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This study examines minor league baseball players' future-oriented labor by interviewing 44 baseball players and collecting data on 8,000 minor league baseball players' careers. Minor league baseball players' expectations of reaching Major League Baseball impacted how they evaluated their work in the present, leading them to tolerate unfair pay and working conditions. We show that players' expectations of reaching Major League Baseball were moderately unrealistic, partly due to managerial practices encouraging unrealistic expectations. This study contributes to labor research by showing that future-oriented labor ideology is based on unrealistic expectations that employers can promote to create opportunities for future status coercion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pay fairness and human capital theories make different predictions about trainees' occupational turnover in situations where trainees perceive unfair pay but receive huge potential returns from training. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine how pay fairness and human capital investment combined to explain why trainees are motivated to persist in employment when they perceive unfair pay. Cross-sectional survey data from 144 minor league baseball players showed that athletes perceived unfair pay but had low occupational turnover intentions because they perceived high learning achievement and expected to play in Major League Baseball eventually. Perceptions of unfair pay only increased occupational turnover intentions under certain conditions, such as when athletes had low expectations of playing at least one game in Major League Baseball in the next 3 years. The results support a framework that combines human capital theory and pay fairness theories to explain boundary conditions for trainee motivation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Past research has shown that pre-event measures of social impact are higher when worded in reference to a global other such as 'the event creates new friendships' instead of a more precise measurement referencing the self such as 'I create new friendships because of the event'. No research has yet investigated if this holds true both before and after events. Nor has research investigated which social impact scale relates most precisely to event support. This paper addresses both of these gaps. A pre- and post-event longitudinal research design surveyed 306 residents of Tokyo before (t = −3 months) and after (t = +4 months) the 2019 Rugby World Cup in Japan. Participants responded to an other-referenced (OR) social impact scale followed by a self-referenced (SR) social impact scale. In the pre-event period, we confirm the tendency for respondents to overestimate both positive and negative social impacts regardless of the scale used, although the SR results were nearly a half-point lower, on average. The findings also demonstrate that the SR scale has more predictive power to explain event support intentions, indicating that reflecting on lived experiences matters when it comes to determining resident support for events. Wording social impact items in the first person is a more accurate reflection of reality to capture event impacts, particularly post-event and can better predict peoples' support for future events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research utilizes a compensating differential framework to measure the social benefits of minor league baseball teams. Consistent with findings at the major league level, individual housing observations from 138 metropolitan areas between 1993 and 2005 show that affiliated teams are associated with a significant 6 to 8% increase in rents in mid-sized markets ranging from 0.4 to 1.4 million people. On the other hand, independent teams and stadiums are associated with insignificant effects on rents. The positive effect of affiliated minor league teams suggests they are a valuable urban amenity that can contribute to local quality of life. (JEL H23, H41, H71, R50, L83), I. INTRODUCTION Spectator sports are an important part of our national culture in no small part due to the positive 'community pride' effect from having a team (Johnson and Sack [...]

The role of residents in the calculation of economic impact remains a point of contention. It is unclear if changes in resident spending caused by an event contribute positively, negatively, or not at all. Building on previous theory, we develop a comprehensive model that explains all 72 possible behaviors of residents based on changes in (a) spending, (b) multiplier, (c) timing of expenditures, and (d) geographic location of spending. Applying the model to Super Bowl 50 indicates that few residents were affected and positive and negative effects were relatively equivalent; thus, their overall impact is negligible. This leaves practitioners the option to engage in the challenging process of gathering data on all four variables on all residents or to revert back to the old model of entirely excluding residents from economic impact. From a theoretical perspective, there is a pressing need to properly conceptualize the time variable in economic impact studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Professional teams and leagues claim new stadiums lead to economic development. To test this, we utilize data from the Census Bureau on net establishment and employment changes across 871 Metropolitan and Micropolitan Statistical Areas from 2004 to 2012. Difference-in-differences and panel data techniques allow for a cross-sectional and time series comparison for both teams and new stadia in both professional and development leagues. Nearly all results from hundreds of models are insignificantly different from zero. Results from between- and random-effects models suggest that teams move into markets that already have higher employment and establishment growth. (JEL R58, H71, L83, Z28) [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This study investigates whether the lack of growth in female leadership in college athletics is related to factors internal to the candidates. Specifically, it analyzes career