain injury, but remarkably, little is known about its effects on neurogenesis. We report that TNF-alpha strongly influences survival, proliferation, and neuronal differentiation in cultured subventricular zone (SVZ) neural stem/progenitor cells derived from the neonatal P1-3 C57BL/6 mice. By using single-cell calcium imaging, we developed a method, based on cellular response to KCl and/or histamine, that allows the functional evaluation of neuronal differentiation. Exposure of SVZ cultures to 1 and 10 ng/ml mouse or 1 ng/ml human recombinant TNF-alpha resulted in increased differentiation of cells displaying a neuronal-like profile of [Ca2+](i) responses, compared with the predominant profile of immature cells observed in control, nontreated cultures. Moreover, by using neutralizing antibodies for each TNF-alpha receptor, we found that the proneurogenic effect of 1 ng/ml TNF-alpha is mediated via tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 activation. Accordingly, the percentage of neuronal nuclear protein-positive neurons was increased following exposure to mouse TNF-alpha. Interestingly, exposure of SVZ cultures to 1 ng/ml TNF-alpha induced cell proliferation, whereas 10 and 100 ng/ml TNF-alpha induced apoptotic cell death. Moreover, we found that exposure of SVZ cells to TNF-alpha for 15 minutes or 6 hours caused an increase in the phospho-stress-activated protein kinase/c-Jun N-terminal kinase immunoreactivity initially in the nucleus and then in growing axons, colocalizing with tau, consistent with axonogenesis. Taken together, these results show that TNF-alpha induces neurogenesis in neonatal SVZ cell cultures of mice. TNF-alpha, a proinflammatory cytokine and a proneurogenic factor, may play a central role in promoting neurogenesis and brain repair in response to brain injury and infection.

Stem cells of the subventricular zone (SVZ) represent a reliable source of neurons for cell replacement. Neuropeptide Y (NPY) promotes neurogenesis in the hippocampal subgranular layer and the olfactory epithelium and may be useful for the stimulation of SVZ dynamic in brain repair purposes. We describe that NPY promotes SVZ neurogenesis. NPY (1 microM) treatments increased proliferation at 48 hours and neuronal differentiation at 7 days in SVZ cell cultures. NPY proneurogenic properties are mediated via the Y1 receptor. Accordingly, Y1 receptor is a major active NPY receptor in the mouse SVZ, as shown by functional autoradiography. Moreover, short exposure to NPY increased immunoreactivity for the phosphorylated form of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 in the nucleus, compatible with a trigger for proliferation, whereas 6 hours of treatment amplified the phosphorylated form of c-Jun-NH(2)-terminal kinase signal in growing axons, consistent with axonogenesis. NPY, as a promoter of SVZ neurogenesis, is a crucial factor for future development of cell-based brain therapy. Disclosure of potential conflicts of interest is found at the end of this article.

Subventricular zone (SVZ) cell cultures contain mixed populations of immature cells, neurons, astrocytes, and progenitors in different stages of development. In the present work, we examined whether cell types of the SVZ could be functionally discriminated on the basis of intracellular free calcium level ([Ca(2+)](i)) variations following KCl and histamine stimulation. For this purpose, [Ca(2+)](i) were measured in SVZ cell cultures from neonatal P1-3 C57Bl/6 donor mice, in single cells, after stimulation with 100 microM histamine or 50 mM KCl. MAP-2-positive neurons and doublecortin-positive neuroblasts were distinguished on the basis of their selective ratio of response to KCl and/or histamine stimulation. Moreover, we could distinguish immature cells on the basis of the selective response to histamine via the histamine 1 receptor activation. Exposure of SVZ cultures to the pro-neurogenic stem cell factor (SCF) induced an increase in the number of cells responding to KCl and a decrease in the number of cells responding to histamine, consistent with neuronal differentiation. The selective response to KCl/histamine in single cell calcium imaging analysis offers a rapid and efficient way for the functional discrimination of neuronal differentiation in SVZ cell cultures, opening new perspectives for the search of potential pro-neurogenic factors.