motivation among NCAA Division II athletic administrators and their career path choices in advancement to Division I as a function of gender and position. The entire population of Division II athletic administrators at the assistant athletic director level or higher was surveyed generating 327 useable responses. Results indicate there are no significant differences in career motivation for male and female Division II athletic administrators. A main effect exists only for position, with athletic directors scoring higher than assistants and associates in career motivation. Vertical career path movement to Division I is not perceived as advancement by the majority of Division II athletic administrators because of different organizational structures and philosophies thus creating a self-imposed barrier between the two divisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Laurie Spinks is the Director of Social Engagement at NBC Sports Bay Area. She has been instrumental in developing strategies for social media platforms across a number of different sports, and must now develop a social media strategy which drives fans towards a new app. NBC Sports created the My Teams app to counter cord-cutting and allow sport fans to stream live games of their favorite local teams on their mobile devices. Prior to the launch of the app in the Bay Area, Spinks will meet with her team to formulate a social media strategy which supports the new app. This case explores some of the elements that contribute to the development of a social media marketing strategy for the NBC Sports My Teams app. In particular, the strategy focuses on targeting the San Francisco Bay Area sport audience by identifying and developing social media objectives, creating an audience profile for app usage, and implementing appropriate strategies to support objectives and attract the desired audience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In response to the increasing debate on the relative worth of small events compared to large events, we create a theoretical model to determine whether smaller events are more likely to create positive economic impact. First, event size and city size are redefined as continuums of resources. The concepts of event resource demand (ERD) and city resource supply (CRS) are introduced, allowing for a joint analysis of supply and demand. When local economic conditions are brought into the analysis, the framework determines how a city resource deficiency or surplus affects the economic impact of an event. This resource-based approach assists public officials and event organizers in making more rational decisions for hosting events when they pursue positive economic impacts. Specifically, we find small events have a higher potential for positive economic impact and hosting multiple smaller-sized events is a better strategy than hosting a big event. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Experience, LLC is a start-up company that sells in-game seat upgrades during live sporting events using text messaging and cell phone apps. From a user standpoint, a small upgrade fee results in better seats and a better game experience. From a venue or team standpoint, Experience fills unused inventory resulting in increased revenues and more satisfied fans with higher repurchase intentions. Experience is looking to expand its services beyond single-game upgrades to a full-season ticket that is based on filling open, but previously sold, inventory. This case illustrates the forces at play in the ticketing industry, describes the features of each service, and provides an opportunity to decide on the expansion strategy for a fast-growing start-up company. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bloomberg Sports uses sports analytics to create advanced decision tools for professional teams and fantasy sports users. Their success in both the business and consumer markets stems from vital partnerships with Major League Baseball Advanced Media (MLBAM), Yahoo!, ESPN, and CBSSports. In a period of increased domestic competition, Bloomberg Sports is searching for the most appropriate international growth strategy. This expansion effort recently was aided by a new joint venture with IMG. By analyzing the market, industry, competitors, and products, important decisions can be made to help Bloomberg Sports expand and grow. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article uses an extensive unique data set to investigate the efficiency of government subsides for minor league baseball teams and stadiums by measuring pecuniary gains in a local economy. Specifically, a dynamic panel data model incorporating 238 Metropolitan Statistical Areas (MSAs) that hosted affiliated or independent minor league teams between 1985 and 2006 shows that AAA teams, A+ teams, AA stadiums, and rookie stadiums are all associated with significant positive effects on the change in local per capita income. The presence of positive effects is strikingly different from decades of nonpositive results at the major league level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While there has been research into what teams, leagues, and athletes post on social media and the impact of post content on social media engagement, there is limited understanding and empirical research on the impact of broadcasting media on social sport consumption. There are an increasing number of new media through which sport leagues can distribute their content to fans. This research examines the impact of different broadcast platforms on game day engagement with WNBA team Twitter accounts. Using data for the 2016-2018 seasons, results indicate athlete/team quality and performance were positively associated with post engagement, underscoring the importance of the core sport product and potentially indicating that the WNBA is developing a star-driven culture similar to the NBA. In addition, broadcasting on League Pass or local TV (for home teams) and Twitter were associated with lower post engagement suggesting we have more to learn about maximizing online engagement., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Pegoraro, Kennedy, Agha, Brown and Berri.)