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is a small peptide important in cardiovascular physiology, feeding, anxiety, depression and epilepsy. In the hippocampus, NPY is mainly produced and released by GABAergic interneurons and inhibits glutamatergic neurotransmission in the excitatory tri-synaptic circuit. Under epileptic conditions, there is a robust overexpression of NPY and NPY receptors particularly in the granular and pyramidal cells, contributing to the tonic inhibition of glutamate release and consequently to control the spread of excitability into other brain structures. Recently, an important role was attributed to NPY in neuroprotection against excitotoxicity and in the modulation of neurogenesis. In the present review we discuss the potential relevance of NPY and NPY receptors in neuroprotection and neurogenesis, with implications for brain repair strategies. Recent patents describing new NPY receptor antagonists directed to treat obesity and cardiovascular disorders were published. However, the NPYergic system may also prove to be a good target for the treatment of pharmaco-resistant forms of temporal lobe epilepsy, by acting on hyperexcitability, neuronal death or brain repair. In order to achieve new NPY-based antiepileptic and brain repair strategies, selective NPY receptor agonists able to reach their targets in the epileptic brain must be developed in the near future.

In rodents, the subventricular zone (SVZ) harbours neural stem cells that proliferate and produce neurons throughout life. Previous studies showed that factors released by the developing cortex promote neurogenesis in the embryonic ventricular zone. In the present report, we studied in the rat the possible involvement of endogenous factors derived from the embryonic cortex in the regulation of the development of postnatal SVZ cells. To this end, SVZ neurospheres were maintained with explants or conditioned media (CM) prepared from embryonic day (E) 13, E16 or early postnatal cortex. We demonstrate that early postnatal cortex-derived factors have no significant effect on SVZ cell proliferation or differentiation. In contrast, E13 and E16 cortex release diffusible, heat-labile factors that promote SVZ cell expansion through increased proliferation and reduced cell death. In addition, E16 cortex-derived factors stimulate neuronal differentiation in both early postnatal and adult SVZ cultures. Fibroblast growth factor (FGF)-2- but not epidermal growth factor (EGF)-immunodepletion drastically reduces the mitogenic effect of E16 cortex CM, hence suggesting a major role of endogenous FGF-2 released by E16 cortex in the stimulation of SVZ cell proliferation. The evidence we provide here for the regulation of SVZ cell proliferation and neuronal differentiation by endogenous factors released from embryonic cortex may be of major importance for brain repair research.

Abstract In the adult mammalian brain, neurogenic activity is maintained in the subventricular zone (SVZ). Damage to non-neurogenic areas can stimulate SVZ cell proliferation and trigger addition of new neurons in the affected areas. We therefore examined the possible control exerted by specific microenvironment cues on SVZ neurogenic activity. To this end, neonatal SVZ neurospheres were maintained in the presence of diffusible signals derived from the adult neurogenic SVZ or from the non-neurogenic cerebral cortex either previously treated (apoptotic cortex) or not (untreated cortex) with staurosporine, a known apoptosis inducer. To restrict interactions to soluble signals, the explants were separated from the SVZ neurospheres by a microporous membrane. The results indicated that molecules released by the SVZ itself promoted the expansion of SVZ cell population through increased proliferation and reduced apoptosis. In contrast, untreated cortex factors reduced the expansion of SVZ cell population by decreasing proliferation. In addition, SVZ or untreated cortex factors, respectively, promoted or inhibited neuronal differentiation. Following apoptotic damage, cortex factors no longer inhibited and instead promoted the expansion of the SVZ cell population by increasing proliferation. These effects on cell numbers were replicated following use of culture media conditioned with the different explants but were no longer present following heat inactivation, which indicates that proteins were involved. These findings indicate that the neurogenic SVZ delivers autocrine/paracrine signals that promote neurogenesis whereas the non-neurogenic cerebral cortex releases signals that inhibit proliferation and neuronal differentiation. Interestingly, this constitutive growth inhibitory effect of the cerebral cortex is inverted following apoptotic lesion.